2020 Book InnovationsInElectricalAndElec PDF

Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering 626

H. S. Saini
T. Srinivas
D. M. Vinod Kumar
K. S. Chandragupta Mauryan Editors

Innovations in
Electrical and
Electronics
Engineering
Proceedings of the 4th ICIEEE 2019
Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering

Volume 626
Series Editors
Leopoldo Angrisani, Department of Electrical and Information Technologies Engineering, University of Napoli
Federico II, Naples, Italy
Marco Arteaga, Departament de Control y Robótica, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Coyoacán,
Mexico
Bijaya Ketan Panigrahi, Electrical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, New Delhi, Delhi, India
Samarjit Chakraborty, Fakultät für Elektrotechnik und Informationstechnik, TU München, Munich, Germany
Jiming Chen, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China
Shanben Chen, Materials Science and Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai, China
Tan Kay Chen, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, National University of Singapore,
Singapore, Singapore
Rüdiger Dillmann, Humanoids and Intelligent Systems Laboratory, Karlsruhe Institute for Technology,
Karlsruhe, Germany
Haibin Duan, Beijing University of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Beijing, China
Gianluigi Ferrari, Università di Parma, Parma, Italy
Manuel Ferre, Centre for Automation and Robotics CAR (UPM-CSIC), Universidad Politécnica de Madrid,
Madrid, Spain
Sandra Hirche, Department of Electrical Engineering and Information Science, Technische Universität
München, Munich, Germany
Faryar Jabbari, Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, University of California, Irvine, CA,
USA
Limin Jia, State Key Laboratory of Rail Traffic Control and Safety, Beijing Jiaotong University, Beijing, China
Janusz Kacprzyk, Systems Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
Alaa Khamis, German University in Egypt El Tagamoa El Khames, New Cairo City, Egypt
Torsten Kroeger, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, USA
Qilian Liang, Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, TX, USA
Ferran Martín, Departament d’Enginyeria Electrònica, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra,
Barcelona, Spain
Tan Cher Ming, College of Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
Wolfgang Minker, Institute of Information Technology, University of Ulm, Ulm, Germany
Pradeep Misra, Department of Electrical Engineering, Wright State University, Dayton, OH, USA
Sebastian Möller, Quality and Usability Laboratory, TU Berlin, Berlin, Germany
Subhas Mukhopadhyay, School of Engineering & Advanced Technology, Massey University, Palmerston
North, Manawatu-Wanganui, New Zealand
Cun-Zheng Ning, Electrical Engineering, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA
Toyoaki Nishida, Graduate School of Informatics, Kyoto University, Kyoto, Japan
Federica Pascucci, Dipartimento di Ingegneria, Università degli Studi “Roma Tre”, Rome, Italy
Yong Qin, State Key Laboratory of Rail Traffic Control and Safety, Beijing Jiaotong University, Beijing, China
Gan Woon Seng, School of Electrical & Electronic Engineering, Nanyang Technological University,
Singapore, Singapore
Joachim Speidel, Institute of Telecommunications, Universität Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
Germano Veiga, Campus da FEUP, INESC Porto, Porto, Portugal
Haitao Wu, Academy of Opto-electronics, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
Junjie James Zhang, Charlotte, NC, USA
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H. S. Saini T. Srinivas D. M. Vinod Kumar
• • •
K. S. Chandragupta Mauryan
Editors
Innovations in Electrical
and Electronics Engineering
Proceedings of the 4th ICIEEE 2019
123
Editors
H. S. Saini T. Srinivas
Guru Nanak Institutions Department of Electronics
Hyderabad, India and Communication Engineering
Kakatiya University
D. M. Vinod Kumar Warangal, India
Department of Electrical Engineering
National Institute of Technology K. S. Chandragupta Mauryan
Warangal, India Department of Electrical and Electronics
Engineering
Guru Nanak Institutions
Hyderabad, India
ISSN 1876-1100 ISSN 1876-1119 (electronic)

Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering
ISBN 978-981-15-2255-0 ISBN 978-981-15-2256-7 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020
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Committees
Editorial Board Members
Chief Patrons
Sardar Tavinder Singh Kohli, Chairman, Guru Nanak Institutions
Sardar Gagandeep Singh Kohli, Vice-Chairman, Guru Nanak Institutions
Patrons
Dr. H. S. Saini, Managing Director, Guru Nanak Institutions
Dr. M. Ramalinga Reddy, Director, Guru Nanak Institutions Technical Campus
Dr. S. Sreenatha Reddy, Principal, Guru Nanak Institute of Technology
Conference Chair
Prof. P. Parthasaradhy, Associate Director, GNITC
Conference Co-chair
Dr. S. V. Ranganayakulu, Dean—R&D, GNITC
Steering Committee
Dr. R. K. Singh, Associate Director, GNITC
Dr. Rishi Sayal, Associate Director, GNITC
Dr. K. Chanthirasekaran, Dean Academics, GNITC
Dr. Anmol Kumar Goyal, Dean Academics, GNIT
Conveners
Dr. K. Santhi, Professor and HOD, GNITC
Dr. K. S. Chandragupta Mauryan, Professor and Assistant Dean R&D, GNITC
v
vi Committees
Co-conveners
Dr. P. V. Kishore, Professor, GNITC
Dr. Mruthyunjay Das, Professor and HOD, GNIT
Committee Members
Mr. J. Mahesh Yadav, GNITC
Mr. T. Manidhar, GNIT
Mr. D. Naveen Kumar, GNITC
Mr. D. Krishna Chaitanya, GNIT
Mr. G. Ranga Purushotham, GNITC
Mr. P. Parthasaradhy Reddy, GNITC
Mr. K. Rajasekhar, GNITC
Mr. S. Rajender Reddy, GNITC
Mr. B. Sravan Kumar, GNITC
Mr. Ch. Srinivas Reddy, GNITC
Coordinators
Mr. K. Girinath Babu, GNITC
Mr. R. Santhosh Kumar, GNITC
International Advisory Board

Dr. Bimal K. Bose, University of Tennessee, USA
Dr. Muhammad H. Rashid, University of West Florida, USA
Dr. Victor C. M. Leung, University of British Columbia, Canada
Dr. Ali O. Abid Noor, University of Technology, Iraq
Dr. Atsede Gualu Endegnanew, SINTEF Energy, Norway
Dr. Wan Zuha Bin Wan Hasan, Universiti Putra Malaysia
Dr. Nurul Amziah Md Yunus, Universiti Putra Malaysia
Dr. P. N. Suganthan, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
Dr. Ateequr Rahaman Mohammed, Information Technology, Saudi Arabia
Dr. Ir. Leake Enquary Weldemariam, Mekelle Institute of Technology, Ethiopia
Dr. Akhtar Kalam, Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia
Dr. Neeraj Magotra, Western New England University, USA
Dr. P. Kishore, Stevens University, New Jersey, USA
Dr. Rajasekhar, Mekelle Institute of Technology, Ethiopia
Dr. Surender Reddy Salkuti, Woosong University, South Korea
National Advisory Board

Dr. Uday Desai, Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad
Dr. Debapriya Das, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur
Dr. T. Srinivasulu, Kakatiya University, Warangal
Dr. M. Vinod Kumar, National Institute of Technology, Warangal
Committees vii
Dr. K. Manjunathachari, GITAM University, Hyderabad

Dr. Girish Kumar, Indian Institute of Technology Mumbai
Dr. B. V. Sankar Ram, JNTU Hyderabad
Dr. M. Surya Kalavathi, JNTU Hyderabad
Dr. E. Vidyasagar, Osmania University, Hyderabad
Dr. P. V. N. Prasad, Osmania University, Hyderabad
Dr. S. Moorthi, National Institute of Technology, Trichy
Dr. Mohammed Zafar Ali Khan, Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad
Dr. Sanjay Mandal, Central University, Dibrugarh
Dr. Pradeep M. Nirgude, CPRI, Hyderabad
Dr. P. Lakshmi, Anna University, Chennai
Dr. L. Ashok Kumar, PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore
Dr. Josephine R. L., National Institute of Technology Trichy
Dr. A. Srinivasula Reddy, CMR College of Engineering, Hyderabad
Conference Committee Members
S. Name of Committee Coordinator Co-coordinator

No.
1. Budget Dr. K. Santhi Mr. Srinivas Reddy
2. Conference Team Prof. P. Parthasaradhy Mr. J. Mahesh Yadav
Dr. K. Santhi Mr. D. Naveen Kumar
Dr. K. S. Chandragupta Mr. T. Manidhar
Mauryan
3. Website Mr. S. Rajender Reddy
4. Physical Campaigning Mr. D. Naveen Kumar
Team
5. Pre-conference Tutorials Dr. P. V. Kishore Mr. Ch. Srisailam
Dr. Mrutyanjay Das Mr. Rajashekar
Mr. Sivabalaji
Mrs. Lizi Joseph
6. Receiving Paper, Dr. K. S. Chandragupta Mr. R. Santosh Kumar
Acknowledgement Mauryan Mr. K. Girinath Babu
Review and Sending Mr. D. K. Chaitanya
Report, Acceptance
Letters to Authors
7. Conversion of Papers Dr. K. S. Chandragupta Mr. G. Indrareddy
Mauryan Mr. B. Sravan Kumar
Mr. T. L. V. Nagalathish
Ms. L. Vandana
8. VIP Committee Dr. K. Santhi Mr. S. Rajender Reddy
9. Invitation Mr. G. Ranga Purushotham Mr. G. Indra Reddy
(continued)
viii Committees
(continued)
S. Name of Committee Coordinator Co-coordinator
No.
10. Registration and Mr. D. Naveen Kumar Mr. B. Seshidher
Conference Kits Bag Ms. P. Harika Reddy
11. Reception Ms. Anitha Ms. Swarnalatha
12. VC, MD, JNTUH Mr. J. Mahesh Yadav
Messages
13. Banners Mr. B. Sravan Kumar
14. Proceedings Mr. G. Ranga Purushotham
15. Conference Office and Mr. D. Naveen Kumar Mr. B. Seshidher
Certificates
16. Transport Committee Mr. G. Indra Reddy Mr. Ch. Sriram
17. Program Committee Mr. J. Mahesh Yadav Mr. T. L. V. Nagalathish
Mr. R. Jagan
18. Purchase Committee Mr. B. Sravan Kumar Mr. M. Suryakanth
Mr. A. Ranganadh
19. Food Committee Mr. A. Radha Krishna Mr. Ashok
Mr. N. Praneeth
20. Accommodations Mr. Ch. Srisailam Mr. K. Subhash
21. Inauguration Dr. K. Santhi Dr. K. S. Chandragupta
Mauryan
22. Photos and Video Mr. V. Chandrashekar Mr. K. Subhash
23. Press Release and Media Dr. K. Santhi Dr. K. S. Chandragupta
Mauryan
24. Conference Report Dr. K. Santhi Dr. K. S. Chandragupta
Mauryan
25. After Conference Dr. K. S. Chandragupta Mr. K. Girinath Babu
Attending Queries Mauryan Mr. R. Santosh Kumar
26. After Conference
Contacts
27. Keynote Speech Mr. S. Rajender Reddy
Arrangements
External Reviewers
Dr. R. Maheswar, Professor, VIT Bhopal University, Madhya Pradesh

Dr. K. Srinivasan, Professor and Head, Sri Ramakrishna Engineering College,
Coimbatore
Dr. Mohanasundaram, Professor, Vel Tech Multi Technology, Chennai
Dr. S. Muthu Vijaya Pandian, Professor and Head, SNS College of Engineering,
Coimbatore
Dr. A. Prakash, Dean R&D, QIS College of Engineering and Technology, Andhra
Pradesh
Dr. K. Ilango, Associate Professor, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Kerala
Committees ix
Dr. R. Anand, Assistant Professor, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Bengaluru

Dr. R. Vijay, Associate Professor, CVR College of Engineering, Hyderabad
Dr. G. Balaji, Associate Professor, CVR College of Engineering, Hyderabad
Dr. Joseph Prabhakar, Professor and Head, Sri Indu College of Engineering,
Hyderabad
Dr. Veeramani, Associate Professor, Sri Indu College of Engineering, Hyderabad
Dr. G. Sivagnanam, Professor, Sri Krishna College of Technology, Coimbatore
Dr. P. Ponmurugan, Associate Professor, Sri Krishna College of Technology,
Coimbatore
Dr. M. Mohanraj, Associate Professor, Kumaraguru College of Technology,
Coimbatore
Dr. Sivam, Professor, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Bengaluru
Dr. S. Gunasekar, Assistant Professor, Coimbatore Institute of Technology,
Coimbatore
Dr. Siva Prasad, Professor, Vidya Jyothi Institute of Technology, Hyderabad
Dr. E. Vidya Sagar, Principal, Osmania University, Hyderabad
Dr. K. Manjunathachari, Professor and HOD, GITAM University, Hyderabad
Dr. K. Madhu Sudan Rao, Professor, Vidya Jyothi Institute of Technology,
Hyderabad
Dr. K. Rajender Reddy, Professor, Nalla Narasimha Reddy Engineering College,
Hyderabad
Dr. K. Sreelatha, Professor, St. Peter’s Engineering College, Hyderabad
Dr. Rajasekhar, Professor, Malla Reddy Engineering College, Hyderabad
Dr. K. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy, Professor, BVRIT Hyderabad
Dr. A. Sivaprakasam, Associate Professor, Anna University, Chennai
Dr. Vijay Kumar, Professor, JNTU Anantapur
Dr. Ganesh, Professor, JNTU Pulivendula
Dr. L. Ramesh, Dean, Dr. MGR Educational and Research Institute, Chennai
Dr. S. Rama Reddy, Professor, Jerusalem Engineering College, Chennai
Dr. P. Srinivas Varma, Dean R&D, KL University, Vijayawada
Internal Reviewers
Prof. P. Parthasaradhy, Associate Director, GNITC

Dr. S. V. Ranganayakulu, Dean R&D, GNITC
Dr. K. Chanthirasekaran, Dean Academics, GNITC
Dr. K. Santhi, Professor and HOD, GNITC
Dr. K. S. Chandragupta Mauryan, Professor and Assistant Dean R&D, GNITC
Dr. P. V. Kishore, Professor, GNITC
Dr. Mruthyunjay Das, Professor and HOD, GNIT
Dr. S. J. Sugumar, Professor, GNITC
Dr. T. Vijayakumar, Professor, GNIT
Dr. Ch. Subbalakshmi, Professor, GNITC
x Committees
Dr. Jeyanthi, Professor, GNIT

Dr. Thirumalai, Professor, GNITC
Mr. J. Mahesh Yadav, Associate Professor, GNITC
Mr. G. Ranga Purushotham, Associate Professor, GNITC
Mr. Parthasaradhy Reddy, Associate Professor, GNITC
Mr. D. Naveen Kumar, Associate Professor, GNITC
Mr. K. Rajasekhar, Associate Professor, GNITC
Mr. S. Rajender Reddy, Associate Professor, GNITC
Mr. D. Krishna Chaitanya, Associate Professor, GNIT
Mr. T. Manidhar, Associate Professor, GNIT
Preface
The Fourth International Conference on Innovation in Electrical and Electronics

Engineering (ICIEEE 2019) was organized on July 26 and 27, 2019, by the
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering at Guru Nanak Institutions
Technical Campus, Hyderabad. This conference has provided an interactive plat-
form for researchers, scientists, technocrats, and academicians to exchange their
innovative ideas and research findings in the field of electrical and electronics
engineering. Our earlier conferences got a huge success and acknowledged by
national and international eminent scholars with their active participation and
contribution. The distinguished speakers from India and abroad have shared their
innovative ideas and technologies on this topic.
Over 256 papers were received in which 79 high-quality papers have been
selected for Springer Conference Proceedings publication. The authors of these
particular papers presented them remarkably. Parallel sessions were also conducted
to accommodate all the authors, and ample time was allotted to discuss their ideas.
We, the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, made all arrange-
ments for smooth conduct of this conference and received positive feedback that
gives good encouragement for us to conduct such conferences in the future.
We would like to thank all the keynote speakers, participants, speakers of the
pre-conference tutorial sessions, session chairs, committee members, reviewers,
international and national board members, Guru Nanak Institutions’ management
and all the people who have directly or indirectly contributed to the success of
ICIEEE 2019. The institutions’ editorial board members expressed their sincere
thanks to Springer Editorial Team for their kind support in publishing the papers as
a part of the “Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering” Series.
Hyderabad, India Dr. H. S. Saini

Warangal, India Dr. T. Srinivas
Warangal, India Dr. D. M. Vinod Kumar
Hyderabad, India Dr. K. S. Chandragupta Mauryan
xi
Contents
Power Electronics
Power System Security Analysis Using FACTS Devices by Means
of Intelligent and Hybrid Techniques Under Different Loading
Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
S. Venkata Padmavathi, A. Jayalaxmi and Sarat Kumar Sahu
Implementation of Three-Phase Shunt Active Filter Using
Instantaneous Real Power Calculation and Triangular Carrier
Current Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Athira Ajith, P. V. Manitha and K. Ilango
A Small DC-Link Capacitor Inverter Fed by Front-End Three-Phase
Diode Rectifiers Used to Control Induction Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Ashwini V. Potdar and Ch. Mallareddy
Different Topologies of Inverter: A Literature Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Kalagotla Chenchireddy, V. Jegathesan and L. Ashok Kumar
Analysis and Design of Extended Range Zero Voltage Switching
(ZVS) Active-Clamping Current-Fed Push–Pull Converter . . . . . . . . . . 45
Koyelia Khatun and Akshay Kumar Rathore
Switched Reluctance Motor Converter Topologies: A Review . . . . . . . . 55
Velakurthi Mahesh Kumar, K. Vinoth Kumar and R. Saravanakumar
Design of Five-Level Cascaded H-Bridge Multilevel Inverter . . . . . . . . . 65
S. Swathy, N. Niveditha and K. S. Chandragupta Mauryan
Performance Analysis of Asymmetrical Cascaded H-Bridge Multilevel
Inverter Using Multicarrier Pulse-Width Modulation Techniques . . . . . 81
D. Naveen Kumar and P. V. Kishore
Interoperable Wireless Charging for Electric Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
A. Maideen Abdhulkader Jeylani, J. Kanakaraj and A. Mahaboob Subhani
xiii
xiv Contents
Power Quality Enhancement Using DSTATCOM with Reduced

Switch-Based Multilevel Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Sudheer Vinnakoti, Anusha Palisetti and Venkata Reddy Kota
Dual-Input Multioutput Using Non-Cloistered DC–DC Boost
Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
K. Sakthidhasan and K. Mohana Sundaram
Application of Nonlinear and Optimal Control Techniques to High
Gain DC–DC Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Nibedita Swain
An Innovative Multi-input Boost Chopper for HEV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
A. Ranganadh and M. Chiranjeevi
Performance Evaluation of Transistor Clamped H-Bridge
(TCHB)-Based Five-Level Inverter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
V. Kiranmayee and A. Sharath Kumar
Enhancement of Power Quality by the Combination of D-STATCOM
and UPQC in Grid Connected to Wind Turbine System . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
M. Sumithra and B. C. Sujatha
Transient Steadiness and Dynamic Response in Transmission Lines
by SVC with TID and MPPT Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Ajay Kumar and T. S. Prasanna
Three-Level DCMLI-Based Grid-Connected DSTATCOM . . . . . . . . . . 195
D. Suresh and R. Chander
Reducing Number of Switches in Multilevel Inverter Using Diode
Clamped and H-Bridge Inverters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Karanam Deepak, M. Rama Prasad Reddy, K. Jaya Sree
and P. Partha Saradhi Reddy
Harmonic and Reactive Power Compensation with IRP Controlled
DSTATCOM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Haresh Nanda and Srinivas Reddy Chalamalla
Performance of Static VAR Compensator for Changes in Voltage Due
to Sag and Swell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
M. S. Priyadarshini and M. Sushama
A New Efficient Z-H Boost Converter for DC Microgrids . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Ch. Sajan, T. Praveen Kumar and P. Balakishan
A Hybrid Power Conversion System Using Three-Phase Single-Stage
DC–AC Converter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Shaik Rafi, Simhadri Lakshmi Sirisha and Ravipati Srikanth
Contents xv
Enhanced Optimal Control Scheme for Attaining Improved Efficiency

and Dynamic Response of WECS Using SVC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
C. Veeramani, A. N. Malleswa Rao, K. V. G. Aravind, M. Likhitha Reddy,
M. Vipin Krishna and K. Maheswari
Design and Modelling of L-type Bi-directional Roller Conveyers
for Glass Hauling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
S. Madhankumar, T. Vignesh, P. Anand Raj, Anirudh Varadarajan,
T. Arul Praveen and S. Rajesh
Gyro-stabilized Platform in Ambulance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
T. Vignesh, S. Madhankumar, P. Anand Raj, Anirudh Varadarajan
and T. Arul Praveen
Power Systems
Performance and Comparison of Harmonics Using Active Power
Filters and DVR in Low-Voltage Distributed Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
P. V. Kishore and D. Naveen Kumar
Overview of Restructured Power System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Prakash Vodapalli and Ramaiah Veerlapati
Single-Phase PV System with Continuous H-Bridge Inverter . . . . . . . . . 311
Vodapalli Prakash, Mucherla Narasimha Rao
and Chillappagiri Pavan Kumar
Comparison of Renewable Energy Generation in an Electrical
Network with Energy Storage System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
N. Loganathan, A. Arvin Tony, T. Malini and S. Gobhinath
Performance Analysis of Single-Phase Shunt Active Filter using
Conventional PI Control Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Rameshkumar Kanagavel and V. Indragandhi
Calculation of VFTO and VFTC in the 550 kV GIS with Mitigation
Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
M. Naga Jyothi, C. V. K. Bhanu and CH. Ramya
Energy Efficiency and Conservation Schemes Proposed
for an Educational Building in Oman . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Ch. Ramya, Ch. Venkateswara Rao, Nurul Hasan Shaikh,
Mohammed Kashoob, Syed Aqeel Ashraf and C. H. V. Suryanarayana
Design and Analysis of PV-Based DSTATCOM with LCL Filter
for Localized Distribution System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
Pratap Ranjan Mohanty and C. V. Harshavardhan Reddy
xvi Contents
Optimal Scheme and Power Controlling aspects in Shipboard

System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
Vijay Raviprabhakaran and Teja Sree Mummadi
Global Optimization Algorithm to Solve Economic Load Dispatch
Problem Considering Equality and Inequality Constraints . . . . . . . . . . 381
Prakash Arumugam and Anand Rajendran
Implementation of Conventional Controllers in HVDC Links
for Improvement of the Power System Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
G. Ranga Purushotham, S. Satyanarayana and Ch. Saibabu
Low Voltage Ride Through (LVRT) Capability Enhancement of Axial
Flux Induction Generator-Based Wind Energy Conversion System . . . . 405
V. Ramesh Babu and A. Ganapathi
The Application of Genetic Algorithm with Multi-parent Crossover
to Optimal Power Flow Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
T. Srihari, Madhu Boppa, S. Anil Kumar and Harish Pulluri
Genetic Algorithm with Multi-Parent Crossover Solution for
Economic Dispatch with Valve Point Loading Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
Harish Pulluri, M. Vyshnavi, Patange Shraddha, B. Sai Priya, T. Sri Hari
and Preeti
Teaching Distance Relay Protection and Circuit Breaker
Co-ordination of an IEEE 9 Bus System Using
MATLAB/SIMULINK . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
Cholleti Sriram and Muppalla N. R. Kishore
Necessity of Power System State Estimation: A Generalized Linear
State Estimation Solution with Application of PMU Measurements . . . . 449
M. Ravindra, R. Srinivasa Rao, V. Srinivasa Rao, N. Praneeth
and Vasimalla Ashok
Sensorless Operation of PMBLDC Motor Drive Using Neural
Network Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
Poonam M. Yadav and S. Y. Gadgune
Comparative Performance Analysis of Active- and Resistive-Type
SFCL in Reducing the Fault Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
G. Ganesh, Ravilla Madhusudan, L. Vamsi Narasimha
and B. Sambasiva Rao
Squirrel Search Optimizer for Solving Economic Load Dispatch
Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
V. P. Sakthivel, M. Suman and P. D. Sathya
Contents xvii
Voltage Sag Mitigation for PMSG System Using DVR Based Hybrid
Fuzzy Logic Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
Basagonda Chandrika and B. C. Sujatha
Different Types of Energy Storage Systems: A Literature Survey . . . . . 515
Rama Rao Bomma, J. Jayakumar and T. Bogaraj
Renewable Energy
Design and Implementation of Efficient Energy Management System
in Electric Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
R. Gauthami, Vineeth V. Nair, Aswin Sathish, K. Vishnu Soureesh,
K. Ilango, R. S. Sreelekshmi, S. A. Ilangovan and S. Sujatha
A Cost-Effective PV-Based Single-Stage Conversion System
for Power Backup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
B. Kavya Santhoshi and K. Mohana Sundaram
Solar Tracking System Using IoT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
Krishna Chaitanya Diggavi, Manidhar Thula and B. Pakkiraiah
Demand Management System for OFF-Grid PV System . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
Mrutyunjay Das, Kuldip Singh and Ch. Laxmi
PV-Wind-Integrated Hybrid Grid with P&O Optimization
Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
R. Rekha, B. Srikanth Goud, Ch. Rami Reddy and B. Nagi Reddy
A Practical Approach in Design and Fabrication of Solar-Powered
Four-Wheeled Electric Vehicle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
S. Gobhinath, S. Boobalan, R. Ashwin, Jan Meshach and K. Rajkumar
Survey on Security Aspects in Smart Grid: Performance
and Parametric Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609
V. V. Vineeth, S. Sophia and S. Jayanthy
A Literature Survey on Renewable Energy Sources in India . . . . . . . . . 617
Praveen Mannam and R. P. Singh
Designing of Solar Hybrid Electric Vehicle from Source to Load . . . . . 625
P. Ajay Sai Kiran and B. Loveswara Rao
Design and Development of Solar Photovoltaic System Using
Single-Phase MLI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 639
J. Prakash, K. Gunalan and K. Mohana Sundaram
A Novel Technique to Observe the Performance of Virtual Solar
PV Module System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 653
G. Suresh Babu and N. R. Sai Varun
xviii Contents
Power Quality Analysis for Brushless DC Motor Drive Fed

by a Photovoltaic System Using SRF Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 661
S. R. Rajasree, V. Ravikumar Pandi and K. Ilango
Energy Management Scheme for Green Homes Using Artificial Neural
Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673
A. Naresh Kumar, P. Shiva Kumar and Thati Mahesh
Control Systems
Comparative Analysis Between Conventional and Neuro-Fuzzy
Control Schemes for Speed Control of Induction Motor Drive . . . . . . . 683
Shubhangi Kangale, B. Sampathkumar and N. Raut Mrunmayi
Estimation of Nonlinear Hybrid Systems Using Second-Order
Q-Adaptive Self-switched Derivative-Free Estimators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693
Sayanti Chatterjee
Control Quality Enhancement of Inverted Pendulum Using Fractional
Controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705
K. Muralidhar Goud and C. Srisailam
A Review on Interference Management in Millimeter-Wave MIMO
Systems for Future 5G Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 715
E. Udayakumar and V. Krishnaveni
Preventing the Vehicle Accidents on Highways and Implementing
Safety and Automation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723
P. Parthasaradhy and K. Manjunathachari
MRI-Based Medical Image Enhancement Technique Using Particle
Swarm Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729
S. Sakthivel, V. Prabhu and R. Punidha
Health Monitoring System Using IoT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 739
A. Selvanayakam, A. C. Varishnee, M. Kalaivani and G. Ranjithkumar
Measurement of Fuel Level in Tank Using IR Sensors and Reporting
Over IoT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 751
M. L. S. N. S. Lakshmi and Chandrasekhar Reddy
Miscellaneous
Image Denoising Using Spatial and Frequency Domain Filters:
A Tool for Image Quality Enhancement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 759
Santhi Krishnamoorthi, Nirmala Madian and Dhanasekaran Rajagopal
Comparative Study and Analysis of Human Knee Angle
Measurement System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 769
S. Boobalan, K. Lakshmi and K. N. Thirukkuralkani
Contents xix
Voice and Image BER Analysis of the OFDM System

with MECCT and MLNST Companding Techniques Over Mobile
Radio Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 777
B. Sarala, M. Zaheer Ahamed, S. Sree Hari and V. Bhagya sree
Enhancement of Performance and PAPR Reduction Using
Combination of PTS and SLM Scheme with Opposition-Based
GWO in MIMO–OFDM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 787
K. Aruna Kumari and K. Sri Rama Krishna
Women Safety Device with GPS Tracking and Alerts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 797
A. Ranganadh
A Smart Machine for Fitness Care Scrutinizing Technique—A
Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 807
N. Pooranam, M. Diwakaran, A. Archana, S. Agalya, A. Anindhitha
and E. GokulaPriya
Configuring MPLS Cloud Providers with Virtual Private Network . . . . 817
M. L. S. N. S. Lakshmi and Naga Venkata Sai Sudheer Bandaru
A Prototype Development of Digirail-Ticket Verification and Seat
Allocation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 827
S. Gobhinath, S. Karthikeyan, A. Guru Prakash, B. Balamurugan
and N. Gokul
Performance Analysis of Thyroid Tumor Detection and Segmentation
Using PCA-Based Random Classification Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 833
B. Shankarlal and P. D. Sathya
Factors Influencing the Success of Recommendations
in E-Commerce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 843
K. Srihari, K. Moorthi and S. Karthik
Implementation of Alexa-Based Intelligent Voice Response System
for Smart Campus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 849
K. Srihari, V. Sakthivel, G. Venkata Koti Reddy, S. Subhasree, P. Sankavi
and E. Udayakumar
Synthesis of Visual Attention-Based Robotic System and Its Present
Utilization in Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 857
Sridhar Prattipati, Vasimalla Ashok and N. Praneeth
Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 863

About the Editors
Dr. H. S. Saini is a Managing Director for Guru Nanak

Institutions and obtained his Ph.D. in the field of
Computer Science. He has over 22 years of experience
at university/college level in teaching UG/PG students
and has guided several B.Tech., M.Tech., and Ph.D.
projects. He has published/presented more than 30 high-
quality research papers in international and national
journals and proceedings of international conferences.
He is the editor for Journal of Innovations in Electrical
and Electronics Engineering (JIEEE) published by Guru
Nanak Publishers. He has two books to his credit.
Dr. H. S. Saini is a lover of innovation and is an advisor
for NBA/NAAC accreditation process to many institu-
tions in India and abroad.
Dr. T. Srinivas, Dean, Department of Electronics &

Communication Engineering, Kakatiya University,
Warangal, obtained M.Tech. from IIT Dhanbad, and
Ph.D. degree from Kyushu University, Japan. He was
completed proficiency courses and diplomas from IISc
Bangalore, IIT Kharagpur, CEDT Gorakhpur, and
NRDC New Delhi. He worked as Scientist at NIRM,
Government of India Research Institute, around two
decades. He published over 142 research papers in
various international and national journals and confer-
ences. He is reviewer for International Journal of
Measurements, Elsevier Publisher, and ISOI Journal.
He obtained product patent of MBSC system and
commercialized. He is regular reviewer to Indian and
xxi
xxii About the Editors
abroad IEEE conference papers as TPC member. He has

successfully completed 15 industry-, DST-, and
AICTE-sponsored research projects. He is author to a
book entitled Real Time Systems for Coal Mine
Applications. He has received several awards, honors
and distinctions, International Bridge Fellowship,
International JSPS Fellowship, International JSPS
Medals, best paper awards, Gold Card NSL USA. He
is Fellow of Institution of Electronics and Telecom-
munication Engineers and Fellow of Telangana
Academy of Sciences. He is the advisory board member
of IC, Cambridge University, UK. He was secretary to
Instrument Society of India, Hyderabad, and EC member
of IJAA. He is the life member of ISTE, BCSI, ISCA,
and ISOI. His areas of research include real-time
systems, wireless sensor networks/IOT, and cognitive
radios.
Dr. D. M. Vinod Kumar joined at National Institute of

Technology Warangal in 1981 as a faculty member. He
was Head, Department of Electrical Engineering, during
2007–2009, and Dean (Academic) during 2009–2011.
He was Chairman, Institution of Engineers (India)
Warangal Local Chapter during 2012–2014. At present,
he is a Professor of Electrical Engineering at National
Institute of Technology, Warangal. He obtained his B.E.
and M.Tech. degrees from Osmania University,
Hyderabad, during 1979 and 1981, respectively. He
earned his Ph.D. degree from IIT Kanpur in the year
1996. During 2002–2003, he was Post-Doctoral Fellow
at Howard University, Washington, D.C., USA. He has
published more than 100 papers in international journals
and conferences. He is Fellow of Institution of Engineers
(India) Kolkata and the life member of Systems Society
of India (SSI). He is the member of Board of Studies
of the Department of Electrical Engineering, Osmania
University, Hyderabad, and JNTU, Hyderabad,
Kakinada, and Anantapur. He delivered expert lectures
on neural networks and fuzzy logic at various institu-
tions. His areas of interest are power systems operation
and control, power system stability and security, neural
networks and fuzzy logic applications, flexible AC
transmission systems, power system deregulation and
About the Editors xxiii
restructuring and smart grid technologies, multi-

objective evolutionary algorithm applications, and
renewable energy systems.
Dr. K. S. Chandragupta Mauryan is working as a

Professor in EEE and Assistant Dean R&D, Guru
Nanak Institutions Technical Campus, Hyderabad. He
has completed Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from
Anna University, Chennai, in the year 2015, M.E. in
Power Systems Engineering from PSG College of
Technology, Coimbatore, in the year 2004, and B.E. in
Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Bharathiar
University, Coimbatore, in the year 2001. He has also
qualified the GATE 2001 Examination in Electrical and
Electronics. He has published more than 30 technical
papers in international and national journals. He has
published 6 patents and filed 1 patent in Patent Office,
India. He has presented more than 25 research papers in
international and national conferences. He is the
member of professional societies like IEEE, ISTE,
ISRD, IRED, and IAENG. He is having 15 years of
teaching and 11 years of research experience. His
research interests are power systems optimization,
smart grid technologies, soft computing applications,
renewable energy sources, and electric vehicle.
Power Electronics
Power System Security Analysis
Using FACTS Devices by Means
of Intelligent and Hybrid Techniques
Under Different Loading Conditions
S. Venkata Padmavathi, A. Jayalaxmi and Sarat Kumar Sahu
Abstract Power system security issue is a severe concern in restructured power

market. In order to conserve the security of a system, flexible alternating current
transmission system (FACTS) apparatus are one of the options. In this work, node
voltage deviations and line apparent power flow factors are taken as the security
indices and these are considered as objectives for security problems. The devices
considered are thyristor-controlled series capacitors (TCSCs), static VAR com-
pensators (SVCs), and unified power flow controllers (UPFCs). The main idea of
this work is to compare distinct algorithms such as hybrid differential evolution
(DEPSO) and fuzzy adaptive gravitational search algorithm (FAGSA) to attain the
good location of the devices on IEEE 30 bus network with loading conditions.
Keywords DEPSO FAGSA FACTS TCSC SVC UPFC
1 Introduction
Today’s power network has become tortuous and less secure with increase of power
demand. FACTS apparatus can augment power system transfer capacity and flex-
ible line flow control [1]. These devices play a major task in power system security
and can control the network parameters to influence the line power flows and
voltages [2–4]. There are various types of FACTS controllers: SVC [5, 6], TCSC
[7], UPFC [8], etc.
S. V. Padmavathi (&)
EEE Department, GITAM (Deemed to Be University), Hyderabad, Telangana, India
e-mail: [email protected]
A. Jayalaxmi
EEE Department, Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, College of Engineering,
Kukatpally, Hyderabad, TS, India
S. K. Sahu
EEE Department, M.V.G.R Engineering College, Vizianagaram, Andhra Pradesh, India
© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 3

H. S. Saini et al. (eds.), Innovations in Electrical and Electronics Engineering,
Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering 626,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_1
4 S. V. Padmavathi et al.
Evolutionary and fuzzy adaptive methodologies are well-liked in current years.

Some reputable techniques like DE were utilized to allocate the FACTS and
improve the security [9], and PSO was introduced by ‘John Kennedy and Eberhart’
[10]. It is important to know, the better location for FACTS since their cost and to
evade needless transmission loss, in [11] GA-based optimization technique was
implemented to get the fine placements and sizing of the FACTS to augment the
network loadability, in [12] multiobjective optimization process was utilized to get
the better placement of FACTS to optimize the cost, line losses and loadability. In
[13], GA to ask for the good placement of multi-type FACTS in a network; in [14],
genetic algorithm is exercised to advance power system security; in [15, 16], hybrid
differential evolution is presented to resolve the power flow trouble and system
security; in [17, 18], GSA technique is implemented; in [19], FAGSA is applied to
resolve bidding problem; in [20], reactive power planning is presented.
In this work, the main intention is to examine the various algorithms such as
DEPSO and FAGSA to set the good location of FACTS and to get the lowest cost
of FACTS apparatus, minimum loss and to improve the electrical power system
security, which is obtained by bringing down the security index. These algorithms
are tested using the standard IEEE 30 bus system. It is noticed that power system
security is augmented by minimizing the system loss and security index.
2 FACTS Device Modelling
The three FACTS utilized in this work are TCSC, SVC, and UPFC models [1, 5, 6,
12], and constraints are considered as
ðiÞ 0:8XL XTCSC 0:2XL P:u ð1Þ
ðiiÞ 100 MVAR QSVC 100MVAR

ð2Þ
ðiiiÞ both ð1Þ and ð2Þfor UPFC
where XTCSC is reactance [7] added to the transmission line by employing TCSC,
XL is the reactance of line, and QSVC is the reactive power interjected [5, 6] at the
node. The UPFC is used to control both parameters [8, 11].
3 Power System Security
The main intention of the security [2–4], [9] is to conserve the profile of voltage and
line power flow within the limits. These are modelled as voltage and line apparent
power security indices ‘Jv’ and ‘Js’ [9]
Power System Security Analysis Using FACTS Devices by Means … 5
!2
n X
X n
Sij
JS ¼ Wi ð3Þ
i i;j¼1
Smax
ij
X
n 2
JV ¼ Wi Vi Vref;i ð4Þ
i
where i, j: node numbers

Wi Weighing factor and taken as 1
Sij Apparent power in the i − j line
Smax
ij Apparent power limit in line i − j
Vref;i Nominal voltage.
4 Problem Formulation
The proposed work is to diminish the installation cost of FACTS, loss, and security
indices. By combining all, objective (Objfn) or fitness function is created.
Objfn ¼ F ¼ a1 ðJS Þ þ a2 ðJv Þ þ a3 ðTotal Investment CostÞ þ a4 ðLossesÞ ð5Þ
The cost functions in (US$/KVAR) of devices are expressed in Eqs. (6)–(8).

For TCSC
CTCSC ¼ 0:0015S2 0:713S þ 153:75 ð6Þ
For SVC
CSVC ¼ 0:0003S2 0:3051S þ 127:38 ð7Þ
For UPFC
CUPFC ¼ 0:0003S2 0:2691S þ 188: ð8Þ
where S is the operating range of the FACTS in MVAR [20, 21]. The coefficients
a1–a4 will be equal to 0.25.
5 Overview of Algorithms and Its Implementation
5.1 Hybrid Differential Evolution (DEPSO)
In the DEPSO, one-to-one competition is initiated which will provide rapid con-
vergence swiftness towards optimum. It uses fewer populations in the evolutionary
procedure to get the global result [15, 16]. To get rid of the problems in DE and
PSO technique [22, 23] and to get the advantages of both, the DEPSO method is
developed.
The procedure is as follows:
• First produce random values of population (N).This is taken as parent vector.
• Determine the fitness function F1 (i) for each of the particles in the parent vector,
for i = 1, 2, 3, …, N.
• Now, do the operations like selection, crossover, and mutation. The consequent
vector is the target vector.
• Find the fitness value F2 (i) for each agent in the target vector.
• Obtain the Gbest up to this iteration.
• Evaluate each particle or agent velocity in the parent vector using these Pbest
and Gbest values.
• By using the PSO algorithm, update the positions the particles.
• By using these values, evaluate the fitness value F3 (i) and compare the three
fitness values.
• Now, these selected set of particles become parent vector for subsequent
iteration.
5.2 Fuzzy Adaptive Gravitational Search Algorithm

(FAGSA)
It is a good method for controlling the parameter and to overcome the problems of
GSA [19, 24], which is used to tune the ‘gravitational constant (G)’ using ‘IF/
THEN’ rules of fuzzy. Proper selection of ‘G’ provides a brace between the global
and local exploration and exploitation [8, 19]. The inputs for FIS are the current
best performance evaluation as ‘normalized fitness value (NFV)’ and the recent ‘G’.
The outputs are ‘DG’. The membership functions are considered as triangular.
objfn objfnmin
NFV = ð9Þ
objfnmax objfnmin
Here, the poorer value of NFV gives the superior result. Objfn is calculated from
Eq. (5). The limit of ‘G’ is considered between 0.4 and 1.0, and NFV is considered
between 0 and 1.0 and ‘DG’ range in between −0.1 and +0.1.
Gt þ 1 ¼ Gt þ DG ð10Þ
5.3 Initialization
Using the algorithms, the primary particles’ population is produced haphazardly

between the prearranged limits and calculated the fitness function. The FACTS
variables are their placement and setting. By using these values, the objective
function shown in Eq. (5) is calculated.
6 Results and Discussion
The functioning of these algorithms is examined on the IEEE-30 [25] bus, and the
solutions are obtained. The FACTS apparatus setting, cost, security indices, loss
were found by means of these algorithms. The FACTS are installed in a particular
location to lessen the loadings of active and reactive powers by regulating the
powers in other directions, and the better locations are obtained by these algorithms.
This is observed from security indices Js, Jv which are reduced by using these
optimization techniques with loading conditions.
Fuzzy rules, PSO, DE, and GSA parameters are shown in Tables 1, 2, 3, and 4.
The security objectives for 40% light load, 60% over load and device location, and
ratings are given in Tables 5, 6, 7, and 8 and observed that the security indices and
loss are lessened, and hence, security has been progressed.
Table 1 Fuzzy rules

Rule no. NFV G ΔG
1 S S ZE
2 S M NE
3 S L NE
4 M S PE
5 M M ZE
6 M L NE
7 L S PE
8 L M ZE
9 L L NE
Table 2 Parameters of PSO

C1, C2 1.5
Wmax 0.9
Wmin 0.4
No. of swarm being 50
No. of iterations 100
Table 3 DE parameters
NP D F CR Iterations
30 2 1.2 0.5 100
Table 4 GSA parameters

NP Go Iterations
30 100 100
Table 5 Security objectives under 40% light load at bus 7

JS JV Loss Cost ($) * 106
Techniques Base DEPSO FA Base DEPSO FA Base DEPSO FA DEPSO FA
case GSA case GSA case GSA GSA
Without 9.7 – – 0.0263 – – 15.7 – – – –
FACTS
TCSC – 9.28 9.23 – 0.0215 0.0205 – 15.21 15.14 2.66613 2.9784
SVC – 9.46 9.42 – 0.0154 0.0148 – 15.24 15.19 1.9376 1.5212
UPFC – 8.98 8.94 – 0.0143 0.0140 – 15.09 15.02 4.3664 2.7637
Table 6 FACTS placement and the ratings

Line/bus Rating
Techniques DEPSO FA DEPSO FA
GSA GSA
TCSC (Xtcsc) 2–4 3–4 0.0421 0.0210
SVC (Qsvc) 21 8 15.8 12.3
UPFC (Xtcsc & Qsvc) 2–4 6–8 0.0236 −0.054
13 9.8
Table 7 Security objectives under 60% over load at bus 7
JS JV Loss Cost($) * 106
Techniques Base case DEPSO FA Base case DEPSO FA Base Case DEPSO FA DEPSO FA
GSA GSA GSA GSA
Without FACTS 11.3 – – 0.0259 – – 19.7 – – – –
TCSC – 10.65 10.56 – 0.0192 0.0186 – 19.18 19.14 4.2953 3.9305
SVC – 10.79 10.74 – 0.0191 0.0169 – 19.24 19.20 2.6350 2.3701
UPFC – 10.54 10.48 – 0.0181 0.0172 – 18.76 18.69 6.9996 7.5196
Power System Security Analysis Using FACTS Devices by Means …
9
Table 8 FACTS placement and the ratings

Techniques Line/bus Rating
DEPSO FA DEPSO FA
GSA GSA
TCSC (Xtcsc) 3–4 12–16 0.2441 −0.0107
SVC (Qsvc) 3 21 21.8 19.5
UPFC (Xtcsc &Qsvc) 4–6 2–4 0.0209 0.0810
24.5 21.2
7 Conclusions
In this work, placement of FACTS apparatus is inexorable, because the utmost

capacity of the system is utilized by means of establishing FACTS. Here, the
problem of device placement is analysed using DEPSO and FAGSA methodology,
and the gained results are compared. The effectiveness of the installation of these
devices in advancement the security is measured in terms of diminishing the
indices, loss, and cost. The study shows after the proper positioning of devices,
security indices are lessened, thus progressing the system security. Further, analysis
discloses that FAGSA shows better performance. Henceforth, the FAGSA yields a
competent result which considerably diminishes security indices. The acquired
results clearly depict that
1. The appropriate installation TCSC successfully lessens the loading of line when
contrasted to SVC.
2. The fixing of SVC in good location raises the profile of voltage as contrasted to
TCSC.
3. Appropriate UPFC incorporation furnishes better presentation in reducing both
loading of line and voltage difference when contrasted to other FACTS con-
trollers. Another significant practical problem considered for installing FACTS
is the cost. UPFC is a costly device when contrasted with TCSC and SVC
devices.
References
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Transmission Systems (Wiley-IEEE Press, New York, 2000)
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25. H. Saadat, Power System Analysis (WCB/McGraw-Hill, New Delhi, 1999)
Implementation of Three-Phase Shunt
Active Filter Using Instantaneous Real
Power Calculation and Triangular
Carrier Current Control
Athira Ajith, P. V. Manitha and K. Ilango
Abstract The power quality improvement has been done with a three-phase shunt
active filter (ShAF) using instantaneous real power calculation (IRPC) and trian-
gular carrier current controller. Instantaneous real power calculation method uses
the instantaneous real power (p) for reference current generation along with the
triangular carrier current controller (TCCC) to produce ShAF switching pulses. The
harmonics produced by the nonlinear load can be filtered out using the ShAF to a
great extent using the proposed control method. The effectiveness of the algorithm
is verified using PSIM simulation software for a nonlinear load of 5 kW power fed
by distribution of 400 V, 50 Hz system, and then its performance is compared with
that of the conventional IRPT algorithm.
Keywords Shunt active filter Real power calculation Harmonics elimination

VSI Control strategy
1 Introduction
The present-day industries including transmission/distribution sectors uses

solid-state power converters to a great extent. These solid-state power converters
constitutes nonlinear load which can lead to serious power quality issues. The
power quality issues can lead to poor power factor which can decrease the system
efficiency.
High-quality power has to be ensured by the utility side in case of sensitive
loads. The presence of harmonic content in voltages and currents, one of the main
A. Ajith P. V. Manitha (&)

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Amrita School of Engineering,
Bengaluru, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Bengaluru, India
K. Ilango
Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Chennai, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_2
14 A. Ajith et al.
power quality issues, can be overcome by the use of the harmonic filters which can
filter out non-fundamental components of current and voltage thereby ensuring
good quality power.
Power quality problems are normally solved by basic and active filters. Basic
filters are less preferred due to their large size, resonance with line and their ability
to provide only fixed compensation. Recent developments in active power filter
[1–3] design have solved many problems related to current harmonics and com-
pensation of reactive power. Active power filters can be either VSI or CSI that can
provide necessary compensating current and voltages. A ShAF produces com-
pensating current sufficient to satisfy the load reactive power and harmonic
requirements. Therefore, harmonics caused at the source side is cancelled, and
hence, we get a sinusoidal source current waveform. Even hybrid filters are gaining
popularity today due to their cost-effectiveness. They retain both active and passive
filter advantages.
2 System Configuration with Shunt Active Filter
The test system configuration is shown in Fig. 1. The system consists of a

three-phase distribution supply grid of 400 V, 50 Hz rating feeding a nonlinear load
rated for 5 kW power. Most of the literature surveys focuses on q compensation for
Fig. 1 System configuration

Implementation of Three-Phase Shunt Active Filter Using … 15
reconstructing the source current waveform free of harmonics. Even the active
power loss can be compensated by the system to achieve the same.
3 Control Strategy of Shunt Active Filter
There are a variety of algorithms typically for three-phase ShAFs discussed in the
reference papers. The IRPT, SD, DC bus voltage algorithm and Icosø are some
among that [3–8]. Here, an ShAF based on instantaneous real power calculation is
discussed. To demonstrate its performance, the instantaneous reactive power theory
is compared with the algorithm. Also, a ShAF prototype based on this algorithm is
developed and tested.
(a) Instantaneous Reactive Power Theory
This algorithm is based on Park’s transformation; it transfers the three-phase main
voltage and load currents into dq axis as per following equations:
qffiffiffiffiffiffi" #2 3
v/ 1 1= 1= vsa
¼ 2=3 pffiffiffi2 pffiffiffi2 4 vsb 5 ð1Þ
vb 0 3 3
2 2 vsc
qffiffiffiffiffiffi" #2 3
1 1= ILa
IL/
¼ 2=3
1 p=ffiffiffi2 pffiffiffi 4 ILb 5
2 ð2Þ
ILb 0 3 3
2 2 ILc
The instantaneous p and the q that the load has consumed can be obtained and
represented as
p ¼ v/ iL/ þ vb iLb ð3Þ
q ¼ vb iL/ þ va iLb ð4Þ
The ac term of the instantaneous p and the entire instantaneous q has to be

mitigated by the active power filter for suppressing the current harmonics and for
compensating the q. The reference compensating current can be calculated as
" #
Ic/ 1 v/ vb p
¼ ð5Þ
Icb v2/ þ v2b vb v/ q
16 A. Ajith et al.
The reference current can be obtained by transferring the compensating current

in the dq axis back to three-phase system as shown below
2 3 2 3

Ica qffiffiffiffiffiffi 1 p0ffiffiffi
4 I 5 ¼ 2= 6 1= 3 7 Ic/
ð6Þ
cb 34 2 pffiffiffi2 5 I
1= 3 cb
Icc
2 2
From the literature reviews, it is clear that it is very difficult to implement the
algorithm as an analog circuit because it requires large number of components. In
this paper, real power injection theory is simulated which is compared with the
simulation results of basic pq theory. Real power injection theory algorithm
operates in steady state or transient state which can control the SAF in real time.
(b) Instantaneous Real Power Calculation Method
Choosing an efficient control scheme enables the three-phase inverter to inject
sufficient and proper compensating current to the grid leading to harmonics and
q compensation. Instantaneous real power calculation method is actually derived
from the conventional pq theory. Instantaneous real power calculation method
consists of (1) extraction of reference current to remove the reference current from
the line current which is distorted. (2) PWM-VSI current control technique for
switching pulse generation to drive the shunt active filter. This strategy mitigates
the harmonics in the source current making them sinusoidal as well as balanced.
The three-phase mains voltage and source currents are transferred to dq axis
using Clarke’s transformation as shown in Eqs. 1 and 2, and instantaneous p can be
calculated as given by Eq. 3.
For the purpose of suppression of current harmonics and for compensating the q,
the total power loss which is calculated as in Eq. 4 is considered. The instantaneous
q is taken equal to 0.
p ¼ pac þ pdc;losses ð7Þ
q¼0 ð8Þ
Here, the instantaneous compensating source currents isa and isb are calculated
from the instantaneous voltages va, vb with instantaneous real power p, assuming
q as zero.

Is/ 1 v/ vb p
¼ ð9Þ
Isb v2/ þ v2b vb v/ 0
The reference compensating source currents in turn can be calculated using

inverse Clarke’s transformation as given in Eq. 6. It is obvious that there are
reductions in calculations.
Fig. 2 Block diagram of triangular carrier current controller
Next section in implementing the instantaneous real power calculation method is

the PWM-VSI current control technique for switching pulse generation to drive the
ShAF In this paper, an indirect current control technique named ‘triangular carrier
current controller’ is discussed. The block diagram of the triangular carrier current
controller is shown in Fig. 2. For implementing this technique, the three-phase
actual currents (isa, isb, isc) are compared with their reference counterparts (i*sa, i*sb,
i*sc) which are generated by reference current extraction method. The resultant signal
is then passed through a PI controller which is then again compared with a trian-
gular carrier wave of frequency equal to the switching frequency of the PWM
inverter. The pulses are then used to trigger the switches of the ShAF.
The advantage of using the above-mentioned control technique is that it offers
instantaneous response without any delay. Moreover, indirect current control
technique has been adopted owing to reasons namely less percentage of THD in
source current, less computation time and low power consumption.
4 Design of Shunt Active Filter Parameters
The three-phase inverter which does the function of active filtering has an energy
storage capacitor (dc link capacitor) at the DC side. The inverter is then connected
to the filter via coupling inductance.
(a) Coupling/Interfacing Inductance
Coupling or interfacing inductor is essential for isolation of the filter from the power
system and also for protection from transient disturbances. The value of coupling
inductance should be between Lmin and Lmax.
DVmin DV
Lmin ¼ 5 mH ðfor 5% drop), Lmax ¼ max 8 mH
xg Imax 4 ddti fs
max
where DVmin is the IXL drop at fundamental. The value of inductance should be
between Lmin and Lmax which can be taken as 6 mH.
18 A. Ajith et al.
Fig. 3 Source voltage, load current, filter current and source current of ‘a’ phase of three-phase
shunt active filter based on basic PQ theory for thyristor bridge rectifier load
Fig. 4 PSIM model of the three-phase system with active filter
(b) DC Link Capacitance

DC link capacitance value is measured based on the energy change which occurs at
the DC link capacitance.
1
E ¼ Cdc Vdc
2
Vdc
2
ð10Þ
2 min
Fig. 5 Source voltage, load current, filter current and source current of ‘a’ three-phase shunt
active filter based on instantaneous real power calculation method for thyristor bridge rectifier load
Consider variation of dc link voltage for T = 0.5 s, apparent power rating of the
filter P = 3 kVA and Vdc = 680 V, we get Cdc ¼ 0:0065 6 mF.
5 Simulation Results and Discussions
A 5 kW load consisting of a three-phase thyristor bridge rectifier is connected to a

3 ø, 400 V, 50 Hz supply. A 3 kVA filter prototype has been developed. The PSIM
model of the system is shown in Fig. 6.
(a) Without Filter: Thyristor bridge rectifier feeding a resistive load was studied
without using a filter and its performance is observed. The load draws a fun-
damental current value of 10.03 A from the source. The system is simulated
under balanced source and load conditions. The source current was found to be
highly distorted.
Fig. 6 Adder circuit using

741 IC
20 A. Ajith et al.
Table 1 Simulation Simulation parameters Values

parameters
Supply voltage 3 ø, 400 V, 50 Hz
DC link capacitance 6 mF
Coupling Inductance 6 mH
DC link voltage 680 V
(b) With Instantaneous Reactive Power Theory-based Shunt Active Filter:

The simulation is then performed with basic IRPT-based shunt active filter in
the system. Under balanced source and load conditions, the system is simulated
successfully. The simulation results with the addition of active filter which
includes load current, source current and actual filter current are shown in
Fig. 3. The measured fundamental value of current drawn from the source is
9.548 A.
(c) With Instantaneous Real Power Calculation-based TCC controlled Shunt
Active Filter: Using shunt active filter, the simulation is done in the system. The
circuit for instantaneous real power calculation method was simulated in PSIM.
The PSIM model of the simulated system is shown in Fig. 4. Simulation
parameter values are the same as given in Table 1.
The simulation results with the addition of active filter which includes load
current, source current and actual filter current are shown in Fig. 5. The THD is
maintained within the prescribed limits. Moreover, after interfacing the filter,
comparatively smaller value of fundamental value of current, which is 8.172 A, is
absorbed from the source. From the results, it is observed that, it is easier to
implement IRPC theory due to its simplicity. Secondly, it is clear that the harmonic
content in the source current waveform produced by IRPC theory is less than that
by IRPT theory. Moreover, from the results obtained from the simulation, it has
been identified that the system based on IRPC theory draws relatively smaller
fundamental current value when compared to that of the IRPT-based system.
6 Analog Computation of Instantaneous Real Power

Calculation Method
The most application circuits using 741 IC are inverting and non-inverting
amplifier, integrator, differentiator, low-pass filter, high-pass filter and band-reject
filter. Some such circuits which are used in the implementation of the controllers are
adder, subtractor, comparator and low-pass filter. The circuit diagrams of those
blocks are given below in Figs. 6, 7, 8 and 9, respectively.
Fig. 7 Subtractor circuit

using 741 IC
Fig. 8 Comparator circuit

using 741 IC
Fig. 9 Low-pass filter circuit

using 741 IC
7 Hardware Implementation of the Controller
To test the effectiveness of the controller, it is required to complete the hardware

implementation of the system. It can be implemented either in analog or digital
format. Analog circuits are well known for their accurate response with some
propagation delay. Analog circuits are susceptible to malfunctioning due to offsets
in the electronic circuits and tolerance of the components caused by heating. Texas
Instruments facilitates development of software for TI DSPs by offering Code
Composer Studio (CCS) Integrated Development Environment (IDE). Used in
22 A. Ajith et al.
Fig. 10 Digital set-up in MATLAB
combination with a Target Support Package software and Real Time Workshop
software, CCS provides an integrated environment that once installed requires no
coding.
The IRPC algorithm can be completely implemented digitally, by replacing all
the analog circuit by the digital controller. The digital implementation of this
algorithm will allow adjustment of the gain in the amplifiers thereby permitting the
algorithm to be implemented without any modification, for a wide range of ratings
of three-phase system.
(a) Digital Set-up:
The digital controller used for the IRPC algorithm is TMS320f28335. The set-up
consists of a F28335 ADC, the transition block, the IRPC algorithm subsystem,
digital output and target preference. Figure 10 shows the digital set-up of the
algorithm in MATLAB.
(b) Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC):
The ADC block gives the digital values representing the analog input signal and
stores the converted values in the result register of the digital signal processor.
Since the C280x/C28x3x ADC is a 12 bit converter, the output values are in the
range 0–4095. A and B DSP module is used (ADCINA0 through ADCINA7 and
ADCINB0 through ADCINB7). Six input channels are used for the IRPC algorithm
In the above figure, rate transition block, when inserted between two blocks of
differing sample rates, automatically configures its input and output sample rates.
The algorithm is implemented in MATLAB and is connected to the TMS kit.
(c) Hardware Set-up:
The inputs are fed from voltage and current sensors. Voltage sensors are prepared
with transformers of ratings 6 V–0–6 V and 500 mA. It will make the voltage to a
very low range. Again voltage divider circuit is made to reduce the voltage a still
smaller range of 1 V which is applied safely for the operation of the TMS kit.
The current sensors used are from EL100P2 series manufactured by ABB. It
works on the principle of closed-loop Hall effect technology.
Fig. 11 Sensed three-phase

voltage waveforms
Fig. 12 Sensed three-phase

current waveforms
The input voltage and current-sensed waveforms are shown as below. The load
used is nonlinear which is an AC voltage controller with a firing angle of 60 degree
connected to a resistive load. It can be seen that the resultant current waveform,
shown in Fig. 12, is distorted (Fig. 11).
The sensed source voltage and current waveforms are offsetted using an offset
circuit. The ADC module of the TMS kit will function only with unipolar signals.
The offsetted current and voltage signals are fed to the ADC pins of the processor
and the outputs are taken from GPIO pins. The output is observed in digital
oscilloscope. Figure 13 shows the laboratory hardware set-up. Output rms line
voltage waveforms of the Semikron IGBT inverter are observed with observations
taken at a particular firing angle of 60°. Test conditions involve a supply line
voltage of 210 V. AC voltage controller circuit with the firing angle of 30° con-
nected to a resistive load bank.
(d) Hardware Results:
A DC link voltage of 680 V as per design is applied across the inverter. Line
voltages Vab, Vbc, Vca were observed as in Fig. 14.
24 A. Ajith et al.
Fig. 13 Laboratory hardware set-up
Fig. 14 Output line voltages of the inverter

Fig. 15 Compensating
currents
The inverter functioning as a shunt active filter injects compensating currents to

the grid which eliminates the current harmonics. The resultant compensating current
waveform obtained across an inductor before interfacing the inductor to the grid is
shown in Fig. 15. The inverter is integrated to the grid after synchronisation. The
harmonics are eliminated; then, the source current becomes purely sinusoidal. Thus,
the power quality of the system which has deteriorated to a great extent has been
restored thereby protecting the other loads connected to the same system.
8 Conclusion
The past few years saw an increasing importance for improving the supply power
quality for assuring good quality power been supplied to the loads connected to the
grid. Various filtering techniques have been developed which includes passive,
active and hybrid filters. Active filters are based on certain algorithms which ensure
generation of proper triggering pulses to the filter. There exist a number of algo-
rithms among which a simple one has been formulated and analysed. The analysis
shows that the algorithm ensures better performance with less complexity in for-
mulation. The filter developed is found to work efficiently at nonlinear load
conditions.
References
1. M. Rashid, Power Electronics Handbook (University of West Florida, Copyright @,

Academic Press, 2001)
2. B. Singh, K. Al-Haddad, C. Ambrish, A review of active filter for active filters for power
quality ımprovement. IEEE Trans. Industral Electron. 46(5) (1999)
3. J.H. Akagi, Y. Kanazaw, A. Nabel, Instantaneous reactive power compensators comprising
switching devices without energy storage components. IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. 20(3) (1984)
26 A. Ajith et al.
4. C.L. Chen, C. Lin, C. Huang, Reactive and harmonic current compensation for unbalanced
three phase systems using synchronous detection method. Elect. Power sys. Res. 26(6),
163–170 (1993)
5. S. Rahmani, K. Al-Haddad, F. Fnaiech, P. Agarwal, Modified PWM with indirect current
control technique applied to a single phase shunt active power filter, in IEEE Conference on
Power and Energy (2003)
6. H.L. Jou, Performance comparison of three phase active power filter algorithmns. IEEE Proc.
142(6) (1995)
7. G. Bhuvaneswari, M.G. Nair, Design, simulation, and analog circuit ımplementation of a
three phase shunt active filter using the ıcosø algorithm. IEEE Trans. 23(2) (2008)
8. P. Karuppanan, Design and Implementation of Shunt Active Power Line Conditioner using Novel
Control Strategies. Doctor of Philosophy Thesis, Department of Electronics &Communication,
NIT Rourkela
9. K. Ilango, P.V. Manitha, M.G. Nair, Modified IcosU controller for shunt active filter
interfacing renewable energy sources and grid, in AASRI Conference on Power and energy
Systems (2012)
10. S. Sindhu, M.R. Sindhu, M.G. Nair, G.K. John, Implementation of three phase shunt hybrid
filter using ıcos U algorithm. Asian Power Electron. J. 5(1) (2011)
A Small DC-Link Capacitor Inverter
Fed by Front-End Three-Phase Diode
Rectifiers Used to Control Induction
Motor
Ashwini V. Potdar and Ch. Mallareddy
Abstract This paper contains an approach to applications of a three-phase variable

speed drive to improve power density as well as reliability by using small film
capacitor inverter-based induction motor control. A performance by the electrolytic
capacitor is very poor for the inverter fed by front-end diode rectifiers intercepted
by motor controller which is compounded and strong in nature. The controller is
designed with a hexagon voltage manipulating controller (HVC) and with com-
position of a model-based controller (MBC). The work of MBC and HVC together
gives an output. MBC gives the command output voltage with losses of rotor flux
with bisection of the torque. The enjoin voltage vector is set on simply by the
requirement of torque command and the inverter which has a hexagon-shaped
voltage boundary in the HVC mode. Prosperous utilization of the control proceed
towards is supported by a Mathematically and graphically measure that normally
head to a single voltage selection rule. The paper discovers the performance
reactivity is very sensible to accumulation of motor parameter to sort out how to
remove unwanted AC distortion or oscillations with state filter design.
Keywords Hexagon voltage manipulating controller (HVC) Model-based

controller (MBC) Small film capacitor inverter Front-end diode rectifiers
1 Introduction
The HVAC system is low-cost application of speed drive which is a variable; in this
diode, rectifiers are generally used as the front-end circuit for higher reliability [1].
As shown in Fig. 1, three-phase diode rectifier and PWM inverter for IM drive
electrolytic capacitors are generally used to balance time-to-time base i/p and o/p
power and also voltage spike suppression occurred by operation of switching and
A. V. Potdar (&)
Punysholk Ahilydevi Holkar Solapur University, Solapur, India
Ch. Mallareddy
FTCOER, Sangola, Solapur, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_3
28 A. V. Potdar and Ch. Mallareddy
leakage of inductance [2, 3]. And general study power electronics devices failed
because of voltage spikes caused by parasitic lead of inductance.
Electrolytic capacitors are responsible for most of the breakdown according to the
survey [4]. Therefore, for long time closed-loop current controller is used to regulating
the air-gap torque and flux linkages in AC motors according to the studies [4–6].
2 Problem Statement
As shown in Fig. 1 as per given construction, DC-link voltage and o/p power to the
motor decrease with the time because of the absence of energy storage device. So, the
speed is decreased below base level and this leads to the problem of field weakening,
anti-windup control and over-modulation. On the other hand, there is problem
regarding utilization of voltage at extinct level because of circular voltage boundary.
3 Methodology
This paper gives the new idea about the position sensor-less vector controlled IM
drive system integrated in HVAC system a Small DC link film fed by capacitor
inverter a three-phase diode front-end diode rectifier is feeds power supply to
motor.
Above-mentioned problems overcome by PI motor current regulator-free control
strategy with combination of hexagon voltage manipulating controller (HVC).
The MBC deals with the command output voltage with the intersection of torque
and rotor flux linkage.
Figure 2 shows the idea about the various facts related to vectors. The MBC
controls action at low speed, and HVC operates at high speed.
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Bn þ B2n 4Mnc
ve
dsHVC ¼ ð1Þ
2Mn
Fig. 1 Three-phase diode rectifier and PWM inverter for IM drive

A Small DC-Link Capacitor Inverter Fed by Front-End Three-Phase … 29
Fig. 2 Proposed IM control strategy for small capacitor inverters
qsHVC ¼ Mn vdsHVC þ Bn
ve ð2Þ
e
where
Te
c¼
3 P L2m 1
2 2 Lr w2e LS rLs
!
Te
ve
ds MBC ¼ we rLs þ Rs ie
qs ð3Þ
k
3 P Lm e
2 2 Lr dr
ke
dsMBC ¼ we Ls
ve þ Rs ie ð4Þ
dr
qs
Lm
Equations 1, 2 deal with the hexagonal voltage boundary, and Eqs. 3, 4 deal
with model-based controller which is shown in Figs. 3 and 4.
The motor torque is regulated around a desired torque line in the presence of
rapid voltage variations.
Figure 4 shows the idea about the representations of stator voltage solutions
between the torque curves and rotating hexagon, which bus shrinks the inverter DC
bus voltage.
Fig. 3 Voltage command selection in the MBC mode

Fig. 4 Voltage command

selection in the HVC mode
In this paper, we are replacing the electrolytic capacitor with the DC-link film
capacitor, as well as design the state filter as shown in Fig. 5.
So, from the following simulation result we can compare between systems with
different capacitors. From the following figures, we can calculate THD also, so the
results are improved in terms of DC-link film capacitor.
Fig. 5 Overall control block diagram

4 Result
4.1 Output Graph for Electrolytic Capacitor
See Fig. 6.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 6 a Simulink result with parameter 1. DC-link voltage, 2. flag signal, 3. air-gap torque, 4.
rotor flux linkage; b X–Y-axis graph of hexagonal voltage boundary X-axis vs s
ds and Y-axis vqs
4.2 Output Graph for DC-Link Film Capacitor
Figure 6a, b shows the result of the system with the electrolytic capacitor.
Figure 7a, b shows the proposed system with DC-link film capacitor, and 6.4 shows
(a)
(b)
Fig. 7 a Simulink result with parameter 1. DC-link voltage, 2. flag signal, 3. air-gap torque, 4.
rotor flux linkage b X–Y-axis graph of hexagonal voltage boundary X-axis vs s
ds and Y-axis vqs
the result of the same. The resulting figure clearly shows the difference between the
results by using the electrolytic capacitor.
5 Conclusion
This paper gives analytical solution leading to the dynamic voltage modification at
each time step with respect to the available DC bus voltage from the results of both
methods. We can say that DC-link film capacitor has advantages than electrolytic
capacitor. By means, hexagonal boundary losses are reduced.
References
1. K.W. Lee, M. Kim, J. Yoon, S.B. Lee, J.Y. Yoo, Condition monitoring of DC-link electrolytic
capacitors in adjustable-speed drives. IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. 44(5), 1606–1613 (2008)
2. M.L. Gasperi, Life prediction modeling of bus capacitors in AC variable frequency drives.
IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. 41(6), 1430–1435 (2005)
3. A. Layhani, P. Venet, G. Grellet, P.J. Viverge, Failure prediction of electrolytic capacitors
during operation of a switchmode power supply. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 13(6), 1199–
1207 (1998)
4. A.M. Imam, T.G. Habetler, R.G. Harley, D.M. Divan, Real-time condition monitoring of the
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Electronics Conference (2007), pp. 1057–1061
5. A. Yoo, S.K. Sul, H. Kim, K.S. Kim, Flux-weakening strategy of an induction machine driven
by an electrolytic-capacitor-less inverter. IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. 47(3), 1328–1336 (2011)
6. L. Malesani, L. Rossetto, P. Tenti, P. Tomasin, AC/DC/AC PWM converter with reduced
energy storage in the DC link. IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. 31(2), 287–292 (1995)
Different Topologies of Inverter:
A Literature Survey
Kalagotla Chenchireddy, V. Jegathesan and L. Ashok Kumar
Abstract DC to AC control change is a key job in the cutting edge set up of age,
transmission, appropriation, and use. DC to AC control converters assume key job in
variable recurrence drives, uninterruptible power supplies, cooling, and high-voltage
DC control transmission, electric vehicle drives, and static VAR compensators. This
paper exhibits a survey on most significant topologies and strategies of control of
inverters.
Keywords Inverter topologies Modulation techniques Reduce device count
1 Introduction
DC to AC control change is a key activity in the bleeding edge set up of age,

transmission, transport, and use. DC to AC control converters accept key employ-
ment in Variable Recurrence Drives (VRD), uninterruptible power supplies (UPS),
cooling (AC) and high-voltage DC control transmission (HVDC), electric vehicle
drives, static VAR compensators. In light of the possibility of the yield voltage
waveforms, inverter can be named: single-stage, three-phase, two-measurement
inverters and stunned inverters.
In [1], surveyed nine reduce contraption count stunned inverters. Stunned
inverters continue grabbing hugeness for high power and medium voltage appli-
cations. The upside of reduce device stunned measurement inverters, direct struc-
ture, low conduction and trading setbacks, diminished parts, less cost. In [2],
studied single-stage transformer less inverters. These inverters planned for photo-
voltaic applications. Transformerless inverters are growing unmistakable quality in
K. Chenchireddy (&) V. Jegathesan

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Karunya Institute
of Technology and Sciences, Coimbatore, India
L. Ashok Kumar
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, PSG College
of Technology, Coimbatore, India

H. S Saini et al. (eds.), Innovations in Electrical and Electronics Engineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_4
36 K. Chenchireddy et al.
European and Australian markets. The advantages of transformerless inverter are

lightweight, high change profitability, lightweight, minimal size, low spillage
current, and high constancy.
In [3], surveyed Z-source inverter topology enhancements and talked about
favorable circumstances and impediments of Z-source inverter. In [4], evaluated
SiC MOSFET-based three-stage inverter lifetime expectation. In [5], looked into
module inverter topologies. There are two noteworthy viewpoints survey in this
paper: (1) different inverter topologies (2) audit different inverter control strategies.
2 Introduction to Inverter Topologies
This section reviews the different inverter topologies presented in literature.
2.1 Nine-Level-Reduced Device Count Active

Neutral-Point-Clamped Inverter
Figure 1 indicates nine-level-diminished gadget tally [6] dynamic nonpartisan point

braced inverter (9L RDC ANPC Inverter). This inverter defeats the issues of 5L
ANPC which are improved yield waveform quality, diminish number of gadgets,
and lessen control misfortune.
2.2 Multi-input Zero Current Switched DC/DC

Front-End-Converter-Based Multi-level Inverter
Figure 2 indicates Multi-Input Zero Current Switched DC/DC [7] Front-End-

Converter-Based Multi-level Inverter. The proposed inverter coordinates two
diverse sustainable power sources. Notwithstanding for inconsistent info voltages at
the information side, the converter moves about equivalent flows, which lessens
transformer immersion related issues.
Fig. 1 9L RDC ANPC

Inverter
Different Topologies of Inverter: A Literature Survey 37
Fig. 2 Multi-input zero

current Switched DC/DC
front-end-converter-based
multi-level inverter
2.3 Cross-Connected Source-Base Multi-level Inverter
Figure 3 shows cross-related [8] source-base stunned inverter (CCS-MLI). The

proposed CCS-MLI vanquishes the issues differentiated and the set up fell
H-interface inverter which are DC voltage sources, diodes, driver circuits, decrease
device numbers, the unpredictability size, cost and backing.
2.4 Four-Switch-Based Three-Phase Inverter
Figure 4 demonstrates four-switch based [9] three-phase inverter. The proposed

inverter reduced two switches differentiated and old-style three-phase inverter. The
four-switch-based three-organize inverter expected for maintainable power source
mix.
2.5 Three-Phase Voltage Source Grid-Connected

Interleaved Inverter
Figure 5 three-stage voltage source [10] lattice associated interleaved inverter. The
upsides of interleaved inverter diminished channel size, and high-lattice aggravation
dismissal contrasted with other ordinary two-level voltage source inverter with LCL
yield channel.
2.6 A New Single-Phase Cascaded Multi-level Inverter
Figure 6 shows another single-phase [11] cascaded multi-level inverter. The prin-
ciple focal points of new single-stage fell staggered inverter was expanding the
quantity of yield levels by diminishing the quantity of IGBTs, control diodes, door
drive circuits, and dc voltage sources.
Fig. 3 CCS-MLI
Fig. 4 Four-switch-based three-phase inverter
2.7 Single-Phase Multi-level Inverter
In Fig. 7 a staggered inverter utilizing [12] arrangement/parallel transformation of

dc voltage source was proposed. The proposed inverter decreased the quantity of
exchanging segments contrasted and ordinary staggered in a similar number of
yield voltage levels.
2.8 Seven-Level Inverter
Figure 8 demonstrates seven-level [13] inverter. The proposed inverter utilized

low-pass channel and decreased absolute symphonious contortion. The exchanging
misfortune and voltage worry over the influence gadgets diminished the proposed
inverter.
Figure 9 demonstrates single-stage [14] six-level inverter. This inverter intended
for medium-power and high-voltage applications. The benefits of these inverter
diminished number of segments, control misfortune, and the expense additionally
diminished.
Fig. 5 Three-phase voltage source grid-connected interleaved inverter
2.9 Single-Phase Six-Level Inverter
In [15], fell sub-staggered inverter. This inverter advantages decreased number of

switches, number of DC sources, and expanded number of yield voltage level. This
inverter worked both symmetric and hilter kilter conditions. In [16], high-
proficiency two-organize three-level matrix associated PV inverter. This inverter
conquers the low effectiveness issue of old-style two-organize inverter. In [17], high
recurrence attractive connection-based fell staggered inverter. The principle high-
light of this inverter is adaptability, least number of intensity electronic parts
without changing execution and increasingly number of yield levels. In [18, 19],
single-stage transformer less inverters structured and looked into. The transformer
less inverters for lattice associated applications. The benefits of transformer less
Fig. 6 A new single-phase cascaded multi-level inverter
Fig. 7 Single-phase
multi-level inverter
Fig. 8 Seven-level inverter
Fig. 9 Single-phase six-level

inverter
inverters higher proficiency, high unwavering quality, no spillage reactance and

lower explicit cost, low air conditioning yield mutilation was accomplished, higher
exchanging recurrence activity was permitted to lessen yield current swell. In [20],
Improved Cascaded Multi-Level Inverter (CMLI). The improved CMLI numerous
favorable circumstances contrasted with traditional CMLI which are decreased
switch check, minimization of the spillage current, low exchanging and conduction
misfortunes.
3 Conclusion
This paper has been tended to a review of prevalent inverter topologies that are
most regular in research and mechanical applications. These topologies are
single-stage transformerless inverter and fell inverter. Other than that, it appears just
as the prominent methods of control of staggered that are SPWM, SVM, space
vector control and specific symphonious end PWM. It is a survey that presents a
general thought with respect to inverters topologies and their control techniques and
presents a significant theoretical for research and perception.
References
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reduce device count: a review. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 31(1) (2016)
2. R.C. Variath, M.A Andersen, O.N. Nielsen, A. Hyldgard, A review of module inverter
topologies suitable for photovoltaic systems. IEEE (2010)
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Electron. Mag. (2016)
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lifetime prediction. IEEE (2017)
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photovoltaic systems. IEEE (2010)
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reduce device count inverter. IET power electron 11 (2018)
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medium- and high-voltage grids. IET Renew Power Gener 11 (2017)
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H-bridge basic units. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. (2013)
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voltage sources. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 57(8) (2010)
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multilevel DC-AC inverter. IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. (2016)
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IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. (2016)
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of sub-multilevel inverters. IEEE (2011)
16. J.-S. Kim, J.-M. Kwon, B.-H. Kwon, High-efficiency two-stage three-level grid-connected
photovoltaic inverter. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. (2017)
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galvanic isolation. IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. (2018)
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inverters for grid-connected photovoltaic systems. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 57(9) (2010)
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Power Electron. 28(5) (2013)
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multi-level inverter for PV systems. IEEE (2016)
Analysis and Design of Extended
Range Zero Voltage Switching
(ZVS) Active-Clamping Current-Fed
Push–Pull Converter
Koyelia Khatun and Akshay Kumar Rathore
Abstract This paper proposes extended soft-switched active-clamped type

current-fed isolated push–pull voltage DC–DC converter. Proposed topology
retains soft-switching for extended operating range. Steady-state analysis and
simulation results are demonstrated. The turn-off voltage spike is eliminated. The
higher load voltage is achieved with the help of voltage doubler on the load side. To
validate the proposed analysis, design, and performance evaluation, simulation
results are presented.
Keywords Fuel cells DC–DC power conversion Soft-switching
1 Introduction
In recent years, developing low-cost, high-efficient and small-size power conver-

sion systems for renewable energy sources is getting more attention, due to envi-
ronmental aspects and limitation of global energy sources. Fuel cells are popular
alternative energy resources as they provide continuous power in all seasons and
are not dependent on weather condition unlike solar and wind energy sources.
The proposed paper introduces an extended range soft-switched small-size,
lightweight and low-cost converter. The main concern is to maintain soft-switching
over the wide operating range of source voltage and load current owing to fuel flow
and fuel cell stack temperature.
K. Khatun A. K. Rathore (&)

Electrical and Computer Engineering, Gina Cody School of Engineering and Computer
Science, Montreal, QC, Canada

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_5
46 K. Khatun and A. K. Rathore
iin
L
Da1 Da2
Lk1
Sa1 Sa2 D1 C1
Co
Cin Lp
vin CC RL
Ds1 Ds2
1:n C2
SM1 SM2
Lk2 D2
Fig. 1 Active-clamped L–L type pulse width modulated current-fed push-pull DC–DC voltage
doubler
Many DC–DC circuits are presented for this application [1–15], but hardly, any
of them were able to maintain soft-switching over the complete load and source
variation. Converter proposed in [1] is voltage-fed secondary controlled voltage
doubler with additional devices and control requirements with high circulating
current. Voltage-fed converters with inductive output filter come with variety of
problems such as duty cycle loss, secondary resonance, snubber across secondary
and limited soft-switching capability. The ZVS is achieved by using many extra
components including resonant tank or auxiliary transition circuits making the
circuit complex and less efficient. A detailed study of ZVS DC/DC converters is
reported in [5]. Majority of the converters lose soft-switching with supply voltage
variation. Current-fed half-bridge DC/DC converter topology [4, 6, 7] was justified
for such applications requiring high voltage gain. However, hard-switching and
switch turn-off voltage spike are the major limitations. An active-clamping [8, 12–
15] based solution was proposed, analyzed and designed for device voltage
clamping and soft-switching. Auxiliary active-clamping circuit limits the voltage
overshoot effectively along with achieving soft-switching but fails to maintain ZVS
for the extended operating range of load current and source voltage. In order to
achieve extended range soft-switching operation, variable frequency switching
approach is usually adapted and that is complex.
Maintaining soft-switching over wide operating range of source voltage and load
current, while maintaining high efficiency, notably for high voltage gain applica-
tions is a challenge. This article avails magnetizing inductance energy of the
transformer to elevate the soft-switching range of the semiconductor devices and
introduces a new design. An active-clamped current-fed push–pull voltage doubler
is proposed for higher voltage gain is illustrated in Fig. 1. Steady-state operation,
mathematical analysis, circuit design and simulation results of this converter are
illustrated.
Analysis and Design of Extended Range Zero Voltage Switching … 47
2 Operation and Analysis of the Converter
The proposed configuration as illustrated in Fig. 1 is obtained from the hard-switched

push–pull converter by adding two auxiliary switches Sa1, Sa2 and one high-frequency
capacitor Cc. For simplicity, transformer with single winding on the secondary side is
used.
The transformer is used to provide isolation and voltage matching. Converter
consists of two main switches SM1 and SM2, two anti-parallel diodes DS1 and DS2,
two auxiliary clamping switches Sal and Sa2, two clamping diodes Da1 and Da2 and
a clamping capacitor CC. Besides, the current feeding is provided by the constant
voltage source Vin in series with the input inductor L. The push–pull transformer is
represented by center-taped primary windings LP1 and LP2 and the secondary
windings Ls. The leakage inductances are reflected on the primary side by LK1 and
LK2. Finally, the output is constituted by the voltage doubler diodes D1 and D2,
voltage doubler capacitors C1, C2, output filter capacitor Co and the output resis-
tance Ro. Cs1, Cs2, Ca1 and Ca2 are being the snubber capacitors of their respective
switches. The purpose of using voltage doubler on the secondary side is to increase
the voltage at the output with less components count. Voltage doubler is electrically
controlled circuit which charges the capacitor from input voltage through switches
and develops 2 the voltage across the load as its input (voltage on secondary side
of transformer). Figure 2 indicates the gate pulses VgM1, Vga1 for switches SM1 and
Sa1, respectively. The two main switches SM1 and SM2 are operated with gating
pulses delayed by half switching cycle with an overlap. Complimentary gating
pulses control the auxiliary switches. Operational waveforms are illustrated in
Fig. 3.
Fig. 2 Gating signals for the devices

Vgm2
Vgm1
Vga2
Vga1
Iin+I’Lp, peak
I(Ls)
-(Iin+I’Lp, peak)
I’Lp, peak
I(Lp)
-I’Lp, peak
3Iin/2+I’Lp,peak
I(M1) -I’Lp, peak
Iin/2+I’Lp, peak Iin/2-I’Lp, peak
I(M2)
3Iin/2+I’Lp,peak
Iin/2+I’Lp, peak
I(a1)
Iin/2-I’Lp, peak
I(a2)
I(D1)
I(D2)
Vab
to
t1
t3
t8 t9 t13 t14 t t18
t5t6 t7
t2 t4 t11 15
t10 t12 t16
t17
Fig. 3 Operational waveforms of proposed converter configuration

3 Design
In this section, converter design is explained for the following: Rated load power Po
(Full load) = 1kW, input voltage Vin = 22 to 41 V, output voltage Vo = 400 V,
minimum load Ro = 160 X, output power Po (10% load) = 100 W, minimum load
Ro = 1600 X, switching frequency fs = 40 kHz, converter’s efficiency η = 95%.
1. Average input current:
Po
Input current Iin ¼ ¼ 47:8 A ð1Þ
g:vin
n:Vin
D¼1
V0
2. Dmax is selected at minimum input voltage, i.e., Vin = 22 V and full load based
on maximum switch voltage rating VSW(max) using
VinðmaxÞ
Vmax ¼ 1 ð2Þ
VSWðmaxÞ
For VSW(max) = 140 V, Dmax = 0.85

Transformer turns ratio:
0.5 < D < Dmax
n:Vin
0:5\1 \0:85
V0
2.7 < n < 9.1

Lower turns ratio reduces the range of ZVS. Higher high turns ratio increases the
conduction loss.
n = 4.5 for D = 0.77 is chosen.
3. Inductor values L and Lp
DIin
L: ¼ Vin ð3Þ
DT
DIin ¼ 2:5% of Iin ¼ 1:25 A
L ¼ 125 lH ð4Þ
Lp ¼ K:4:52 :1:34 lH ð5Þ
4. Values of leakage inductances:

Iin 1 Vin Vo
LLK : ¼
ð1 DÞTs 2 1 D n
ð6Þ
1 V in Vo 1 D
LLK ¼ :
2 1D n I in :f s
LLK1 ¼ LLK2 ¼ 1:3 lH
5. Clamping capacitor:
Iin :ð1 DÞ2 :Ts

C¼ ð7Þ
0:02ðVin Þ
Cc ¼ 60 lF
6. Voltage doubler diodes:

Diodes voltage rating
VD(max) = V0 = 400 V
Average voltage doubler current:
Po
IDðavgÞ ¼ ð8Þ
2:Vo
IDðavgÞ ¼ 1:25 A
7. Output capacitor:
Io :ð0:5 DÞ:Ts
Co ¼ ð9Þ
DVo
Co = 22 lF; C1 = C2 = 44 lF
Fig. 4 Simulation waveform at Vin = 22 V and full load: main switch current I(M1) and I(M2),
auxiliary switch current I(a1) and I(a2), diode current I(D1), output voltage Vo, voltage Vab,
inductor current I(L), parallel inductor current I(Lp), output voltage (Vo) and diode current I(D1)
Fig. 5 Simulation waveform at Vin = 22 V and 10% full load: main switch current I(M1) and I
(M2), auxiliary switch current I(a1) and I(a2), current across inductor I(L), voltage Vab, current
across parallel inductor I(Lp), output voltage Vo and current across diode I(D1)
Fig. 6 Simulation waveform at Vin = 41 V and full load: current for two main switches I(SM1)
and I(SM2) and current for two auxiliary switches I(Sa1) and I(Sa2), parallel inductor current I(Lp),
voltage Vab, inductor current I(L), output voltage Vo and diode current I(D1)
Fig. 7 Simulation waveform at Vin = 41 V and 10% load: current for two main switches I(SM1)
and I(SM2) and current for two auxiliary switches I(Sa1) and I(Sa2). Parallel inductor current I(Lp),
voltage Vab, inductor current I(L), output voltage Vo and diode current I(D1)
4 Simulation Results
The converter is designed and simulated for 1 kW using PSIM 11. Simulation
results for four operating conditions of Vin = 22 V, rated power and 10% of rated
power, Vin = 41 V, full load and 10% load are presented in Figs. 4, 5 6 and 7,
respectively. At higher voltage and light-load condition, the duty cycle is low to
maintain the same output voltage, and therefore, VAB appears for longer time. It
makes the currents ILs and ILp to be constant for a very small duration, and their
appearance looks like triangular. To achieve zero voltage switching, the body
diodes (main and auxiliary) should conduct prior to the conduction of corre-
sponding switches causing zero voltage turn-on. Cording to simulation results,
turn-on ZVS is achieved. It should be observed that the duty cycle is reduced with
increase in input voltage and/or reduction in load current. Therefore, it causes
increase in peak value of parallel inductor current (magnetizing), which adds to
series inductor current and helps extended ZVS operation of the converter.
5 Summary and Conclusion
To achieve ZVS over wide source voltage variation and varying output power/load
while maintaining high efficiency has been a challenge, particularly for low voltage
high current input specifications.
Simulation results using PSIM 11 have been presented. Because of high Lp⊲Ls
ratio, the circulating current is very low compared to voltage-fed converters.
Traditional and even advanced converters lose soft-switching at partial load current
and higher supply voltage resulting in reduced partial load efficiency. Proposed
current-fed push–pull converter offers wide range ZVS, high voltage gain and better
light-load efficiency resulting in less fuel (hydrogen) demand or better fuel uti-
lization, which further reduces the cost of energy due to fuel savings. Detailed study
on steady-state operation and design is reported. Simulation results are presented to
evaluate converter performance for extended operating range.
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Switched Reluctance Motor Converter
Topologies: A Review
Velakurthi Mahesh Kumar, K. Vinoth Kumar

and R. Saravanakumar
Abstract Many reserachers focuses on the special machine like Switched reluc-
tance motor (SRM) because of peculiar performance compared to various standard
motors. This paper reviews the various power convertor topologies developed for
the SRM. Switched reluctance motor (SRM) is gaining abundant interest in
industrial applications like wind energy systems and electrical vehicles—thanks to
its straightforward and rugged construction, high‐speed operation ability, inability
to warm temperature, and its options of fault tolerance. This paper provides indepth
analysis with completely different topologies have been emerged and presented less
torsion ripple, high potency, high power issue, and high power density. However,
there has forever been a trade‐off between gaining a number of the advantageous
and losing some with every new technology. During this chapter, numerous SRM
topologies, design, principle of operation, and individual section change schemes
are extensively reviewed, and their blessings and downsides are mentioned.
Keywords Switched reluctance motor Torque ripple Harmonics
1 Introduction
The first thought of exchanged hesitance engines goes back to 1814; in any case,
these engines were reexamined and came into commonsense that used in ongoing
decades in accordance with the advancement of intensity electronic gadgets.
Exchanged hesitance engines have remarkable shafts in both the rotor and the stator
and go as a single‐excited setup with inert (coil-free) rotors. The stator has a
concentrated twisting framework with numerous stages. The loops are bolstered
routinely and successively from a DC control supply, and accordingly, they create
electromagnetic torque. In light of their straightforwardness and auxiliary quality,
V. M. Kumar (&) K. Vinoth Kumar

Department of EEE, Karunya Institute of Technology and Sciences, Coimbatore, India
R. Saravanakumar
Department of EEE, Vellore Institute of Technology, Chennai, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_6
56 V. M. Kumar et al.
SRMs have been of extraordinary enthusiasm for as long as two decades, and they
are relied upon to discover more extensive applications regarding the cost and
quality contrasted with different engines. What is more, numerous examinations
have been completed to improve the execution of these engines as potential option
in contrast to AC (nonconcurrent and synchronous) engines. At present, exchanged
hesitance engines are in their outset in business terms; however, it is normal that
they will be utilized all the more broadly sooner rather than later (Fig. 1).
2 Switched Reluctance Motor Drives
In [1], digital PWM current controller is utilized to accomplish quick reaction, exact
following, invulnerability clamor, model confuse, and solidness. This controller can
either control the current straightforwardly or by the implication of controlling
transition linkage. SRM drive is constrained by advanced PWM current controller,
and this controller is constrained by a control board with a DSP. SRM drive is
constrained by SRM control calculation, and this is actualized in TI’S DSP
TMS320F28335. In [2] this paper, FEA is utilized to set up engine model of three
stages of 6/4 shafts SRM. CCC, DITC, and TSF are utilized as control techniques
for SRM, and these strategies are contemplated. Among these techniques, TSF and
Fig. 1 SRM drive and

attraction force. a three-phase
SRM drive. b Attraction force
produced by stator and rotor
poles
Switched Reluctance Motor Converter Topologies: A Review 57
DITC demonstrate the preferable torque-swell minimization over the CCC.

Among TSF and DITC, TSF has increasingly basic structure and unrivaled exe-
cution. By TSF control method, we can acquire better torque ripple minimization.
In [3] this paper, transition swell is limited by fluffy controller rather than
hysteresis controller alongside DTC consolidated known as DTFC. DTC comprises
of voltage vector so as to control the adequacy of stator motion linkage and elec-
tromagnetic torque. DTFC thinks about by taking reference as electromagnetic
torque and wanted stator motion is contrasted and the evaluated qualities; at that
point, we get the motion and torque blunders, and these mistakes are fuzzily into
fluffy sets. In [4] this, FLC with PI, FLC, with PID controller is utilized to show the
signs of improvement results. In this, FLC gives the repaying current to remunerate
torque swells; FLC has two information sources—reference current and rotor
position—and the yield is a remunerating current. By utilizing ANN, DITC,
torque-sharing capacity techniques, we can acquire better results. In [5] this, arti-
ficial information solidifies with fuzzy and neuro method and makes them tune with
AI. Compensator produces the yield banner which is added to the PI and gives the
reference flag to the present controller. The expansion of PI controller [6] is
adjusted by using FLC scheme. Here, we use standard-based FLC, and these
standards are used to revive the expansion of the normal PI controller.
In [7] this paper, torque-swell minimization is done using PI, FLC, and ANFIS
controller. FLC gives favored results over PI controller. ANFIS gives favored
results over FLC. In [8] this paper, another position sensorless control methodology
for the SRM is proposed, and this procedure is a blend of direct estimation system
and change observer technique. In this system, the first rotor position is dictated by
numerical procedure by using relationship among position, arrange current, and
change linkage; phase-locked loop is arranged reliant on the above data. This PLL
lessen the uproar.
In [9] this paper, isolated rotor advancement for concentrated SRM with
FEA-based semi-numerical assessment is used for finding torque and estimation of
torque-swell sources. On segmental dive at the point of convergence of rotor section
for incredible torque-swell minimization, multi-dimensional and multi-target
improvements were used to differentiate the rotor execution and parameter assort-
ments in rotor. The last rotor is arranged with torque swell of 6.95% which is vital
improvement. In [10] this paper, Advancements in the control frameworks of
exchanged hesitance machines (SRM) for parity and vehicle applications. The
unparalleled of the SRM drive structure is exemplified in the smooth torque yield
and high benefit control procedures in the motoring and making methods for
development. The control strategies of SRM’s are regularly nonlinear, mirroring
that they are fixing up on a machine with spatial and appealing nonlinearities.
In [11], instantaneous torque control and common torque control (ATC) systems
of exchanged hesitance machine (SRM) are nearly broke down to pick suitable
control mode for the use of SRM in electric vehicles (EVS). Three epic procedures
are advanced to streamline ATC, meeting the execution basics of EVS. The ordi-
nary torque shut float control of SRM acknowledges a central occupation in the EV
structure such that it can reduce the impact of battery voltage minor departure from
working shows. In [12], axial movement separated rotor-traded reluctance motor

(SSRM) topology could be a potential plausibility for in-wheel electric vehicle
application. This topology has the upside of the extended unique surface zone for
the torque creation when diverged from the winding movement SSRM for a given
volume. The distinctive structure systems to improve the general execution of the
AFSSRM are discussed. First, the number of openings/rotor sections and effect of
bending polarities on the execution of the AFSSRM are examined. Second, to
lessen the torque swell, the stator post and rotor area roundabout portion focuses are
updated.
In [13], a comprehensive speed with low-swell torque control of traded aversion
motor (SRM) that drives using torque-sharing limit (TSF) is proposed. Two
operational modes are described for the online TSF in the midst of correspondence:
In mode 1, out and out estimation of pace of the advancement of progress linkage
(ARCFL) of moving toward stage is higher than dynamic stage; in mode 2, ARCFL
of dynamic stage is higher than moving toward stage. The most outrageous TRFS
of the proposed online TSF is extended to about 4000 rpm, which is in the
abundance of different occasions as high as the best case in these standard TSFS. In
[14], three sorts of bearing less traded reluctance motors (BLSRMs) which have
decoupled movement characteristics between the torque and suspending current are
shown in detail. The separated BLSRMs are a 8/10 crossbreed BLSRM, a 12/14
cream BLSRM, and a twofold stator BLSRM. The 8/10 crossbreed BLSRM has a
low electrical repeat with decoupling characteristics. Three BLSRMs with decou-
pled suspending force control are proposed. Characteristics of the three sorts of
BLSRM are analyzed.
In [15], a control strategy for torque-swell minimization in the traded aversion
motor (SRM) drives the subject to a torque-sharing limit (TSF) thought. In the
proposed procedure, the reference torque is explicitly changed over into the ref-
erence current waveform using the logical explanation. The procedure for upgrade
of TSFs, for instance, customary immediate or sinusoidal TSFs has been portrayed.
The essential SRM show is used to perceive the perfect parameters of TSF to outfit
the torque-swell minimization with maximal SRM drives capability and holding
commendable torque speed capacity. In [16] this paper, A story Lyapunov work
based direct torque controller for minimization of torque expands in a traded
reluctance motor (SRM) drive structure is represented. SRM polarization qualities
are outstandingly nonlinear, where torque controller is a flighty and coupled limit of
the stage streams and rotor position. The quick torque control (DTC) plot keeps up
a vital good ways from the multifaceted methodology of torque-to-current change
as required in indirect torque control plan.
In [17] this paper, system for torque-swell lessening in traded reluctance motors
set out represented. The online simplex streamlining, used to set the implanted
current music for least torque swell at low speed, is uncovered and contacted higher
speeds, at which control of the trading edges is abused. The undertaking of the
picked, simplex, online minimization strategy has been abused. Its undertaking has
been shown by propagation at low speed and insisted by the estimation on a
comparative drive that used to offer data to the reenactments. In [18], the appraisal
at low speeds of a methodology for torque-swell minimization of a traded aversion

motor by the implantation of a movement of current music is delineated. Changes
of enormity and time of a mixed consonant is seemed to incite a looking at least of
torque swell. A technique has been portrayed for the minimization of torque swell
in a SR motor by successively adding different music to the standard current
intrigue banner and propelling the size and time of every along these lines.
In [19], switched aversion motor is featured with more focal points like strong
errand and essential improvement. In any case, it shows especially significant
torque swell while running, which limits its huge use. As drive game plan of traded
aversion motor, it is erratic time-changing and non-direct system, and this makes it
difficult to apply standard controls to traded reluctance motor. In any case, direct
torque control advancement as communicated in this article will clearly consider the
torque controlled objective. In [20], the particular audit for low disturbance traded
aversion motor (SRM) drives in electric vehicle (EV) applications. There is a
particular example to utilize SRM in some enormous scale-assembling markets. For
predominant vehicle applications, it is indispensable and desperate to streamline the
SRM system to beat the drawbacks of the upheaval and vibration. SRMs are
expanding much excitement for EVs in light of the ground-breaking structure.
In [21], an improved constrained-state perceptive torque controls (FS-PTC) to
limit the torque swell of traded reluctance motor (SRM) drive. The proposed
FS-PTC procedure not solely can confine the torque swell yet also can diminish
reasonably the copper adversities and ordinary trading frequency by the division
portion framework, the proposed FS-PTC count simply needs to Fig. 1 or 9 voltage
vectors for each time step, keeping away from finding out every one of the 27
voltage vectors. In [22], the efficiency execution of a vehicle gauges quick traded
aversion drive. It investigates the impact of a smooth torque control count on the
adequacy and mishaps in the drive. The present wave structure enormously influ-
ences the capability of the drive. The total drive capability is diminished by 4–9%
for this particular motor. A couple of countermeasures have been proposed to lessen
the capability degradation.
In [23], switched aversion motor (SRM) drives and generally uses the methods at
low speed and voltage control systems at quick. A steady quick torque is obtained
by controlling the rotational speed of the stator movement linkage. Six phase SRMs
have lower torque swell differentiated and other normal SRMs. Torque control
procedure is used for a decrease in the proportion of torque swell with both standard
and proposed converter. In [24], proper pay is the key-affecting element for setting
up a higher demonstration of SRM drive. It address the headway of a multi stage
bridgeless SMR drive with dynamic substitution move reliant on the recognized dc
interface current. The aided and particularly oversaw DC interface voltage is set up
from the mains to improve the SRM drive execution under high speeds.
In [25], switched aversion motor is controlled by current profiling under run of
the mill and open-stage working condition. The new current profiling method is
associated and went after for ordinary and damaged movement of a certified SRM.
The torque swell was assessed at a 10 kHz trading repeat. In [26], a traded
reluctance motor with 12/10 posts is investigated. Differentiated and the standard
SRMs with single mode, the machine not solely could be filled in as a six phase
motor yet what’s more could be used as a three phase motor, which is thusly named
multimode SRM (MMSRM). In solicitation to procure least torque-swell bends of
the stator and rotor post are picked as the improvement objects.
In [27], the selection of the correct electric footing drive was an essential advance in
plan and execution enhancement of jolted power trains. Exchanged hesitance engine
drives begin to locate their legitimate spot in the developing electric impetus advertise.
Regular SRMs are notable for their minimal effort straightforward setup. In [28], due
to extremely high torque/weight proportion, the hub motion exchanged hesitance
engine (AFSRM) can be properly utilized in numerous applications, particularly
electric vehicles and aviation framework. Since the torque swell is commonly the
disadvantage of SRMs, a new structure is proposed for the twofold AFSRM in which
the torque swell is fundamentally decreased.
In [29], the hypothetical system and trial results for clamor decrease of an
exchanged hesitance engine with a high number of shafts are displayed utilizing a
novel streamlined current profile at low-speed and low torque locale. The disen-
tangled current profile is proposed to take out the third symphonious segment in the
total of outspread power.
3 Control Technology SRM
In [30], it introduces the control strategy of the edge position for the switched
reluctance motor drive reliant on feathery method of reasoning. The hardware of the
model of Switched Reluctance motor structure and the principal circuit of the
four-arrange lopsided augmentation control converter are introduced. The control
plan and the decision kind of the cushy control are in like manner displayed. The
model got the control methodology and is attempted likely. The intentional sys-
tematical capability, the conscious stage current zenith regard, and the purposeful
rotor speed twist, while the store is emptied or included, are moreover given. The
Switched Reluctance motor drive with the point position shut circle speed control
reliant on soft reason has the good condition, this method provides the high sys-
tematical capability.
This [31] paper shows a novel method to manage learning control in traded
aversion motors (SRMs) for torque-swell lessening using a cerebellar model articu-
lation controller (CMAC) neural framework. In particular, current profiles can be
expected to have charming characteristics by the assurance of learning rate work with
reasonable trading focuses in the midst of the readiness of the framework. This paper
has shown a novel method to manage learning control of SRMs using CMAC neural
frameworks. A balanced LMS adaptable computation has been proposed subject to
the use of a variable LRF. This paper has given a record of the repercussions of the
assortment of a LRF in setting up the CMAC upon the execution of academic current
profiles.
In [32], the purpose of this paper is to unite the perfect control of a traded
reluctance machine in a four-quadrant drive with smooth advancement between the
control-mode assignments. The smooth change is accomplished since the ending
point conditions of one working mode are gotten from the conditions of the other
working mode. The proposed control plan is viably completed since the data of the
machine charge curves isn’t required. In this paper, another four-quadrant multi-
mode perfect control plot for SRM drives was proposed. It was seemed smooth
change between PWM/single-beat modes and motoring/braking assignments which
is accomplished. This is cultivated since the ending edge conditions are consistent
limits at the centers where SRM action is changed. The suitability of the proposed
control plot is appeared on a model test structure.
In [33], another sensorless control plot for the traded reluctance motor
(SRM) drive at low speed is displayed in this paper. The consistent inductance of
each unique stage is assessed using the terminal estimation of this stage. The
assessed stage relentless inductance is stood out from an insightful model, which
addresses the utilitarian associations between the stage slow inductance, arrange
current, and rotor position, to evaluate the rotor position. By invigorating the
insightful mode when the SRM is latent, the showed rotor position estimation plan
can give exact rotor position information even as the appealing properties of the
SRM change in the view of developing.
In [34], a cushioned method of reasoning-based mood killer edge compensator
for torque-swell lessening in a traded reluctance motor which is proposed. The
mood killer edge, as an amazing limit of motor speed and current, is normally
changed for a wide motor speed range to lessen torque swell. Preliminary outcomes
are shown that show swell lessening when the mood killer point compensator is
used. The proposed compensator offers an essential reduction in torque swell for a
wide extent of motor speed movement. No torque banner was used, which extends
the compensator straightforwardness and relentless quality.
In [35], an inductance surface estimation and learning for the utilization with a
stochastic model predictive control (MPC) plot for the present control of switched
reluctance motors (SRM) are introduced. This MPC is outfitted with state estima-
tors and is executed as a recursive straight quadratic controller for logical associ-
ations in cream vehicle applications. The displayed control plan can adjust to noise
similarly as vulnerabilities inside the machine nonlinear inductance surface. This
paper was revolved around an instrument to learn and acclimate to the inductance
surface of a changed reluctance motor to play out a model judicious current control
of this machine. This inductance surface was taken care of as a table to be used with
a model farsighted current controller with Kalman state estimator.
This [36] present a novel electromagnetic actuator having 2-degrees-of-chance
controllability for rotational and straight sanctioning. It depends upon an exchanged
abhorrence engine. Torque and push can be controlled straightforwardly. The
model actuator is proposed to perform 2-measurement of chance inception with the
most essential rotational speed of 1000 min 1 and most exceptional push power of
30 N. In the engine execution testing, it has been attested that uninhibitedly control
of rotational speed and direct position understands it. The SRM with the
2-degrees-of-chance controllability for rotational and direct advancement has been

made. Its yield torque and push are self-governing controlled. As the execution
testing, the joined advancement control for rotational speed and straight organizing
has been appeared.
4 Conclusion
This paper has presented an up–to-date review of the most power converter
designed for the switched reluctance motor. Each topology has its own advantages
and drawbacks. The selection of a converter depends upon the application and the
required performance specifications.
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Design of Five-Level Cascaded H-Bridge
Multilevel Inverter
S. Swathy, N. Niveditha and K. S. Chandragupta Mauryan
Abstract The abstract of this paper is to design a five-level cascaded H-bridge

multilevel inverter using phase disposition pulse width modulation (PD-PWM)
technique, to obtain optimal switching angles for harmonic reduction and to
compare the THD content of the output waveform of the five-level cascaded
H-bridge multilevel inverter for different modulation index by using mathematical
approach and MATLAB/SIMULINK.

Keywords Multilevel inverter Modulation techniques Selective harmonic

elimination Total harmonic distortion FPGA
1 Introduction
Demand for energy is getting increased day by day. The key source of energy
available now is from non-renewable sources like fossil fuels. The over utilization
of these sources to meet our daily requirements have put it in a degradation state [1,
2]. Hence, there is a rapid development in the research to produce energy from
alternate sources, such as wind, solar, tidal, etc. Among them, energy taken from
photovoltaic systems plays an important role. The energy which is taken from a
photovoltaic system (PV system) is DC in nature. Most of the equipments are used
for domestic and industrial purposes which work on an AC source, the DC output
from a PV system is converted into an AC and for this purpose, power inverters
play a major role.
S. Swathy (&) N. Niveditha

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Karpagam College of Engineering,
Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
K. S. Chandragupta Mauryan
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Guru Nanak Institution Technical
Campus, Hyderabad, Telangana, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_7
66 S. Swathy et al.
2 Multilevel Inverter Concepts
Multilevel inverters concept attracts academia as well as industry over wide range.
They combine switched waveforms with lower levels of harmonic distortion than
an equivalently rated two-level converter [1–3]. It found that with the increase in
level, the steps increases and the output waveform approaches to a near sinusoidal
waveform. Thus, it reduces the THD with a disadvantage of complex control and
voltage imbalance problem. They are employed mainly for high-power,
high-voltage/medium-power applications. They create more switching states,
thereby stepping up output inverter voltages in small increments. These smaller
voltage steps help in creating high-quality waveforms, lower dv/dt and reduced
electromagnetic compatibility. But in order to increase the number of levels, more
number of components are required and same will make the circuit complex [2].
High switching frequency employed in multilevel inverters helps in minimizing the
output harmonics and reducing the passive component size in the power circuit.
Figure 1 shows different number of voltage-level output waveform of MLI.
There are also different topologies of multilevel inverters that generate a stepped
output voltage waveform and that are suitable for different applications. By
designing multilevel circuits in different ways, many topologies with properties
have been developed. The basic multilevel inverter topologies include:
Diode-clamped multilevel inverter, capacitor-clamped multilevel inverter, cascaded
H-bridge (CHB) multilevel inverter.
2.1 Cascaded H-Bridge Multilevel Inverter (CHB-MLI)
The concept of multilevel inverter is based on connecting H-bridge inverters in

series to get a sinusoidal voltage output. Figure 2 shows a full-bridge inverter. One
full-bridge is itself a three-level cascaded H-bridge multilevel inverter and every
module added in cascade which extends the inverter with two voltage levels. Each
full-bridge inverter can create three voltages VDC, 0 and −VDC. To change one level
of voltage cascaded H-bridge multilevel inverter turns one switch ON and other
switch OFF in one full-bridge inverter. For example, to achieve voltage +Vdc,
Fig. 1 3, 5, 7 level output waveform of multilevel inverter at fundamental frequency

Design of Five-Level Cascaded H-Bridge Multilevel Inverter 67
switches S1 and S2 are turned ON, for −Vdc, the switches S3 and S4 are turned OFF.
When there is no current following through the full-bridge, then 0 voltage level is
achieved [3, 4].
The output voltage in each bridge is the summation of the voltage that is gen-
erated by each cell. The number of output voltage levels are 2n + 1, where n is the
number of cells. The cascaded H-bridge multilevel inverter is capable of producing
the total voltage source magnitude in both positive and negative half cycles, while
many other topologies can only produce half the total DC-bus voltage source
magnitude. Full-bridge inverter that is connected in series can contribute with the
same voltage, thus meets topology. There is possibility to charge every module in a
cascaded H-bridge multilevel inverter with different voltages.
In Fig. 3, there are two full-bridge inverters connected in series for obtaining five
different output voltage levels, −2VDC, VDC, 0 −VDC and +2Vdc. The advantages of
this type of multilevel inverter are that it needs less number of components com-
parative to the diode clamped or the flying capacitor. However, the number of
sources is higher, for the phase-leg to be able to create a number if m voltage level
and switches 2 * (m − 1) [1, 2, 4].
3 Modulation Techniques for Multilevel Inverter
Multilevel inverters have different modulation techniques for obtaining a better

output voltage response with minimum harmonic distortions. There are basically
two groups of methods: modulation with fundamental switching frequency or high
switching frequency pulse width modulation (PWM) [5–11].
3.1 Pulse Width Modulation Techniques
A multilevel pulse width modulation method uses high switching frequency carrier
waves in comparison to the reference waves to generate a sinusoidal output wave as
Fig. 2 Single-phase
full-bridge inverter
68 S. Swathy et al.
Fig. 3 Single-phase
five-level multilevel inverter
such in the two-level PWM case. To reduce harmonic distortions in the output
voltage waveform, phase-shifting techniques are used [12–20].
The carrier-based pulse width modulation techniques can be broadly classified
into:
• Phase-shifted modulation
• Level-shifted modulation.
In both modulation techniques, for an m-level inverter, (m-1) triangular carrier
waves are required and all the carrier waves should have the same frequency and
same peak-to-peak magnitude.
Phase Disposition Pulse Width Modulation: In phase disposition modulation
technique, all the triangular carriers are in phase and are arranged one over the other
as shown in Fig. 4. These arranged triangular carriers are compared with reference
wave to obtain the pulses for the multilevel inverter switches. This technique is
generally accepted as the method that creates the lowest harmonic distortion in
line-to-line voltage.
Fig. 4 Reference and carrier wave for a five-level cascaded H-bridge multilevel inverter with
PD-PWM
4 Operating Modes of Five-Level Cascaded H-Bridge

Multilevel Inverter
Mode1: +2Vdc: Figure 5 shows the operating mode for getting output voltage of
+2Vdc. In this mode, switches SW1, SW2, SW5 and SW6 are ON and all the other
switches SW3, SW4, SW7 and SW8 are OFF.
Mode2: +Vdc: Figure 6 shows the operating mode for getting output voltage of
+Vdc. In this mode, switches SW1, SW2, SW8 and SW6 are ON and all the other
switches SW3, SW4, SW7 and SW5 are OFF.
Mode3: 0: Figure 7 shows the operating mode for getting output voltage of zero.
The lower-leg switches are triggered; hence, there will no flow of current in the
power circuit.
Fig. 5 Operating mode for

getting output voltage of
+2Vdc
70 S. Swathy et al.

getting output voltage of +Vdc

getting output voltage of zero
Mode4: −Vdc: Figure 8 shows the operating mode for getting output voltage of
−Vdc. In this mode, switches SW3, SW4, SW8 and SW6 are ON and all the other
switches SW1, SW2, SW7 and SW5 are OFF. The flow of current is opposite to the
load current.

getting output voltage of −Vdc
Mode5: -2Vdc: Figure 9 shows the operating mode for getting output voltage of
−2Vdc. In this mode, switches SW3, SW4, SW8 and SW7 are ON and all the other
switches SW1, SW2, SW6 and SW5 are OFF. The flow of current is opposite to the
load current.

getting output voltage of
−2Vdc
72 S. Swathy et al.
5 Fourier Analysis of PD-PWM Technique
The concept of a two-level pulse width modulated converter system is that a

low-frequency reference waveform is compared against a high-frequency carrier
waveform and the compared output is used to control the switches. The conse-
quence of switching process has fundamental component, the reference waveform
and also incorporates a series unwanted harmonics. Determination of harmonic
frequency components is complex and it is often done by fast Fourier transform
analysis of a simulated time-varying waveform. This approach also reduces
mathematical effort but uncertainly, it leaves error. In contrast, an analytical solu-
tion which exactly identifies the harmonic component of a PWM waveform ensures
that precisely the harmonics are being considered when various PWM strategies are
compared against each other [21–27]. Table 1 gives the switching function con-
dition of a five-level multilevel inverter.
Aoo X 1
f ðt Þ ¼ þ ½Aon cosð½nxo tÞ þ Bon sinð½nxo tÞ
2 n¼1
X
1
þ ½Amo cosð½nxc tÞ þ Bmo sinð½mxc tÞ
m¼1
1 X
X 1
þ ½Amn cosð½mxc t þ nxo tÞ
m¼1 n¼1
n6¼0
þ Bmn sinð½nxc t þ nxo tÞ
m carrier index variable

n base-band index variable.
The final expression for harmonic components can be obtained by on substi-
tuting the equation
Table 1 Switching function condition of a five-level multilevel inverter

F(x, y) When p x 0 When 0\x p
p p
+2VDC M cos y [ 12 2p M cos y [ 1
2 2pþ
p p p p
+VDC 2p \M cos y\ 12 2p 2p \M cos y\ 2 þ 2p
1
p p p p
0 12 2p \M cos y\ 2p 2 þ 2p \M cos y\ 2p
1
−VDC p
1 2p p
\M cos y\ 12 2p p
1 þ 2p \M cos y\ 12 þ p
2p
p p
−2VDC M cos y\ 1 2p M cos y\ 1 þ 2p
8Vdc X
1
1 X 1
1
Vaz ðtÞ ¼ 2MVdc cos x0 t þ J2k1 ð½2m 12pM Þ
p m¼1 2m 1 k¼1 2k 1
2
f1 þ 2 sinð½2k 1u cos kpg cosð½2m 1xc tÞ

2Vdc X
1
1 X 1
þ J2n þ 1 ð4mpM Þ cos np cosð2mxc t þ ½2n þ 1x0 tÞ
p m¼1 2m n¼1
4Vdc X
1
1 X1 X 1
þ ½J2k1 ð½2m 12pM Þ cos kp
p2 m¼1 2m 1 n¼1 k¼1
n6¼0

cosð½n k pÞ þ 2 sinð½2k 1 2nuÞ cosð½n k pÞ þ 2 sinð½2k 1 þ 2nuÞ
þ
½2k 1 2n ½2k 1 þ 2n
cosð½2m 1xc t þ 2nx0 tÞ
6 Simulation Results of Cascaded H-Bridge Multilevel

Inverter Using PD-PWM Technique
The simulation is carried out using MATLAB/SIMULINK software. The simula-

tion diagram is shown in Fig. 10.
Table 2 gives the design parameters for cascaded H-bridge multilevel inverter.
Figure 11 shows the output voltage and output current of five-level cascaded
H-bridge multilevel inverter for switching frequency of 2 kHz M = 1 and Fig. 12
Fig. 10 Simulation diagram of cascaded H-bridge multilevel inverter using PD-PWM technique
74 S. Swathy et al.
Table 2 Design parameters for cascaded H-bridge multilevel inverter

S. No. Parameter Five-level cascaded H-bridge inverter
1 Input voltage 130 V
2 Load R = 50 Ω
3 Switching frequency 1 and 2 kHz
4 Modulation index 0.8 and 1
Fig. 11 a Output voltage and b Output current of five-level cascaded H-bridge multilevel inverter
for switching frequency of 2 kHz M = 1
shows the harmonic spectrum of output current of five-level cascaded H-bridge

multilevel inverter for the switching frequency of 2kH and modulation index,
M = 0.8 and M = 1.
Comparison of THD values for modulation index 0.8 and 1 and switching
frequencies of 1 kHz and 2 kHz are given in Table 3. Also the Comparison of THD
for PDPWM and SHE technique is for 0.8 and 1 modulation index and 1 and 2 kHz
switching frequencies is given in Table 4.
Fig. 12 Harmonic spectrum of output current of five-level cascaded H-bridge multilevel inverter
(2 kHz) a M = 0.8 b M = 1
Table 3 Comparison of THD for various modulation index and switching frequencies
Parameter Switching frequency Switching frequency
(1 kHz) (2 kHz)
Modulation index Modulation Index
0.8 1 0.8 1
Voltage (%THD) 38.07 26.64 36.74 23.02
Current (%THD) 38.07 26.64 36.74 23.02
Table 4 Comparison of THD for PD-PWM and SHE techniques

Total harmonic PD-PWM SHE
elimination Third harmonic Fifth harmonic Seventh harmonic
elimination elimination elimination
%THD for 26.64 18.54 23.38 22.59
voltage
%THD for 26.64 18.54 23.38 22.59
current
76 S. Swathy et al.
7 Hardware Implementation
FPGA Kit
The control signal for the power switches of a five-level cascaded H-bridge mul-
tilevel inverter is developed with the help of SPARTAN 6-XC6SLX25 trainer kit.
Figure 13 shows the schematic of SPARTAN 6 FPGA kit.
Design specification for hardware implementation of a five-level cascaded H-bridge
multilevel inverter is given in Table 5. Output voltage and output current for
switching frequency of 1 kHz and modulation index of 0.8 are shown in Fig. 14a
and b. Also the FFT of output voltage and current for switching frequency of 1 kHz
and modulation index of 0.8 is shown in Fig. 15a, b.
The harmonic spectrum with R-Load for switching frequency of 1 kHz and
modulation index of 0.8 is shown in Fig. 16 for output voltage, current and power.
The comparison of different modulation indices and switching frequency is given in
Table 6.
Fig. 13 SPARTAN 6-FPGA

kit
Table 5 Design specification for hardware implementation of a five-level cascaded H-bridge

multilevel inverter
S. No. Parameters Specification
1 Input voltage 130 V
2 Load 50 Ω
3 Switching frequency (fs) 1 and 2 kHz
4 Voltage and current measurement Digital storage oscilloscope
5 Harmonic measurement Fluke 43B
Fig. 14 a Output voltage and b Output current of five-level cascaded H-bridge multilevel inverter
8 Conclusion
In this work, a single-phase five-level cascaded H-bridge multilevel inverter is

studied and analyzed in terms of output voltage, output current and harmonic
spectrum. Phase disposition PWM modulation technique is used to generate
78 S. Swathy et al.
Fig. 15 FFT of a Output voltage and b Output current
switching pulses for the inverter. Further, optimal switching angles for the inverter
are calculated for harmonic reduction (third harmonic, fifth harmonic and seventh
harmonic). Results are verified using simulation done in MATLAB/SIMULINK.
The five-level cascaded H-bridge multilevel inverter is implemented as a hardware
prototype. The pulses for cascaded H-bridge multilevel inverter are generated using
Spartan-6 XC6SLX25 FPGA kit. A comparison of the output THD with
Fig. 16 Harmonic spectrum of a Output voltage, b Output current and c Power
Table 6 Comparison of different modulation indices and switching frequency

Parameters Switching frequency Switching frequency
(1 kHz) (2 kHz)
Modulation index Modulation index
0.8 1 0.8 1
Voltage (%THD) 36.5 26.5 33.2 21.1
Current (%THD) 36.5 26.5 32.9 21.2
Power (W) 89 144 93 134
modulation index of 0.8 and 1, and switching frequencies 1 and 2 kHz is carried
out. As a future scope, multilevel inverter can be analyzed for different output levels
by changing modulation index and switching frequency. By designing suitable
filters, the total harmonic distortion can further be reduced on the output, to meet
IEEE harmonic standards.
References
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Performance Analysis of Asymmetrical
Cascaded H-Bridge Multilevel Inverter
Using Multicarrier Pulse-Width
Modulation Techniques
D. Naveen Kumar and P. V. Kishore
Abstract Multilevel inverters are desirable in the earlier years because of their
ability to produce waveforms with enhanced harmonic spectrum and realize nec-
essary voltage. The significant benefits of multilevel inverters are reasonable cost,
good performance, lower EMI and less harmonic content. The most prevalent
multilevel inverter topologies are diode-clamped, flying capacitor and cascaded
H-bridge inverter. Among the multilevel inverters, cascaded H-bridge multilevel
inverter has been appealed for middle-level and high-voltage renewable-energy-
generating systems such as PV system because of its modular nature. Performance
analysis of cascaded multilevel inverter topologies with different DC sources and
different carrier-based PWM techniques is presented in this paper.
Keywords Cascaded H-bridge Level shift Phase shift and phase disposition
1 Introduction
Multilevel power converters condense more advantages compared to a conventional

two-level converter. Multilevel inverters have engaged a foremost role in most
systems such as high-rated motor drives, FACTS and renewable energy systems
[1–3]. They offer output voltage with low distortion, reduced dv/dt stress, reduced
switching frequency and lower peak inverse voltage (PIV) on switches [4–7]. There
are chiefly three multilevel converter topologies so-called diode-clamped, flying
capacitor [8] and cascaded H-bridge [9]. Cascaded MLIs are customarily used for
medium-voltage and larger power requirement applications because of reliability
and nature of modularity. Pulse-width modulation techniques are applied to control
the gating signals of multilevel inverters so that desired voltage is obtained. The
performance analysis of cascaded H-bridge multilevel inverter using carrier-based
D. Naveen Kumar (&) P. V. Kishore

Guru Nanak Institutions Technical Campus, Ibrahimpatnam, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_8
82 D. Naveen Kumar and P. V. Kishore
pulse-width modulation is presented in this paper. Without escalating the amount of

level, high power can be transferred by using asymmetrical cascaded multilevel
inverters [10].
2 Multilevel Inverter
The three most widespread multilevel inverters are as follows: 1. diode-clamped

multilevel inverter, 2. flying capacitor multilevel inverter and 3. cascaded H-bridge
multilevel inverter.
2.1 Diode-clamped multilevel inverter: The diode-clamped multilevel inverter
was projected by Nabae et al. in 1981. This is the extensively used multilevel
inverter. If n is the quantity of levels of the output, then the (n − 1) number of
capacitors and the (n − 1)(n − 2) quantity of clamping diodes are required. The
drawback of diode-clamped multilevel inverter is when the ‘n’ level increases, then
the number of clamping diodes also increases.
2.2 Flying capacitor multilevel inverter: Flying capacitor multilevel inverter is
analogous to the diode-clamped, but instead of using diodes for clamping, capac-
itors are used. For n levels, (n − 1) number of DC-side capacitors and (n − 1)
(n − 2)/2 number of auxiliary capacitors are used. Here also as the ‘n’ level
increases, the amount of clamping capacitors also increases.
2.3 Cascaded H-bridge multilevel inverter: CHB-MLI consists of series of
H-bridges which are supplied by isolated DC sources. For ‘n’ number of levels,
(n − 1)/2 numbers of bridges are required. Cascaded H-bridge structure, due to its
modularity, can be simply made extensive to higher number of levels. However,
this requires isolated DC sources. The conduction losses are more in this inverter.
3 Multicarrier-Based PWM Techniques
Sinusoidal pulse-width modulation is the most popular method of switching the

power converters. In this, a reference signal is related to carrier signal to produce
the gating signals. To increase the performance of the multilevel inverters, multi-
carrier pulse-width modulation is implemented. Basically, the vertical shift in the
carrier is called as level-shifted PWM, and horizontal shift is called as phase-shift
PWM. The proposed model is presented in Fig. 1, and the corresponding switching
states of the inverter are presented in Table 1.
Performance Analysis of Asymmetrical Cascaded H-Bridge … 83
Fig. 1 Proposed Simulink model for cascaded seven-level H-bridge inverter
Table 1 Switching states of the proposed model

Module A output Module B output MLI output Switching states
S11 S12 S13 S14
Vdc 0 Vdc 1 1 0 0
−Vdc 2Vdc 0 0 1 1
0 2Vdc 2Vdc 0 0 0 0
Vdc 2Vdc 3Vdc 1 1 0 0
−Vdc 0 −Vdc 0 0 1 1
−Vdc −2Vdc −3Vdc 0 0 1 1
0 −2Vdc −2Vdc 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
3.1 Level-Shifted PWM Technique
In level-shifted PWM, the gating signals are created by the comparison of (n − 1)

number of carrier signals with the sinusoidal reference signal. The gating signals are
given to the IGBTs in sequence, so that multilevel output is obtained. Level-shifted
PWM techniques are classified as follows: 1. PD technique, 2. POD technique and
3. APOD technique.
3.2 Phase-Shifting PWM Technique
In phase-shifting PWM, the carrier signals are having equal peak-to-peak amplitude
with same frequency but are phase-shifted by an angle.
Simulink model of seven-level cascaded H-bridge inverter is shown in Fig. 1
which needs six carrier signals, and the frequency of output waveform is deter-
mined by the reference signal waveform.
The output voltage and the FFT analysis for different modulation strategies are
given below.
3.3 Phase Disposition-PWM
In phase disposition technique, the six carrier signals are in phase, whereas in level,
they are shifted with same peak-to-peak amplitude. The PWM signals are shown in
Fig. 2.
The output waveform of the load voltage is shown in Fig. 3.
The FFT analysis of the output waveform shown in Fig. 4 indicates the complete
harmonic distortion of the output waveform.
3.4 Phase Opposition Disposition-PWM
In phase opposition disposition technique, the carrier signals below zero are 180° in
phase opposite to the carrier signals above zero maintaining the same peak-to-peak
amplitude as shown in Fig. 5.
Fig. 2 Gating signals using PD-PWM

Fig. 3 Load-voltage waveform using PD-PWM
Fig. 4 PD-PWM load-voltage FFT
The output waveform of the load voltage using POD is shown in Fig. 6.
The FFT analysis of the output waveform indicates the total harmonic distortion
of the output waveform as shown in Fig. 7 which displays the harmonic content in
the load voltage.
Fig. 5 Gating signals using POD-PWM
Fig. 6 Load-voltage waveform using POD-PWM
3.5 Alternate Phase Opposition Disposition-PWM
In alternate phase opposition disposition technique, among the six carrier signals,
three are adjacent to each other 180° apart (Fig. 8).
The output waveform of the load voltage is shown in Fig. 9.
The FFT analysis of the output waveform as shown in Fig. 10 indicates the total
harmonic distortion of the output waveform.
Fig. 7 POD-PWM load-voltage FFT
Fig. 8 Gating signals using APOD-PWM
4 Conclusion
In this paper, a seven-level cascaded H-bridge inverter supplied by asymmetrical

DC sources is simulated through advanced multicarrier PWM techniques.
Comparison has been performed with regard to the total harmonic distortion in the
Fig. 9 Load-voltage waveform using APOD-PWM
Fig. 10 APOD-PWM load-voltage FFT
output voltage waveform. Among all the multicarrier PWM techniques, phase
opposition disposition technique is superior in terms of less harmonic content and
smoother load voltage.
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applications. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 49(4), 724–738 (2002)
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Interoperable Wireless Charging
for Electric Vehicles
A. Maideen Abdhulkader Jeylani, J. Kanakaraj

and A. Mahaboob Subhani
Abstract The world is modernizing with each second passing by. World is ush-
ering toward an era of environmental consciousness. So, green technologies and
sustainable solutions vandalize previous technologies, the same is with the auto-
mobile industry. Although man learned and started to fly, roadways are the most
preferred mode of transport. Usage of conventional fuel vehicles contributes a
cumbersome share to the pollution caused. Obvious solution which tackles above
problem is electric vehicle. Even though electric vehicles were widely commer-
cialized in the market a decade or two ago, it was not able to reach common masses
and impact their life. As rightly said, there is no 100% efficient perpetual machine
in the universe, electric vehicle too have a bunch of problems associated with it.
The major problem which hindered the substantial success of electric vehicle is
charging. Existing vehicles are obscure in case of long-distance travel and require
very frequent charging. To tackle the so arisen problem, charging stations need to
be established which requires extensive changes in infrastructure and will be
lucrative to respective governments. Our paper involves methods to wirelessly
charge an electric vehicle. The paper emphasizes on the usage of multiple coils
which develops the energy that transmits about the capability and specially
designed three-phase coil which improves efficiency along with inductive power
transfer mechanism. A method for measuring the energy consumed by the vehicle is
also discussed.
Keywords Electric vehicle Inductive power transfer Charging Coils

Energy Efficiency
A. M. A. Jeylani (&)
Sri Krishna College of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore, India
J. Kanakaraj A. Mahaboob Subhani
PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_10
92 A. M. A. Jeylani et al.
1 Introduction
Charging [1, 2] can also be called non-wired energy transmitter. This technology is
the one which enables current that transfers from magnetic energy to electric energy
which is loaded over different gaps, exclusive from cord connection. The technology
also used in many low- to high-end applications even in hybrid E-vehicles due to
user experience is good compared with other features like climatic condition or any
change in public health which will reduce the damages. Our main dependencies are
on fuel like petroleum which is so susceptible to provide interrupt. This also can be
reduced by E-vehicles through plug-in and it reduces the fuel cost abundantly. There
are various ways to charge the vehicle because it has rechargeable batteries like our
gadgets which help us in many ways in our daily life. By charging often, there is no
need to go to a gas station or any other fuel station. Electric vehicles also react very
quickly. Moreover, they are extremely approachable, especially they also good
torque. Most charging can be done in many ways; nowadays, charging a vehicle in a
public place is customary; the simple way is that a plug-in charge station is enough to
make the vehicle a better movable one. They raise the series of all E-vehicles which
can also improve the quantity of every electric mile travelled using chargeable
hybrid E-vehicle system which provides usefulness to the people who are all in need
for a long trip. Mainly in hybrid vehicle, the public charger uses only the DC so the
transmission to it is equipment, otherwise known as EVSE. DC fast-charge which
delivers the energy more than 65 miles which reach so faster when compared to
others. Public charging is located in spots where vehicles are highly concentrated,
such as shopping centers, city parking lots and garages, airports, hotels, government
offices and other crowded areas.
The existence of electric vehicles has overcome many disadvantages over con-
ventional vehicles. The drawback we may face in this technology is that it con-
sumes more time for plug-in charging. So, the concept of wireless charging of
electric vehicles has been discussed in this paper.
2 Wireless Power Transfer—The Future
Though wired charging points are gaining popularity in parking lots and roadside
parking bays, there will be soon more electric vehicles on the road that fixed
charging point wired stations would not and can not suffice to the need. Wireless
overcomes the need to stop at charging stations. Most of the major automakers are
launching or planning wireless charging vehicles built on a global standard.
The market for wireless charging is increasing and holding a major chunk of
global share day by day. Pike research estimates wireless products to triple by 2020
[3]. According to another research, global wireless power revenue is expected to
grow from $8.5 billion in 2017 to $17.9 billion in 2024 [4]. The graph below
depicts the growth of wireless market (Fig. 1).
Interoperable Wireless Charging for Electric Vehicles 93
Fig. 1 Depicts the growth of wireless market
3 Challenges
Following are the challenges which hinder the phenomenal and substantial
implementation of wireless charging:
1. The real, use of wireless control, even in devices that are readily available with
it, has been determinedly low. Customer responsiveness remains a challenge and
present wireless power technology does not provide users with a true wireless
experience. Moreover, opposing hard work principles comprises of not per-
mitted which produces the wireless power entirely. However, the greater than
before dependencies on electronics and the stable need to control them will
continue to drive the adoption of wireless power [5]. Battery removal brings in a
great deal of parts leading to crunch in currency reserves [6] (Fig. 2).
2. When electric vehicles are commercialized in a large scale, the load on the
power grid increases multiple times. As of now, there is no mechanism to
measure the power consumed by wirelessly charging devices.
3. Nevertheless, normally wireless charging incurs higher implementation cost
compared to plug-in charging. Moreover, as a wireless charging system creates
additional high temperatures than that of hyperchargers, extra charge on crafting
materials may be incurred.
Fig. 2 Electric vehicles are

commercialized in a large
scale
4 Literature Survey
There are many methods proposed by scientists across the globe to wirelessly
charge any equipment/device. The broad classification is shown in the chart below
(Fig. 3).
As illustrated, wireless incriminated technologies are classified into nonra-
dioactive coupling-based arraign and radioactive RF-based indicting. The previous
study consists of different method: Inductive coupling method [7], magnetic reso-
nance coupling [8] and capacitive coupling [9], while the latter is supplementary of
sorting the directive RF power beam into structures and non-directive RF power
transfer [10]. In electrical capacitive union process, the attainable quantity of
combination of the capacitance is reliant on the accessible region of the mechanism
[11]. However, intended for a characteristic-volume a transferable gadget, it is
tough to produce enough energy thickness for indict, which imposes a demanding
the plan constraints.
As for directive RF power, ray appearance is the limitation lies in that the
stallion needs to know an exact location of the Due to the obvious limitation of
above two techniques, wireless charging is usually realized through other three
techniques.
5 Inductive Power Transfer
This paper emphasizes the usage of inductive coupling and inductive control
transmits energy to transfer the power wirelessly. The advantages of using this
technique are that it is safe for humans as it is nonradioactive. It also scores over
others in terms of having simple implementation. The effective charging distance
using this method ranges beginning with a small millimeter to a small centimeter.
The drawbacks of using this technology include short charging distance, heating
effect and need tight alignment between charging devices used (Fig. 4).
The energy efficient of a coil is measured by the induction and the dependency
between the different coils, based on nonradioactive substances and the two
Fig. 3 Broad classification

Fig. 4 A block diagram of nonradioactive wireless charging system
different factors which mainly focus on the proportionality of each coefficient is

measured in which it creates the induction coil rotates propositional to another and
produce coupling [12].
The factor Q is going to define the power or capacity which stores the energy in
a generator [13] that provides a very small range of energy loss through energy
transmission. Therefore, in a higher Q control structure is the alternation/
significance refuses gradually. The inherent feature of fabricated substance is
based on some issues which will lead to change in the quality of the affected effects.
The feature affects most on turning point from the distances. Hence, frequency of
the load matching process is having various different gaps [14], the main focus is on
the matched frequency. To refrain a consignment that identical the feature which is
used to continue the quality incidence identical at different expanse which can be
accessible, by writing different resolutions such as combination treatment, fre-
quency matching and resonant parameter tuning.
From some of recently developed hardware implementation of IPT systems, it is
inferred that 50–80% charging effectiveness of several centimeters charging dis-
tance for IPT systems (Fig. 5).
The advantages of IPT system are listed below
1. The system is safe.
2. Reliable.
Fig. 5 Inductive power transfer illustration

3. The system has low maintenance.

4. It has long product life.
5. Energy wastage is overcome.
6. Magnetic field radiation problem is overcome.
6 Proposed Method
The figure shown represents the chunk illustration of proposed wireless power
supply system for charging battery of electric vehicle.
It consists of three parts, a transmitter to generate analog signal to be transmitted
by the coil is so powerful that is, both for sender and receive the energy with
non-wired and receiver to convert received AC signal into DC voltage for charging
the battery of electric vehicle [13]. The aim of implemented system is to design a
prototype of wireless power supply system that refreshes the sequence of an electric
vehicle and avoids wastage of power (Fig. 6).
Coil design is given utmost importance as it determines the quantity and quality
of power transmitted and received. To keep the losses, at bay and as minimum as
possible, both the transmitter and receiver end coil are tuned to have the same
frequency. A specially designed three-phase coil structure is discussed in the
subsequent section. The type of material used in both source plus recipient part is
ferrite core.
Fig. 6 Block diagram for non-wired authority transmitter

Rectifier is used to convert AC to DC, as battery used in electric vehicle charges

only with constant dc supply. The components used in rectifiers are IGBT, IGCT.
Using these components rather than diode or SCR reduces the conversion losses by
3%. In the filtering block, LC strain is used on the way to eliminate any harmonics
if any to provide regulated ripple-free DC supply to charge the battery. Voltage
regulator is also employed before charging phase on the way to decrease the
magnitude of the DC supply.
As inductive power transfer is used, the distance connecting main and minor coil
is kept at 6–8 cm to achieve high efficiency.
6.1 Coil Design
Coil design is of great importance since the coil determines both the power and
efficiency of a wireless charging system. In this paper, a three-phase coil structure,
which consists of three transmitters and receivers as shown in figure, can be used to
improve the efficiency of the power transferred to a larger extent (Fig. 7).
3D FEA simulations were performed to show the purpose of the attractive
ground produced through future spiral arrangement be determined in the coil
structure [12].
As this coil consists of three transmitters and three receivers, its efficiency is very
high because the attractive fluctuation which is produced through one transmitter
passes through its two adjacent receivers and then goes back to that transmitter. The
major dissimilarity is among coaxial coil and this one is in the former coil the
magnetic field is more concentrated in the coil structure compared to the latter. By
using ANSYS MAXWELL as the 3D FEA analysis tool, the parameters of two coils
viz., three-phase coil and coaxial coil are tabulated below [12] (Tables 1 and 2).
After simulation, the following conclusions can be drawn from the magnetic
field in YZ-plane and ZX-plane:
1. Both the three-phase coil structure and the coaxial coil structure give good
performance in YZ-plane, where the attractive pasture that the three-part spiral
arrangement which is stronger around receiver’s coil and weaker in the center
Fig. 7 Three-phase coil

structure
Table 1 Simulation results

Parameters Proposed coil Coaxial coil
Transmitters self-inductance 131.69 uH 17.94 uH
Receivers self-inductance 33.88 uH 15 uH
Coupling coefficient between Lf and Lr 0.138 0.582
Mutual inductance between Lf and Lr 9.22 uH 9.55 uH
Table 2 Excitation in simulation

Parameters Proposed coil Coaxial coil
Transmitters current 3.71 A 3.58 A
Receivers self-current 5A 15 A
Turn number of transmitters in coil 30 6
Turn number of receivers in coil 18 6
while the attractive pasture that the coaxial coil structure is weaker around the
receiver’s coil and stronger in the center.
2. For the magnetic fields in ZX-plane, the three-phase coil structure performs
better as the generated magnetic fields are more concentrated in the coil struc-
ture,m thereby affecting existing electronic devices less [12].
6.1.1 Microcontroller—PIC16F877
PIC16F877 is 40 pin IC and 8-bit microcontroller.

Because of its high quality, low price and simplicity to access, the most used
data is experimental and modern applications.
PIC16F877 microcontroller gives the subsequent skin texture [14]:
1. 14 K bytes of flash memory
2. 368 bytes of RAM
3. 3.256 bytes of EEPROM data memory
4. Two 8-bit and one 16-bit timer
5. Five input–output ports
6. Two serial communication ports (MSSP, USART)
7. 8-channel 10-bit ADC
8. 2 CCP modules.
PIC16F877 scores over other microcontrollers in the following aspects:
1. It requires less power supply comparatively.
2. It has onboard analog to digital converter (ADC) to sense voltage and display it
in digital format.
3. It is cost-effective and trustworthy in case of large applications.
The microcontroller used here is programmed in a method to give pulse width

modulated output to the driving circuit. In the second case, it is programmed to
display the status of charging the battery used here.
6.2 Measuring Energy—An Experimental Setup
When electrical vehicles are wirelessly charged on a large scale, it creates a lot of
load on the grid. Power cannot be given free of cost to all the users of electric
vehicles as it will have a negative impact on the economy of respective government.
So, energy consumption monitoring is very much essential to understand the trends
over a period of time and meet the demands in a smooth manner. The data acquired
during monitoring will help to take necessary steps for saving the energy. This
paper discusses design of the power measuring system which uses some technology
from GSM mobile technique will deliver some data between the power and the
consumables which calculate some data within some time period. The so designed
energy meter can be placed on the receiver side of the not wired systems transmit
energy, i.e., electric vehicle.
Following are the major equipments used to design the energy measuring
system:
A. Energy meter
B. Arduino Uno board
C. GSM 900 module
D. Electrical load
E. Other miscellaneous equipments (12 V adapter, Cables) (Fig. 8).
Fig. 8 Experimental setup

In this system, Arduino Uno is used as microcontroller. It serves as a commu-

nication medium/channel between GSM module and energy meter. Arduino is
coded with a simple programming language with the aim of measuring the energy
consumed by the electrical load connected across it by using a predefined formula.
Ordinary energy meter indicates power consumption by indicator LEDs. When the
LED blinks 3200 times, one kilowatt-hour (kWh) energies are extremely used by
consignment.
So by basic mathematical analysis, it is safe to conclude that each blink/pulse
indicates consumption of 0.0003125 kWh energy. Arduino counts/captures the
number of blinks or pulses to measure the energy consumed.
Arduino and GSM 900 module are interfaced with each other using connector
wires. Arduino is programmed using open-source Arduino software. As an addi-
tional feature, the messages sent by GSM module are linked with software called If
This Then That (IFTTT). This a free open-source service provided with a very
small uncertain announcement known as applet (Fig. 9).
In this setup, an applet is created to draft the messages received in an android
phone to a Google sheet in Google drive. When the component inspired through a
shipment and the cost is drafted in a Google sheet, it is easy to sort, pictorially
represent the data (Fig. 10).
The Arduino board used in this experimental setup uses ATmega 328 with
16 MHz onboard crystal oscillator. When this system is used in electric vehicle, it
provides real-time monitoring of the energy consumption to both the customer and
producer of power.
This method can be efficiently installed in all-electric vehicles irrespective of the
size of the vehicle and the magnitude of energy consumed by the vehicle. This
solves single data which is most important confront of electric vehicle as discussed
in the previous section titled challenges.
Fig. 9 Setup an applet

Fig. 10 Messages received in Google sheets
7 Conclusion
Wireless power transfer recommends the options of eliminating frequent option

which is held with the cord connection which will be mandatory for the electronic
gadgets. This promising technology when implemented in electric vehicles can
reduce the negative impacts of conventional fuel vehicles, thereby improving the
ecological balance. This paper substantiated one such method of wireless power
transfer–inductive power transfer. This paper also focused on new innovative coil
design and a novel method to measure the wireless energy consumed. The methods
discussed in this paper are reliable and safe to use in a macroscale.
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Power Quality Enhancement
Using DSTATCOM with Reduced
Switch-Based Multilevel Converter
Sudheer Vinnakoti, Anusha Palisetti and Venkata Reddy Kota
Abstract From the past few decades, the increased usage of non-conventional
energy sources and nonlinear loads alarmed the researchers more concern about the
power quality (PQ). Distribution static compensator (DSTATCOM) is voltage
source inverter (VSI)-based shunt compensating custom power devices (CPD) used
for current harmonic mitigation and also for reactive power compensation. The
features of traditional multilevel inverters at high levels motivated the researchers to
implement reduced switch topologies (RST) as they aim for reduction in cost,
volume and to improve reliability of the system. This paper proposes a five-level
RST-based DSTATCOM, which reduces the switch count to 33% compared to
conventional multilevel converters. %THDs of five-level diode-clamped converter
(DCC) and the proposed RST-based DSTATCOMs under same loading conditions
are compared to show the potency of the converter. All the simulations will be
carried out in MATLAB/Simulink software.

Keywords Power quality (PQ) Custom power devices (CPD) Distribution

static compensator (DSTATCOM) Reduced switch topology (RST)

Synchronous reference frame (SRF) Total harmonic distortion (THD)
1 Introduction
From past few decades, the increased automobile and large-scale industries are
demanding for high quality power. The growing power demand and degradation of
conventional fossil fuels made the researchers to focus on alternate power-
generating sources. Natural sources (such as solar, wind and biomass) are found to
S. Vinnakoti A. Palisetti (&)

Department of E.E.E, Raghu Engineering College (Autonomous), Dakamarri,
Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, India
V. R. Kota
Department of E.E.E, University College of Engineering, JNTUK, Kakinada,
Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_11
104 S. Vinnakoti et al.
be the best alternate sources due to their continuous availability with time and less
environmental effects. Renewable energy sources [1, 2] united to the grid through
electronic converters are causing some power quality issues. With the advent of
semi-conductor-based sensitive loads, the concern for power quality increased from
industries to consumers as the distorted supply results in malfunction of the
equipment and reduces its efficiency. The passive filters used to suppress the har-
monics have limited applications in high power due to their bulkiness in size, tuning
problems and fixed range of reactive power compensation [3, 4]. Flexible AC
transmission system [FACTS] [5] and custom power devices [CPD] introduced
later gave better performance than passive filters and help in maintaining the desired
power quality. FACTS devices help in improving the reliability and stability of the
transmission system whereas compensating-type CDP is widely used in distribution
networks for harmonic mitigation, VAR compensation, power quality and power
factor improvement. It is researched and proven that (DSTATCOM) [6, 7] effec-
tively mitigates all the current-related PQ issues when connected in shunt. It gen-
erally injects compensated currents 180° phase out with the harmonics in load
current and makes the supply current harmonic free. In addition to the harmonic
mitigation, DSTATCOM compensates reactive power, thereby aids in improving
the power factor.
The traditional two-level inverter-based DSTATCOMs are predominantly suitable
for small scale and utility grid due to their low output levels and high harmonics. The
multilevel inverters [MLI] [8, 9] introduced later overcome the drawbacks of
two-level as they produce high multistepped output with low THDs and are appro-
priate for coupling the RES to grid. Baker in his patent on MLI explained the gen-
eration of multistepped waveform, by cascading the single-phase H-bridge inverter
fed with distinct DC sources. Later, several new topologies such as diode clamped or
neutral point, flying capacitor were configured. These conventional MLIs have
improved power factor, high-voltage levels with low device ratings, reduced stress
and switching losses, lower THD, hence offering wide range of applications. But at
very high level, the MLIs require more switching components, and the gate control
circuitry associated with it becomes complex and effects the reliability of the system.
The improved features of conventional MLI motivated researchers to configure new
topologies with reduced switch count as they aim for improving the structure, relia-
bility and efficiency with reduced size, cost and volume. THD is the other important
factor which the researchers need to focus along with reduction in switch count and
can be maintained low by proper control techniques. This paper proposes a new
reduced switch topology [RST] which generates a five-level output.
The control techniques enhances the performance of the CPD [10], that they
generate the reference current signals. The switching pulses to voltage source
inverter (VSI) are generated by the controller based on error between the reference
currents generated by the control algorithms and actual currents. The time-domain
controls are commonly used due to its less computational time. Prominent control
schemes are instantaneous reactive power theory (IRP), synchronous reference
frame theory (SRF) [10–12], artificial neural network (ANN) [13], fuzzy logic
controller (FLC) [14, 15], etc.
Power Quality Enhancement Using DSTATCOM with Reduced … 105
In this paper, the performance of RST-based DSTATCOM is analyzed in

three-phase distribution system with nonlinear loads using SRF control. The THDs of
source current of proposed RST-based DSTATCOM are measured and compared
with traditional five-level DCC-based DSTATCOM using MATLAB/SIMULINK
software. In this paper, Sect. 2 deals with the basic operating principle of
DSTATCOM, and Sect. 3 explains multilevel concept with reduced switch count.
SRF control scheme for DSTATCOM is discussed in Sect. 4. All the simulation
results are discussed in Sect. 5. Work concludes with Sect. 6.
2 Distribution Static Compensator
Distribution static compensator [6] is a VSI-based shunt compensating device whose

configuration is similar to the STATCOM but used in distribution systems. It is
generally connected at point of common coupling (PCC) to reduce the current har-
monics injected in systems due to nonlinear loads. It can be operated in both voltage
and current control modes. In the former case, it balances the load voltage and
maintains a constant value in order to protect the equipment from the voltage fluc-
tuations. In the later case, it nullifies the harmonics in the supply current by injecting
the distorted currents at PCC but in phase opposition to the harmonics introduced in
load current. In addition to the harmonic filtering, it compensates reactive power,
corrects power factor and enhances the power quality. The size selection and optimal
location of the DSTATCOM play a pivotal role in reducing the cost and providing an
effective compensation. The basic configuration of DSTATCOM involves
(i) three-phase VSI which converts DC capacitor voltage into three-phase AC required
by the system (ii) a coupling inductor which smoothens the output from ripples and
(iii) DC bus capacitor. Figure 1 shows the block diagram representation of two-level
inverter-based DSTATCOM with nonlinear load.
Fig. 1 Block diagram of two-level inverter-based DSTATCOM

In the equivalent model for DSTATCOM in Fig. 2a, Vs represents supply

voltage, Vsh represents shunt compensated voltage of DSTATCOM, and Ish rep-
resents the current injected at PCC. The basic operating principal of DSTATCOM
can be explained in three modes based on the supply voltage and shunt voltage
generated by DSTATCOM.
(i) If the output voltage Vsh of DSTATCOM and the supply voltage are of equal
magnitudes and are in phase, then DSTATCOM neither injects nor absorbs
the reactive power.
(ii) If the injected voltage Vsh is less than the Vs, then the shunt current Ish lags
the supply voltage VS by certain angle as shown in Fig 2b. In this case, the
DSTATCOM acts in inductive mode, i.e., it absorbs the reactive power.
(iii) In Fig. 2c, Ish leads the supply voltage VS by certain angle as Vsh generated
by DSTATCOM is more than the supply voltage Vs. Here, the DSTATCOM
acts in capacitive mode and supplies all the reactive power required by the
Fig. 2 a Equivalent model of DSTATCOM b Inductive mode c Capacitive mode

load. Thus, from the above discussion, we can summarize that DSTATCOM
can either inject or absorb the reactive power, and its magnitude depends on
the angle between Vsh and VS.
The design of DC bus capacitor plays a prominent role and should be maintained
at least 0.9 p.u. The DC bus capacitance (CDC) value depends on the DC bus
voltage (VDC) which should be maintained twice the peak value of phase voltage to
reduce voltage ripples and avoid resonance problems. The minimal values of VDC
and CDC to be maintained for effective compensation are given by Eqs. (1, 2),
respectively.
pffiffiffi pffiffiffi
2 2VLL 2 6Vph
VDC ¼ pffiffiffi ¼ pffiffiffi ð1Þ
3m 3m
CDC 3Vph Is ta
¼h i ð2Þ
2 ðVDC Þ2 ðVDC1 Þ2
where VLL is the line voltage; Vph is the phase voltage: m is the modulation index
whose value is between 0 < m < 1; t is the response time, a is the overloading
factor, VDC is the DC bus capacitor voltage, and VDC1 is the dip in voltage.
3 Reduced Switch Multilevel Inverter
The output generated with conventional two-level inverters is low with more har-
monics, and hence, its application to high power is limited. In high-power appli-
cations, these conventional two-level inverters need to operate at high frequency,
which increases voltage stress and temperature, reducing the efficiency of the
system. Multilevel inverters (MLI) introduced by Baker in 1975 are found to be
well suited for interfacing the RES with grid. As they generate high-level multi-
stepped output by using different pulse width modulation (PWM) techniques, their
application extended to medium and large-scale industries. Baker explained the
synthesis of staircase waveform by adding of single-phase full bridges each fed
with distinct DC sources hence named cascaded MLI, and later, he proposed
another new topology by using clamping diodes and named as diode-clamped
multilevel inverter (DCMLI). In 1992, Foch and Meynard replaced all the clamping
diodes with clamping capacitors and named it as flying capacitor (FC) MLI. The
advantages of MLI over two-level are high efficiency, reduced switch stress,
reduced switching loss, low harmonic content which reduces the filtering cost.
Table 1 compares the components of conventional topologies for m-levels. From
the table, it is clear that with the increase in levels, the components required
increase, and the control of gate circuitry associated with it becomes complex
affecting the systems reliability. The above drawbacks and features of MLI made
Table 1 Comparison of components among the conventional MLI

Converter type Diode-clamped Flying capacitors Cascaded
H-Bridge
Main switching devices (m − 1) 2 (m − 1) 2 (m − 1) 2
Main diodes (m − 1) 2 (m − 1) 2 (m − 1) 2
Clamping diodes (m − 1) (m − 2) 0 0
DC bus capacitors (m − 1) (m − 1) (m − 1)/2
Balancing capacitors 0 (m − 1) (m − 2)/2 0
the researchers to focus on new inverter topologies generating high output levels
with reduced switch count as they reduce cost, size and volume. THD is the other
important factor that can be minimized by implementing proper control technique.
This paper uses a well-known three-phase VSI. The basic configuration of
proposed RST using three groups of conventional three-phase two-level VSI [16]
generating a five-level output is shown in Fig 3b. The two inverter groups in RST
are cascaded in such a way that a five-level voltage appears across open-ended
primary winding of transformer. As the two ends of the open-ended primary are fed
with two separate VSIs, zero sequence currents circulation is avoided, and the
maximum possible voltage that can be generated by combination of inverter
switches in proposed RST is 2VDC with an input of VDC. The voltages V1 V2 and V3
are five levels (+2VDC, +VDC, 0, −VDC, −2VDC) generated by making the following
connections: the first leg of inverter 1 is connected to the second leg of inverter 3
Fig. 3 Block diagram of RST-based DSTATCOM

Table 2 Comparison between conventional MLI and proposed RST

Comparison Conventional cascaded MLI Proposed RST
Maximum voltage 2VDC 2VDC
No. of switches 6 single phase 3 three phase
No. of switches 24 18
for generating V1. Similarly, the voltage V2 is generated by connecting the first leg
of inverter 2 to the second leg of inverter 1, and the voltage V3 is measured by
connecting the first leg of inverter 3 to the second leg of inverter 2. The triggering
pulses to the inverter switches are generated by PWM current controller based on
error between the reference current signals extracted by control schemes and actual
current signals.
Table 2 compares between conventional cascaded MLI and proposed RST. The
conventional cascaded H-bridge multilevel inverter uses six single-phase bridges,
whereas the proposed RST uses exactly half the number but in three-phase module
for generating same voltage levels. Table 2 shows that proposed RST uses lesser
number of switches compared to conventional MLI and reduces the cost and
switching losses associated with switches. The block diagram of RST-based
DSTATCOM is shown in Fig. 3a.
4 Synchronous Reference Frame Theory
Control techniques play a prominent role in deciding the performance of

DSTATCOM, and they generate the reference current signals based on which the
pulses are given to the switches. The control algorithms are available in both time
and frequency domains. Nowadays, some soft computing techniques are also been
used for extraction of reference signals. In this paper, the time-domain control is
being implemented as they involve mathematical calculations and require less time.
SRF theory is commonly used traditional method to mitigate all the current and
voltage-related harmonics and can operate in transient and steadystate mode to
control active power filters. In this theory, the sensed harmonic load currents in
three phase (ila, ilb, ilc) are first converted into the stationary two-phase frame (a-b-0
frame) and later into the synchronously rotating d-q-0 frame by using different
transformation techniques as depicted in Fig. 4. The input voltage signals (Va, Vb,
Vc) are passed through the phase-locked loop (PLL) to generate the signals in terms
of sine and cosine functions. The currents id and iq in d-q plane involve average (id
and ip ) and oscillatory components (~id and ~ip ). The oscillatory components are
undesirable as they cause harmonic currents and are filtered by using the low-pass
filters (generally a second-order Butterworth LPF) so that only DC components are
extracted. The average DC components are transferred back to (a-b-c) by reverse
transformation techniques. The transformation and reverse transformation
Fig. 4 Block diagram representation for reference currents generation by using SRF control
techniques used for converting the three-phase quantities into synchronously

rotating two phase are given by Eqs. 3 and 4, respectively. A comparison between
reference source current and the source currents generates an error signal, based on
which hysteresis current controller generates the triggering pulses to VSI given in
Fig. 4.
2 3
2 3 1 pffiffiffi 1 pffiffiffi 1 pffiffiffi 2 3
IS0 qffiffiffiffiffiffi6 2 2 2 7 ILa
4 ISd 5 ¼ 2= 6 ð Þ sin wt 2p=3 7
sin wt þ 2p=3 7 4 ILb 5 ð3Þ
36 4
sin wt
5
ISq ILc
cosðwtÞ cos wt 2p=3 cos wt þ 2p=3
2 pffiffiffi 3
2 3 1 sinðwtÞ cosðwtÞ 2 3
ISaref qffiffiffiffiffiffi6 2 7 IS0
4 ISbref 5 ¼ 2= 6 1 pffiffiffi cos wt 2p=3 7
36 2 sin wt 2p=3 7 4I 5 ð4Þ
4 pffiffiffi 5 Sd
IScref 1 ISq
2 sin wt þ 2p=3 cos wt þ 2p=3
In Fig. 5, the reference currents generation by using SRF control under nonlinear
loads is shown. The DC link capacitor voltage must be maintained constant for
effective compensation. This can be attained by proper tuning of the by proper
tuning of the gains of the PI controllers. These controllers are generally used for
estimating the losses in DC bus. For SRF theory, the output of PI controller is added
to d-axis component. The PLL used in SRF works effectively under low distortion,
as its performance is poor in case of high distortions. To overcome this, modified
PLL is used to improve the system performance under unbalance and high dis-
tortion conditions.
Vdc*
300
PI
Vdc1
Add1
PI
Vdc2
Add3
Add2
PI
Vdc3
0
Add5
0
0
ILabc abc
a ISaref
d
d
sin_cos Add4
q
vsab 0 ISbref
vsab wt Discrete
b
Butterworth Filter q
sin_cos
vscb vscb Sin_Cos C IScref
dq0_to_abc
Transformation2
Fig. 5 Reference currents generation by using SRF control under nonlinear load in Simulink
model
The proposed RST-based DSTATCOM with SRF control in three-phase distribu-

tion system with nonlinear loads is designed in MATLAB/SIMULINK software.
Figure 6 depicts the supply voltage (VSabc), load current (ILabc) and supply current
(ISabc) before and after connecting RST-based DSTATCOM. The proposed
RST-based DSTATCOM is connected at 0.2 s. Compensating currents are injected
by the RST-based DSTATCOM at PCC in phase opposition to the harmonics
generated by nonlinear loads, thereby making the source current (in Fig. 6c) har-
monic free. For current harmonic mitigation, a constant voltage of 700 V needs to
be maintained across each DC bus capacitors which can be maintained by proper
tunning of PI controllers.
Extension to above, analysis also concentrated on the reactive and active powers.
It can be noticed that before connecting the proposed RST-based DSTATCOM, i.e.,
from 0 to 0.2 s, the source caters entire active power requirement of load, i.e.,
8 KW. Figure 7a, b and c gives the complete active power profiles of supply, load
and RST-based DSTATCOM, respectively, before and after compensation. After
connecting the RST-based DSTATCOM, it mitigates the supply current harmonics
by consuming 0.997 KW active power from the supply. It can be clearly observed
Supply Voltage (VSabc )

(a)
400
Voltage (Volts)
200
-200
-400
0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
(b) Load Current (ILabc )

20
Current (Amps)
10
-10
-20
0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
(c) Supply Currents (ISabc )

100
Current (Amps)
50
-50
-100
0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35
Time (sec)
Fig. 6 Effect of compensation on a supply voltage b load current and c supply current
from Fig. 7a that the supply active power is increased from 8 to 10 KW during the
time period 0.25–0.4 s. The dynamic state of system can be observed during the
interval 0.2–0.25 s.
Similarly, Fig. 8 shows the complete analysis of reactive power at load and
supply before and after connecting the RST-based DSTATCOM. From Fig 8a, it is
observed that source supplies all the 2.2 kVAR reactive power needed by the load
during the period 0–0.2 s, whereas the proposed RST-based DSTATCOM remains
at 0 KAVR as it is not connected to system. After connecting proposed RST-based
DSTATCOM at 0.2 s, the DSTATCOM itself delivers all the reactive power
needed by the load making the source to deliver only the active power needed by
load. The reactive power at supply and load before and after connecting proposed
4
(a) x 10
2.5
2
Active Power
(Watt)
1.5
0.5
0
0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
(b) 10000
8000
Active Power
6000
(Watt)
4000
2000
0
0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4
(c)
15000
Active Power (Watt)
10000
5000
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Time (sec)
Fig. 7 Active power at a supply b load c DSTATCOM
RST-based DSTATCOM is shown in Fig 8a, b, respectively. The proposed

RST-based DSTATCOM alone delivering all the reactive power required by load is
shown in Fig. 8c.
It can be noticed from Table 3 that %THD of supply currents in respective
phases before compensation are 20.81% with their fundamental components as
16.61%. After connecting the RST-based DSTATCOM, it is clearly observed that
the % THD of phase A, phase B and phase C of supply current are lowered to 3.00,
3.19 and 3.10% with an increase in their fundamental component as shown in
(a)
Reactive Power 15000
10000
(VAR)
5000
-5000
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
(b)
2000
Reactive Power
1500
(VAR)
1000
500
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
(c)
15000
Reactive Power (VAR)
10000
5000
-5000
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Time (sec)
Fig. 8 Reactive power at a supply b load c DSTATCOM
Table 3. In addition to the above, the study is also conducted on conventional

five-level diode-clamped MLI, and the observed results are compared with pro-
posed RST to prove the effectiveness of the topology.
Table 3 Comparison between conventional MLI and proposed RST-DSTATCOMs using SRF
Nonlinear load SRF controller
Fundamental % THD
component (A)
Before After Before After
Five-level DCC DSTATCOM ISa 16.61 18.72 20.81 3.47
ISb 16.61 18.52 20.81 3.46
ISc 16.61 17.83 20.81 3.23
Proposed RST-DSTATCOM ISa 16.61 18.74 20.81 3.00
ISb 16.61 18.31 20.81 3.19
Isc 16.61 17.78 20.81 3.10
6 Conclusion
The performance of the proposed RST-based DSTATCOM is examined under

nonlinear load with SRF control technique. Then, the potential of the proposed
RST-based DSTATCOM is compared with that of conventional multilevel inverters
by using MATLAB/SIMULINK software. From the results, it is clearly noticed that
the proposed RST-based DSTATCOM mitigates all the supply current harmonics
effectively compared to the traditional multilevel inverters (DCC). Further, it can be
noted that the %THD of the supply currents are minimized after the compensation.
Hence, from the above discussion, it can be concluded that the proposed RST-based
DSTATCOM has improved performance over the conventional MLI with reduced
switching cost and losses.
References
1. J. Benedek, T.T. Sebestyen, B. Bartok, Evaluation of renewable energy sources in peripheral

areas and renewable energy-based rural development. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 90, 516–
535 (J. Elsevier, Romania, 2018)
2. S. Guo, Q. Liu, J. Sun, H. Jin, A review on the utilization of hybrid renewable energy. Renew.
Sustain. Energy Rev. 91, 1121–1147 (J. Elsevier, China, 2018)
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Dual-Input Multioutput Using
Non-Cloistered DC–DC Boost Converter
K. Sakthidhasan and K. Mohana Sundaram
Abstract This paper proposes a new non-cloistered dual-input multioutput DC–

DC boost converter using a single magnetic field storage component (L). The
proposed DC–DC boost converter can be used for conveying energy between
different energy resources such as battery, FC, PV and ESS. In this paper, solar cell
(PV) and battery are considered as a generating power source and an energy storage
system (ESS) to produce two different voltage magnitudes in its output. Two dif-
ferent power operations like charging and discharging are defined. The main
advantage of the converter module is to use least/minimum number of power
electronic components. This converter is suitable for electric vehicle applications.
The results of the proposed DIMO converter were verified with the help of the
software (MATLAB/Simulink) and laboratory-based prototype.
Keywords DIMO DC–DC converter Boost converter Solar cell (PV)

Energy storage system (ESS) Electric vehicle
1 Introduction
In this paper, based on the combination of two converters a new non-cloistered

dual-input multioutput DC–DC boost converter is proposed. The proposed con-
verter is presented in Fig. 1. In that Fig. 1 the converter interfaces two input power
sources Vin1 and Vin2 . A multilevel inverter can be made possible with the load
resistance R1 and R2 which can represent the equivalent power feeding. The control
of power flow between input sources in addition to boost up the input sources
voltage is possible by proper switching of switches. The outputs from this proposed
K. Sakthidhasan (&) K. Mohana Sundaram

Department of EEE, Vel Tech Multitech Dr. Rangarajan Dr. Sakunthala Engineering College,
Chennai, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_12
118 K. Sakthidhasan and K. Mohana Sundaram
Fig. 1 Equivalent circuit for switching state 1
converter are capable to have different or equal output voltage magnitudes. This
output voltage magnitudes can also be used for connecting to a multilevel inverter.
The proposed converter has two input sources solar cell (PV) and energy storage
system (such as battery) combination. The input source Vin1 can deliver power to
the source Vin2 but not vice versa. In this system, solar cell (PV) which cannot be
charged is located in Vin1 and also in Vin2 such as ESS (battery) can be charged is
placed. Charging and discharging modes are used separately and it is working in
single mode, i.e., DC–DC.
2 Different Mode of Operation
2.1 Battery Charging Mode
In this mode of operation, input source Vin1 not only supplies to the load but also
delivers power to Vin2 (battery). This condition occurs when load power is low and
battery requires to be charged. For each switch, a specific duty is considered.S1 is
switched to regulate the total output voltage Vt ¼ Vout1 þ Vout2 to a desired value.
The output voltage Vt is controlled by switch S2 . It is clear that by regulation of Vt
and Vout1 , the output voltage Vout2 is regulated too. In Fig. 4, the gate signals of
switches and voltage and current waveforms of inductor are shown. According to
different switching states, there are three different operation modes in one switching
period is given as follows;
Dual-Input Multioutput Using Non-Cloistered DC–DC … 119
2.1.1 Switching State 1 (0 < T < DT1)
In this state, switches S1 and S2 are turned ON, switch S3 is OFF and cannot be
turned ON. The diode D2 is reverse biased and does not conduct. In this state Vin1
charges inductor L, and it increases the proposed converter for this state is shown in
Fig. 1. Also in this mode, capacitors C1 and C2 are discharged and deliver their
stored energy to load resistance R1 and R2 . The L and C equations are as follows;
9
diL
L ¼ Vin1 >
>
>
>
dt >
>
dvout1 Vout1 =
C1 : ¼ ð1Þ
dt R1 > >
>
dvout2 Vout2 >>
>
C1 : ¼ ;
dt R1
2.1.2 Switching State 2 (DT1 < T < DT2)
In this state, switch S1 is OFF, and switch S2 and S3 switch is turned ON. The diode
D2 is reverse biased and does not conduct. In this state, inductor L is discharged and
delivers its stored energy to C1 and R1 , so inductor current decreases. Figure 2
shows the equitant circuit of the proposed system. C1 is charged and capacitor C2 is
discharged and deliver their stored energy to load resistance R2 . The L and
C equations in this mode are as follows;

9
diL
L ¼ Vin1 Vout1 >
>
>
>
dt >
>
dvout1 Vout1 =
C1 : ¼ iL ð2Þ
dt R1 > >
>
dvout1 Vout2 >>
>
C2 : ¼ ;
dt R2
2.1.3 Switching State 3 (DT2, DT3 < T < T)
In this state, switch S1 is OFF and S2 is turned ON. The diode D2 is forward biased
and the diode D1 is reverse biased and does not conduct, consequently S3 is OFF.
Equivalent circuit of proposed converter for this state is shown in Fig. 3. In this
state, inductor L is discharged and delivers its stored energy to capacitors C1 and C2
and load resistance R1 and R2 and thus capacitors C1 and C2 are charged. The
inductor and capacitors equations in this mode are as follows (Fig. 4);
9
diL
L ¼ Vin1 Vt >>
>
>
dt >
>
dvout1 Vout1 =
C1 : ¼ iL ð3Þ
dt R1 > >
>
dvout1 Vout2 >
>
>
C2 : ¼ iL ;
dt R2

Fig. 4 Steady state waveform for battery charging mode
2.2 Battery Discharging Mode
In this mode, two input power sources Vin1 and Vin2 are responsible for supplying
the loads. For each switch, a specific duty is considered. Here, S1 is active to
regulate the battery current to a desired value by controlling inductor current.
Output voltage Vout1 is controlled by switch S2 . It is obvious that by regulation of Vt
and Vout1 , the output voltage Vout2 is regulated too. Gate signals of switches and also
voltage and current waveforms of L are shown in Fig. 8. The total output voltage Vt
is regulated as Vt ¼ Vout1 þ Vout2 .
2.2.1 Switching State 1 (0 < T < DT1)
S1 is ON, and switch S2 is OFF. The diode D1 , D2 are reverse biased and does not
conduct, so switch S3 is turned OFF. In this state, the Vin2 charges inductor L charge
is increases. Equivalent circuit of proposed converter for this state is shown in
Fig. 5. Also in this mode capacitors C1 and C2 will get discharge and deliver its
stored energy to load resistance R1 and R2 . The inductor and capacitors equations in
this mode are as follows;
9
diL
L ¼ Vin2 >
>
>
>
dt >
>
dvout1 Vout1 =
C1 : ¼ ð4Þ
dt R1 > >
>
dvout2 Vout2 >
>
>
C1 : ¼ ;
dt R2
2.2.2 Switching State 2 (DT1 < T < DT2)
In this state, switch S1 is OFF and S2 is turned ON. The diode D2 is forward biased
and the diode D1 is reverse biased and does not conduct, consequently S3 is OFF.
state, inductor L is discharged and delivers its stored energy to capacitors C1 and C2
and load resistance R1 and R2 and thus capacitors C1 and C2 are charged. The
inductor and capacitors equations in this mode are as follows;
9
diL
L ¼ Vin1 Vt >>
>
>
dt >
>
dvout1 Vout1 =
C1 : ¼ iL ð5Þ
dt R1 > >
>
dvout1 Vout2 >
>
>
C2 : ¼ iL ;
dt R2
2.2.3 Switching State 3 (DT2, DT3 < T < T)
In this state, switches S1 and S2 are OFF and S3 switch is turned ON. The diode D1
is forward biased and the diode D2 is reverse biased and does not conduct.
state, inductor L is discharged and delivers its stored energy to C1 and R1 , so
inductor current decreases. Also in this mode capacitor C1 is charged and capacitor
C2 is discharged and deliver its stored energy to load resistance R2 . The inductor
and capacitors equations in this mode are as follows (Fig. 8);

Fig. 8 Steady state waveform for battery discharging mode
9
diL
L ¼ Vin2 Vout1 >>
>
>
dt >
>
dvout1 Vout1 =
C1: ¼ iL ð6Þ
dt R1 > >
>
dvout1 Vout2 >
>
>
C2: ¼ ;
dt R2
Simulations are done for both charging and discharging modes of battery are using
MATLAB/Simulink software in order to verify the performance of the proposed
converter. The simulation parameters of the proposed converter are listed in
Table 1. The simulation input voltage sources value for the proposed converter is
given as Vin1 = 45 V and Vin2 = 36 V. The fuel cell (FV) is considered as input
voltage source (Vin1 ) with the combination of battery (Vin2 ) is suitable for electric
vehicle applications. Depending on the utilization state of the battery, charging and
discharging modes of operation are defined for the proposed converter. The
Table 1 Simulation parameters for the proposed boost converter

S. No. Values Parameters
1. 2.5 mH Inductance (L)
2. 1000 lF Capacitors (C1 ; C2 )
3. 10 kHz Switching frequency (fs)
4. 45 V Input voltage (Vin1 )
5. 36 V Input voltage Vin2 ðVbattery Þ
6. 70 X Resistance (R1, R2)
(a) (b)
(c)
Fig. 9 a The total output voltage (Vt), b the output voltage (Vout1 ), c the output voltage (Vout2 )
converter module consists of three controllable switches. The required gate signals
are given to each switch through PWM. The PI controller acts as an error minimize,
here the response of the PI controller is compared with carrier and reference signal
to produce the desired PWM. For each switch, a specific duty ratio (DX ) is con-
sidered. A resistive load R1 and R2 is taken such that from the simulation results, the
output voltages are obtained as Vout1 = 85 V and Vout2 = 37 V, respectively. So the
total output voltage Vt is regulated as Vt ¼ Vout1 þ Vout2 , therefore Vt = 122 V.
Figure 9 shows, (a) the total output voltage Vt , (b) the output voltage Vout1 and
(c) the output voltage Vout2 .
For battery discharging mode, two input power sources Vin1 and Vin2 are
responsible for supplying the loads. Figure 10 shows the simulation results for
battery discharging mode current. For battery charging mode, the input source Vin1
not only supplies to the load but also delivers power to Vin2 (battery). This condition
occurs when load power is low and battery requires to be charged. Figure 11 shows
the simulation results for battery charging current.
Fig. 10 Battery discharging current
Fig. 11 Battery charging current
4 Conclusion
A non-cloistered dual-input multioutput DC–DC boost converter with less number

of power electronics components is proposed using generating power source solar
cell (PV) and energy storage system (battery). Also, the converter can be utilized as
single input multioutput converter. Based on the utilization state of the battery two
power operation mods are defined. For each mode, transfer functions matrices/small
signal average methods are obtained separately. The proposed converter produces
two different voltage magnitudes in its output which is suitable for electric
vehicle-based applications.
References
1. P. Thounthong, Member, IEEE, A. Luksanasakul, P. Koseeyaporn, B. Davat, Member, IEEE,

Intelligent model-based control of a standalone photovoltaic/fuel cell power plant with
supercapacitor energy storage. IEEE Trans. Sustain. Energy 4(1) (2013)
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extendable single-stage multi-input DC–DC/AC boost converter. IEEE Trans. Power
Electron. 29(2) (2014)
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vehicle hybridization with battery or supercapacitor storage device. IEEE Trans. Veh.
Technol. 58(8), 3892–3905 (2009)
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management of a fuel cell/supercapacitor/battery power source for electric vehicular
applications. IEEE Trans. Veh. Technol. 60(2), 433–443 (2011)
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systems. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 22(2), 480–487 (2007)
6. A. Peyman, S. Pierfederici, F. Meybody-tabar, B. Davat, Anadapted control strategy to
minimize dc-bus capacitors of parallel fuel cell/ultracapacitor hybrid system. IEEE Trans.
Power Electron. 26(12), 3843–3852 (2011)
7. J. Lee, B. Min, D. Yoo, R. Kim, J. Yoo, A new topology for PVDC/DC converter with high
efficiency under wide load range, in Proceedings of European Conference on Power
Electronics and Applications (2007), pp. 1–6
8. J. Zeng, Student Member, IEEE, W. Qiao, Senior Member, IEEE, L. Qu, Member, IEEE, An
Isolated three-port bidirectional DC–DC converter for photovoltaic systems with energy
storage. IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. 51(4)(2015)
9. A. Nami, F. Zare, A. Ghosh, F. Blaabjerg, Multi-output DC–DC converters based on
diode-clamped converters configuration: topology and control strategy. IET Power Electron.
3, 197–208 (2010)
10. A.A. Boora, A. Nami, F. Zare, A. Ghosh, F. Blaabjerg, Voltage sharing converter to supply
single-phase asymmetrical four-level diode clamped inverter with high power factor load.
IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 25(10), 2507–2521 (2010)
11. A. Nahavandi, M.T. Hagh, M.B.B. Sharifian, S. Danyali, A non cloistered dual input multi
output DC–DC boost converter for electric vehicle applications. IEEE Trans. Power Electron.
30(4)(2016)
12. R.W. Erickson, D. Maksimovic, Fundamentals of power electronics, 2nd edn. (Kluwer
Academic Publisher, New York, NY, USA, 2015), p. 2000
Application of Nonlinear and Optimal
Control Techniques to High Gain
DC–DC Converter
Nibedita Swain
Abstract In this paper, a power converter is designed to give up an output power

of 50 W. The design method is based upon two boost converter connected in
cascade that gives an output of 460 V, and a high gain is needed. For controlling
the voltage output of power converter, various control approaches like sliding mode
controller and linear quadratic Gaussian regulator are described. The proposed
small-signal averaged models for boost converter are derived mathematically. Then,
it is used for designing of two different feedback controllers, which accomplish the
additional understanding in the converter dynamics. First, a nonlinear sliding mode
(SM) controller is designed; the design method depends on the selection of the
sliding surface and switching function. And second, the design of linear quadratic
Gaussian (LQG) state-feedback controller, by calculating the state-feedback gain
matrix and Kalman estimator gain, is presented for the same converter topology.
Here, the output voltage regulation and an excellent dynamic performance are
compared between two different types of controllers. All the simulations are done in
MATLAB/Simulink environment.

Keywords Boost converter Double boost converter State-space averaging

technique Sliding mode controller Linear quadratic Gaussian controller
1 Introduction
This paper primarily focuses on the use of power electronics and control system;
here, the output voltage has increased from a very small input voltage of 17.2 volts
to a large output voltage of 460 V by use of double boost converter. Double boost
converter is a connection of two boost converters in cascade so that the output
voltage will be very large. Due to non-minimum phase structure in boost converter,
controlling of output voltage is quite difficult. Different control mechanisms are
applied to control voltage output of DC–DC converter. The application of linear
N. Swain (&)
Deptartment of EEE, Silicon Institute of Technology, Bhubaneswar, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_14
130 N. Swain
control methods in power converter is not suitable as they contain the energy
storing elements like inductor and capacitor, and also, it depends upon the system
parameters. The use of double boost converter with sliding mode controller
(SMC) and LQG controllers and their effectiveness have been described in brief in
this paper. The use of double boost converter used in the circuit is to amplify the
voltage to a suitable value [1, 2].
A control method convenient for power converters must have the ability to
tolerate the wide input voltage and load variations, providing stability at any
operating condition with less settling time. Here, sliding mode control method is a
feasible choice to regulate the converter circuits as it is variable structure systems.
The controller enhances the dynamic behaviour of the system against changing load
and uncertain system parameters. It also overcomes the deficit of the control
techniques which are based on small-signal models.
A variable structure system approach is adopted for the system which is an
optimal control, i.e., LQG controller. The LQG controller is an optimal control
problem, and it is applied in many control fields [3] due to sub-optimum perfor-
mance. In sub-optimum performance, the control technique reduces a predeter-
mined performance index [4] that reshapes the system’s states and the control
surface. The Gaussian controller technique tunes the parameter Q and R in such a
way that the effect on shape of the states and control signal traces, respectively.
Q and R matrix are calculated by classical methods. This paper compares two
different control methods in which better voltage regulation is achieved with
minimum overshoot and minimum settling time. The voltage output of the first
boost converter remains fixed, and the voltage output of second boost converter is
controlled by means of different control techniques.
The main objective of this paper is to get a constant DC of 460 V at the
converter output side because most of the AC loads are operating with a voltage of
230 V AC. So, a 460 V DC is required at the converter output to convert 460 V DC
to 230 V AC. For achieving 460 V DC with minimum overshoot and minimum
settling time, two different types of controllers are designed and controlled.
2 Mathematical Modelling of Boost Converter
Boost converter is a DC–DC converter where the output and input voltage are
related by the Eq. (1).
Vo 1
¼ ð1Þ
Vin ð1 dÞ
Vo is the output voltage across the load, Vin is the input voltage, and d is the duty
ratio of the converter.
Application of Nonlinear and Optimal Control Techniques to High … 131
iL
L io
S Vc
Vi on C R
Fig. 1 ON state of boost converter
“Switch ON” state

During switch ON state, diode is reversed biased and isolating the output stage.
Figure: 1 shows switch ON state of boost converter. During switch ON, the
equation is described in Eqs. (2) and (3).
diL
Vi L ¼0 ð2Þ
dt
Vc CdVc
¼0 ð3Þ
R dt
iL is the inductor current, VC is the capacitor voltage, L is the inductance, C is the

capacitance, and R is the load resistance of the converter. The state-space repre-
sentations of the above equations are described as in (4).
2 3 " #
diL 1
0 0 iL
4 dt 5 ¼ þ L
Vi
1
dV c 0 RC Vc 0 ð4Þ
dt
“Switch OFF” state

During switch OFF, the output capacitor is assumed to be very large to ensure a
constant output voltage. Figure: 2 shows OFF state of boost converter. During
switch OFF, the equations are described in (5) and (6), respectively.
diL
Vi Vc L ¼0 ð5Þ
dt
Vc dVc
iL þC ¼0 ð6Þ
R dt
132 N. Swain
iL
L D io
Vi Vc C R
Fig. 2 OFF state of boost converter
The state-space representations of the above equations are given as in (7).

2 3
diL 1
1
4 dt 5 ¼ 01 L
1
iL
þ L Vi ð7Þ
dV c C RC Vc 0
dt
The output voltage during ON and OFF state remains same and is given in
Eq. (8).

i
V0 ¼ ½ 0 1 L ð8Þ
Vc
The steady-state representation of the average system is linear [6]. In this converter,
ON state and OFF state matrix are shown in (9) and (10), respectively. A1 is the ON
state matrix, A2 is the OFF state matrix, B1 is the ON state input matrix, B2 is the
OFF state input matrix, C1 is the output ON state matrix, C2 is the output OFF state
matrix, D1 and D2 are the ON state and OFF state transmission matrix, respectively.

0 0 1=L
A1 ¼ ; B1 ¼ ; C1 ¼ ½ 0 1 ; D1 ¼ ½0 ð9Þ
0 1=RC 0
1
1
0
A2 ¼ L ; B2 ¼ L ; C2 ¼ ½ 0 1 ; D2 ¼ ½0 ð10Þ
1
C RC
1
0
The average model of boost converter described in [7] is realized by taking a

weighted average of ON state and OFF state matrices as given in (11), (12) and
(13), respectively.
A ¼ A1 d þ A2 ð1 dÞ ð11Þ
B ¼ B1 d þ B2 ð1 dÞ ð12Þ
C ¼ C1 d þ C2 ð1 dÞ ð13Þ
Using small signal analysis as described in [8] the steady state dc voltage transfer
function and ac transfer function are given by the Eqs. (14) and (15), respectively.
vo ðsÞ
¼ CðSI AÞ1 B þ D
vi ðsÞ ð14Þ
v0 ðsÞ
¼ C½SI A1 ½ðA1 A2 Þx þ ðB1 B2 Þvin þ ðC1 C2 Þx ð15Þ
dðsÞ
3 Converter Modelling
For getting voltage output of 460 V, two boost converters are connected in cascade,
and hence, the name is double boost converter. The input to the first boost converter
is 17.2 V which operates with a fixed duty ratio of 0.9 with switching frequency of
25 kHz. The parameter specifications of two boost converters are given in Tables 1
and 2.
The schematic diagram of double boost converter is depicted in Fig. 3.
Table 1 Component Circuit parameters Specifications

specifications of Converter-1
Input vol. (Vin) 17.2 V
Inductance (L) 1 mH
Capacitance (C) 33 lF
Duty ratio (d) 0.9
Switching frequency (fs) 25 kHz
Table 2 Component Circuit parameters Specifications

specifications of Converter-2
Input vol. (Vin) 172 V
Inductance (L) 1 mH
Capacitance (C) 33 lF
Duty ratio (d) 0.63
Switching frequency (fs) 25 kHz
134 N. Swain
L1 L2
D1
D2
S1 C2
C1
Vin S2
RL
Fig. 3 Schematic diagram of double boost converter
The aim of this paper is to derive the transfer function model [9, 10] of double
boost converter with respect to duty cycle “d”. The transfer function of first boost
converter and the second boost converter is calculated as in (15) and (16),
respectively.
CONVERTER-1:
Vo ðsÞ 5:212 105 s3 þ 3:633 108 s2 þ 9:155 105 s þ 1:579 1014

¼ 4 ð16Þ
dðsÞ s þ 606:1 s3 þ 6:979 105 s2 þ 1:837 108 s þ 9:183 1010
CONVERTER-2:
Vo ðsÞ 3:807 105 s3 þ 5:097 109 s2 þ 0:002686s þ 2:162 1016

¼ 4 ð17Þ
dðsÞ s þ 606:1s3 þ 8:389 106 s2 þ 2:514 109 s þ 1:721 1013
By cascading two transfer functions, the resulting transfer function of the double
boost converter is calculated as in (17).
1:984 1011 s6 2:795 1015 s5 þ 1:851 1018 s4 1:133 1022 s3

V0 ðsÞ þ 8:66 1024 s2 þ 2:404 1012 s þ 3:415 1030
¼
dðsÞ s2 þ 1212s7 þ 9:454 106 s6 þ 8:205 109 s5 2:479 1013 s4
þ 1:378 1016 s3 þ 1:324 1019 s2 þ 3:392 1021 s þ 1:58 1024
ð18Þ
4 Different Control Strategies
The need of controller for any system is evaluated in four matrices such as com-
mand tracking, disturbance rejection, line regulation and noise rejection. Command
tracking is the strength of output to respond for varying reference input.
Disturbance rejection is the ability to confine output from load variation. Line
regulation is the ability to disconnect output from change in input, and noise
rejection is the strength to reject measurement noise/errors. This paper is concen-
trating only on command tracking and disturbance rejection. Two different types of
controllers are designed for this double boost converter: a nonlinear controller
(sliding mode controller) an optimal controller (LQG controller).
(A) Sliding Mode Controller (SMC)
Sliding mode is a nonlinear control method [11] that develops the dynamics of
nonlinear system by the use of discontinuous control signal that forces the system to
slide along a cross section of systems normal behaviour [12, 13]. Multiple control
architectures are established so that state trajectories always move towards an
adjacent region with a different control design[14], and the ultimate trajectory will
not remain absolutely within one control design.
SMC design involves two steps: one is selection of the sliding surface; another is
the switching function [5]. Sliding mode does not depend upon plant dynamics and
is calculated by parameters of switching function only [15, 16]. The technique
consists of reaching mode and sliding mode. In reaching mode, the sliding surface
is drifted towards the state trajectory from any initial point, and system response is
more sensitive to uncertain parameters and disturbances.
In sliding mode, the state trajectory moves to origin along the switching surface,
and the states never leave the switching surface [17]. The state equation with
control input u and state vector x is given in (19).
:
x ¼ AxðtÞ þ BuðtÞ ð19Þ
“u” consists of two components: un represents discontinuous component and a

continuous component ueq, and they are related by an equation given in (20)
u ¼ un þ ueq ð20Þ
While the system is on the surface, ueq ensures the motion of the system on the
sliding surface. The equivalent control component can be estimated by taking time
derivative of sliding surface is equal to zero and is given in Eq. (21).
S_ ¼ 0 ð21Þ
The solution of Eq. (21) gives equivalent control ueq and is given in (22).
136 N. Swain
ueq ¼ ðCBÞ1 ðCAxÞ ð22Þ
The sliding surface for boost converter is given in (24).
s ¼ Ke þ e_ ð23Þ
“e” is the error between reference voltage and output voltage and is given in (24).
e ¼ Voref Vo ð24Þ
The general state equation of boost converter with control input u is obtained by
considering the switching states and is shown in Eq. (25).
diL Vi vc
¼ þ ðu 1Þ
dt L L ð25Þ
dvc vc iL
¼ þ ð1 uÞ
dt RC C
The sliding surface S and derivative of S are calculated and are given in (26) and
(27), respectively.
d dvC
s ¼ K ðVref Vo Þ þ ðVref Vo Þ ¼ KVref KvC
dt dt
vC iL
¼ KVref KvC þ ð1 uÞ
RC C

1 iL
KVref vC K ð 1 uÞ ð26Þ
RC C

1 ð1 uÞ
s_ ¼ 0 K vC iL
RC C
ð27Þ
1 vC iL ð1 uÞ Vin vC
¼ K þ ð1 uÞ þ ðu 1Þ
RC RC C C L L
Solving the above equation, it is simplified and is given in (28).

" #
KRC 1 1 ð 1 uÞ 2 ð1 KRCÞ ð1 uÞ ð1 uÞ
s_ ¼ vC þ þ iL Vin
RC RC LC RC C LC
ð28Þ
Putting
s_ ¼ 0 ð29Þ
We get
" #
KRC 1 1 ð1 uÞ2 ð1 KRCÞ ð1 uÞ
0 ¼ vC þ þ iL ð30Þ
RC RC LC RC C
In this work, control input is considered as duty cycle [4] and is given by
Eq. (33).
v
c 2vc Vin ð1 KRCÞ
u2eq þ ueq þ iL
LC LC LC RC 2
ð31Þ
Vin 1 ð1 KRCÞ ð1 KRCÞ
þ þ vc 2 2
þ iL ¼ 0
LC LC R C RC 2
Comparing Eq. (31) with (32)
au2eq þ bueq þ c ¼ 0 ð32Þ
We get
Vo
a¼
LC
2Vo Vin 1 kRC
b¼ þ iL
LC LC RC 2

Vin 1 ð1 kRCÞ ð1 kRCÞ
c¼ þ Vo 2 2
þ iL
LC LC RC RC 2
By putting the above data as specified in Table 1 for second boost converter, the
values of a, b and c are obtained as
a ¼ 30:3 106 Vo
b ¼ ð60:6 106 Vo Þ þ ð521:16 106 Þ
ð18:36 106 K 30:3 103 ÞiL
c ¼ 521:21 106 þ Vo ð30:3 106 ð367:3 103 K 606:66ÞÞ
þ ð18:3 106 K 30:3 103 ÞiL
138 N. Swain
Now,
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
b b2 4ac
ueq ¼
2a
Ignoring negative roots and considering positive roots, let the equation be given
in (33).
b2 4ac ¼ x ð33Þ
where
b2 ¼ ð60:6 106 Vo ð18:36 106 K 30:3 103 ÞiL þ 521:16 106 Þ2

4ac ¼ 4 ð30:3 106 Vo Þ ð521:16 106 þ Vo ð30:3 106
ð367:3 103 K 606:6Þ þ ð18:3 106 K 303:3 103 ÞiL ÞÞ
Hence
pffiffiffi
521:1 106 þ x
ueq ¼ 1 þ
60:6 106 Vo
For designing a control law, the positive definite Lyapunov function V can be
defined as in (34).
V ¼ 0:5S2 ð34Þ
The derivative of V with respect to time must be negative definite to establish a

stable system that makes the sliding surface S attractive. Such condition leads to the
following inequality:
_
SS\0
To satisfy such condition, Eq. (35) is defined.
un ¼ signðSÞ ð35Þ
(B) Linear Quadratic Gaussian (LQG) Controller

It is one of the optimal control problems. LQG controller is the combination of an
optimal estimator (Kalman estimator) and optimal regulator (LQR) [4]. In LQG
design, the stability of closed-loop system must be guaranteed using separation
principle [6]. The paper presents the performance analysis of LQG controller under
closed-loop conditions. The paper describes the design and simulation of LQG
optimal controller for a DC–DC converter system. The system description and the
system model are given using state-space averaging technique.
Basic Principle of LQG Optimal Control

A linear dynamic system can be described by the following mathematical models as
given in (36) and (37), respectively:
:
x ¼ Ax þ Bu ð36Þ
y ¼ Cx þ Du ð37Þ
where A, B, C and D are state-space matrices of the linear system model and x is
state vectors, and y is the system output. The LQG control signal u is a state
feedback described below in Eq. (38).
u ¼ Kx ð38Þ
where the vector K is obtained from the solution of algebraic Riccati equation
(ARE). u can be derived from the minimization of the quadratic cost function as
given in Eq. (39).
Z1
J¼ ðxT Qx þ uT RuÞdt ð39Þ
0
where Q and R represent weight matrices, Q is a positive definite or positive

semi-definite symmetry matrix; R is a positive definite symmetry matrix. The
feedback gain matrix K in LQR is solved using the Eq. (40).
K ¼ R1 BT P ð40Þ
P matrix can be evaluated by algebraic Riccati equation (ARE). Three steps can
be formulated to find feedback gain matrix “K” for LQR.
(a) The matrices Q and R must be selected properly.
(b) P must be solved by using ARE.
(c) The feedback gain matrix K must be evaluated by using the relation (41).
K ¼ R1 BT P ð41Þ
The optimal controller gain for this system is found to be
K ¼ ½3:65990:5973:
By using the command “Kalman”, the Kalman estimator is calculated, and using
the command “F = lqgreg(Kest,K)”, the state-space model of LQG regulator is
140 N. Swain
formed. The transfer function of LQG regulator is calculated and is given in

Eq. (42).
0:0024 s 4:214
FðsÞ ¼ ð42Þ
4000 s þ 1:196 107
The optimal control law which minimizes the cost function is given below
u ¼ ½0:01380:0024:
The schematic diagram of cascaded boost converter is illustrated in figure: 4. The

output of the converter is connected to the single-phase inverter which produces an
AC output for a grid coupled system.
The output voltage of the cascaded boost converter is shown in figure: 5.
From the voltage waveform, it is observed that the steady state is reached after
0.2 s which is large for power electronic converter. Figure: 6 illustrates the block
diagram of double step-up converter along with SMC.
Figure: 7 shows the voltage output of the cascaded boost converter with SMC.
The steady-state voltage (460 V) is reached with minimal overshoot, and it settles
after 0.20 s.
It is observed that the output voltage is always reached to the steady state with
less time and less oscillation. So, better tracking is possible by using SMC. Figure:
8 shows the schematic diagram of cascaded boost converter with LQG controller.
The voltage response of the cascaded boost converter along with LQG controller
is presented in figure: 9. It is observed that the output voltage is settled at 460 V
after 0.13 s with no peak overshoot. The smooth DC voltage is achieved by
applying LQG controller.
Table 3 shows the performance comparison between SMC and LQG controller.
Fig. 4 Schematic diagram of cascaded boost converter

Output voltage of the cascaded boost converter

800
700
600
500
400
Vo(volt)
300
200
100
-100
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
time(sec)
Fig. 5 Output voltage of cascaded boost converter
Fig. 6 Schematic diagram of cascaded boost converter with SMC
6 Conclusion
The system is controlled both by using nonlinear and optimal control approach. The
simulation results of all the controllers are promising. Sliding mode control and
optimal control is a new approach to this problem and hence is providing needful
results. Sliding mode controller reduces the no. of oscillations and also the settling
142 N. Swain
output voltage of boost converter using SMC

500
400
300
Vo(volt)
200
100
-100
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
time(sec)
Fig. 7 Output voltage of cascaded boost converter with sliding mode controller
Fig. 8 Schematic diagram of cascaded boost converter with LQG controller
time, and LQG controller also reduces the peak overshoot and setting time. By
comparing these two controllers, it can be concluded that LQG controller is the best
controller for this problem.
Converter voltage with LQG controller

500
400
300
Vo(volt)
200
100
-100
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
time(sec)
Fig. 9 Output voltage of cascaded boost converter with LQG controller
Table 3 Performance comparison of different controllers

Time-domain parameter Without controller With LQG With SMC
Rise time 0.03 s 0.01 s 0.03
Setting time 0.25 s 0.13 s 0.20
Peak overshoot (%) 71.2 0 12.7
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https://doi.org/10.17485/ijst/2016/v9i1/85701
An Innovative Multi-input Boost
Chopper for HEV
A. Ranganadh and M. Chiranjeevi
Abstract In this paper, for efficient functioning of hybrid electric vehicles, a DC–
DC converter which has multiple inputs is used. The output gain can be increased
considerably than that of existing methods. The main input sources for these con-
verters are fuel cell (FC), solar panel and battery. In which FC is treated as the main
power supply and a roof-top PV is used which helps in charging the battery
increasing the efficiency and reducing the fuel consumption. By using this converter,
demanded power can be produced continuously even in the disconnection of either
one or two sources. Moreover, in this, the strategy of power management is
described. In order to authenticate and validate the prototype, this multi-input boost
HEV can be considered. Which is implemented and is tested. This paper presents
design and implementation of a system which gives the information about
multi-input DC–DC converter for hybrid vehicle by using MATLAB/Simulink.
Keywords Hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) Multi-input DC–DC chopper

Fuel cell and pv and battery
1 Introduction
The main drawback of present-day vehicles which are powered by oil or diesel, etc.,
is that these fossil fuels are available in limited amount on the earth and is leading to
environmental pollution. To eliminate the above-mentioned problems, most of the
present-day innovators started showing interest in HEVs and PHEVs [1, 2]. As
these are powered by renewable resources, EVs depend upon the energy which is
maintained in the battery. The main problem which is faced by using this converter
is that it consists of limited driving range, and large amount of time is required for
charging. It can be overcome by using a bidirectional switch board charger.
A. Ranganadh (&)
Department of EEE, Guru Nanak Institute of Technology, Hyderabad, India
M. Chiranjeevi
Department of EEE, PACE Institute of Technology & Sciences, Ongole, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_15
146 A. Ranganadh and M. Chiranjeevi
Solar-based EVs can also be recycled as a conventional energy source in this

system, which are not being implemented due to the size and location of PV panels
[2]. As a result, fuel cells are used for powering the device. The main problems of
FCs are high cost, great density output current capability and poor transient per-
formance. Clean electricity generation, and high efficiency operation. The vehicles
which are mechanized by fuel cells are mixed by ESSs [1]. Cost of per unit power
can be reduced, and problems such as transients can be reduced by hybridization
technique. Boost-dual-half bridge topology-based chopper is recycled for this
purpose which consists of three half-bridges and a three-winding transformer. It is
applied for high step-up applications. The converter size cost is going to high due to
the managing components such as active switches, input inductors and filter
capacitors [2].
The system was proposed by FC and a battery unit. V2G is main advantages of
proposed converter. However, the great number of power switches could reduce the
reliability and increase the cost. In a multi-input DC-DC step-up chopper for hybrid
PV/FC/Battery is proposed. This converter can be charged and discharged only by
using PV and FC leading to the improper functioning A two-input DC–DC converter
is used to connect two power sources with a DC bus or load. Due to turn-on zero
voltage switching (ZVS) of all switches, it attains high efficiency, and also, it does
not consists of bidirectional port.
2 Solar Energy and Boost Converter
Silicon materials are used for building basic photovoltaic cell from its origin.
Photovoltaic cells are made up of silicon material. In the process of photovoltaic
cell structure, it consists of boron atoms from three valance electrons (p-donors)
silicon to create a most affection to attract electrons (Fig. 1).
If any one of the array is shaded, then automatically output will educe, whose
variation of reduction in magnitude depends upon electrical configuration of the
array, and its output will be corresponding to the high amount of light intensity
Fig. 1 Solar energy

An Innovative Multi-input Boost Chopper for HEV 147
which it is subjected to. If the shadowed cell or shadowed module is connected

electrically to other cells and modules which are unshaded, then there will be a
reduction in the performance characteristics.
2.1 Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)
They follow the MPPT’s maximum power cooperate photovoltaic (electronic)

system module that allows power modules for everything. The main problem with
this method is that it frequently, if it is necessary accordingly, finds the MPP Vmpp
voltage or current or the maximum power given to it by the photoelectric and
external temperature. In this segment, most useful MPPT techniques are described
in any order [2].
A. Fractional Open-Circuit Voltage
In this approach, it shows the relationship between the maximum voltage and the
VOC is considered constant VMPP arrangement that made the observations. It was
observed that K1 factor varies between 0.71 and 0.78. For this reason, the constant
K1 is a measure of the VOC and VMPP with the help of periodic checking of those
parameters. The implementation is simple and inexpensive to this effect, and the
screening efficiency and its efficiency are low due to improper, which are in a
constant K1 in the VMMP.
B. Fractional Short-Circuit Current
This method is based on the observation that the current at the maximum power
point of the IMPP is approximately linearly related to the short-circuit current of the
ISC. Here, it is not consistent with themselves and women, between 0.78 and 0.92.
Circuit K2 is short, and accurate measurement of the current cycle of periodicals
determines efficiency.
DC–DC Converter
DC-to-DC converter performs the operation of producing variable DC voltage
under constant supply of DC voltage [3, 4]. Different ranges of output voltages can
be achieved. They are used in power bus regulation, providing noise isolation, etc.
Boost Converter
The schematic in Fig. 2 depicts the basic boost converter. Boost converter increases
the output voltage for the given input (Fig. 3).
Buck-Boost Converter
In order to required continuous current conduction operation Buck-Boost converter
is preferred. the transistor will be on when Vx = Vin and will be in off position when
Vx = V0. The duty cycle “D” range is from 0 to 1 for this convertor. As a result,
the output voltage can vary the range of lesser or greater than input magnitude.
Fig. 2 Boost converter
Fig. 3 Buck-boost converter
Among all the converters, only the buck converter exhibits linear graph between the
duty ratio and output voltage. In order to get desired higher voltage, solar cells are
assembled in series. In maximum cases this method of connecting cells in series.
In such cases, boost converters are used which help in increasing voltage and
decreasing of the cells [5, 6].
Battery
It is a device which provides electrical energy to electrical devices in which elec-
trochemical cells are associated with cascaded or concurrent as per the requirement.
In a battery, electrons flow from negative terminal to the device and reach one end
of the cell that may be positive in order to transfer the energy from battery to
device. When a device is linked to a battery, electrolytes exist in a battery move as
ions which helps in completing the chemical reactions required in order to transfer
the energy.
Lithium-Ion Battery
A battery of calcium ion and lithium-ion (LIB) batteries consists of charging and
discharging of their energy levels. The lithium batteries inter calculated lithium
compound is recycled as the electrode material and compared with a non-calcium
Fig. 4 Battery module for hybrid vehicle
metals are used in a rechargeable lithium battery. Electrolysis allows ionic movement,
and two electrodes are a constituent component ion cell battery. Electrochemical
reactions on electrolyte reagents and positive and negative lithium-ion electrolytes are
providing a lithium-ion model into the conductive medium between the electrodes to
move. The main important difference between a fuel cell and a battery is that fuel cell
requires fuel and oxygen as a continuous source (Fig. 4).
Fuel Cell
An electrochemical cell which converts the electrical energy from chemical energy
from a fuel by using an oxidizing agent by undergoing electro chemical reactions
[7]. The main important difference between a fuel cell and a battery is that fuel cell
requires of fuel and oxygen as a continuous source, whereas batteries do not require
any such arrangement as it utilizes the chemicals that are previously exists in the
battery. Hence, continuous supply of fuel is necessary for a fuel cell in order to
produce electricity continuously.
2.2 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells
Fuel cells with a polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM), also called proton mem-
brane exchange fuel cells, are recycled to contribute high power density. It consists
of advantages such as less mass and volume compared to other fuel cells [8].
In PEM fuel cells, a solid polymer is used as electrodes consisting of porous carbon
containing a catalyst made of platinum or a platinum alloy. Work requires only
hydrogen and oxygen from air and water.
2.3 Direct Methanol Fuel Cells
They supply hydrogen to the fuel cell system or by transferring hydrogen-rich fuels
such as methanol, ethyl, and hydrocarbon fuels, by developing hydrogen in the fuel
cell system [8]. Due to the high energy density property of methanol to handle
hydrogen, this fuel supply and transportation become easier, as a result of which
direct fuel cells with methanol are used in many modern applications such as
mobile phones and laptops.
3 Proposed System and Control Strategies
For the performance verification of this converter, a 80 W prototype version of the

circuit is built and tested in presented three states. Switching frequency is con-
sidered about 30 kHz. As mentioned earlier, the expected chopper had greatest
capacity being used for different industrial and domestic applications such as HEV,
DGs interface, smart homes. Power sources are mainly PV arrays, fuel cells and so
on. Ignoring the transient time of the power sources, they could be replaced by DC
power supplies to obtain experimental results. Li-ion type batteries are used widely
due to their better performance in portable electronic gadgets. High reliability, high
energy density, high temperature performance and being recyclable are main fea-
tures of Li-ion batteries [6]. Due to high switching frequency, ferrite cores are
chosen for the both inductors (Figs. 5 and 6) [9].
The structure of proposed multi-input step-up chopper is depicted. A conventional
boost converters convert the voltage from lower level to higher level. Its charac-
teristic converter is suitable for hybrid systems. In this work, the behavior of
the source converter is in terms of objective managing to show the power of
Fig. 5 General structure of multi-powered EHV

Fig. 6 Topology of the proposed convertor
management and control. The PV and FC are two independent power sources, and
the output ratio is based on them. L1and L2 are inductance grams from the input
panel of fuel filters and the cell. And in a series began to use L1 and L2 to change the
sources of current Sources of photovoltaic modules to the FC. r1 and r2 are VPV’s
and VFC’s equivalent resistance, respectively. Earth is the equivalent resistance of
R-600 connected to the bus loads. S1, S2, S3 and S4 are power switches. Diodes D1,
D2, D3 and D4 are used to establish modes. The increase of the output to the
capacitor C1 to the capacitor Co and the result is that the gain of the voltage output of
filter. The behavior of the continuous operation system (CCM) to produce smooth
operation with less amount of vibration can be performed [9, 10].
3.1 Principle of Operation
In this section, principles of the suggested converter are discussed. Operation of the
converter is divided into three states: (1) The load is supplied by PV and FC, and
battery is not used. (2) The load is supplied by PV, FC and battery; in this state,
battery is in discharging mode. (3) The load is supplied by PV and FC, and battery
is in charging mode.
3.1.1 Topological Modes and Analysis
A. First operation state (The load is delivered by PV and FC, while battery is not
used)
In this state, there are three modes of operation. In this state, there is no operating
system, the battery charge or discharge. Therefore, there are two paths for current to
Fig. 7 Current flow path of operating modes in the first operating state
Fig. 8 Current flow path of operating modes in the third operating state
flow (through S3 and D3 or D1 and S4). In this paper, S3 and D3 are considered
as a common path. However, D1 and S4 could be chosen as an alternative
path. During this state, switch S3 is permanently ON and switch S4 is OFF
(Figs. 7 and 8) [10].
B. Second operation state (The load is equipped by photo voltaic, FC and battery)
In this state, there are four modes of operation. During this state, the load is
supplied by all input sources (PV, FC and battery). In the first mode, there is only
one current path. However, in the other three modes, there are two current paths
(through S3 and D3 or D1 and S4). In this state, current flows through D1 and S4.
Switch S4 is permanently ON during this state.
C. Third operation state (The load is given by PV and FC, while battery is in
charging mode)
This is illustrated in Fig. 10 four ways. In the state of FC, mass sends power to the
battery. Both the first and second modes of operation, there are two S3 and S4
travels mainly D1 current or D3). D1 is selected to be in the S4 path, and the current
flows in this state. During this state, switch S3 is permanently OFF and diode D1
conducts [9].
Fig. 9 Simulink for first mode operation

Fig. 10 Output voltage graph for the first case
Fig. 11 Output current for the first case
Figure 9. shows the Simulink circuit for the proposed system for first mode of
operation.
Figures 10 and 11 show the output voltage and currents for the first mode of
operation, respectively, output desired voltage is desired to be about 120 V, and
output current is about 18A. As mentioned, in this state, battery’s power is zero.
Fig. 12 Simulink model for the second mode of operation
4.1 For Second Mode of Operation (The Load is Supplied

by PV, FC and Battery)
Figure 12 shows the Simulink circuit for the second mode of operation of the
proposed system. During this state, the load is provided by all input sources (PV,
FC and battery). The current paths are S3 and D3 or D1 and S4.
Figures 13 and 14 show the graph of output current and voltages of the Simulink
circuit for second mode of operation, respectively. The outputs of the system where
the battery is in discharging mode are the voltage is around 125 V and output
current is about 1.6A.
4.2 For Third Mode of Operation (The Load is Dispensed

by PV and FC, While Battery is in Charging Mode)
Figure 15 shows the Simulink circuit for the third mode of operation of the pro-
posed system. During this state, PV and FC charge the battery and supply the
energy of load. The current paths are through S3 and D3 or D1 and S4.
Figures 16 and 17 show the output voltage and output current graphs of the
proposed system for the third state of operation, respectively. In this mode of
operation, the battery is in charging mode. The output voltage and currents of the
mode of operation are 120 V and 1.6A, respectively.
Fig. 13 Output voltage for the second mode
Fig. 14 Output current for the second mode

Fig. 15 Simulink model for the third mode
Fig. 16 Output voltage for the third case

Fig. 17 Output current for the third case
5 Conclusion
In this paper, an emerging three-input DC/DC converter is proposed and analyzed

thoroughly. The converter is able to supply the power load demanded in the search
of one or two sources. Expectancy and performance patterns are also out of power
of domestic and industrial processes with great reliability by stumbling the timer
into the head and do an offering to use the converter. The converter is modeled for
three different operational states and utilized to design a proper controller. MPPT
algorithm is achieved and along power management is utilized to apply the com-
mands of controller. Meanwhile, employing power management and MPPT pro-
cedure will enhance the performance of converter. Finally, a practical prototype of
the presented converter is implemented, and results are taken and depicted. Results
prove the analysis and performance of the converter.
References
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power electronics interface for electric vehicles applications. IEEE Trans. Power Electron.
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2806–2816 (2014)
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for vehicles, in Battery advanced books miscarry (2003)
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DC–DC/AC boost converter. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 29(2), 775–788 (2014)
10. Y.M. Chen, A.Q. Huang, X. Yu, A high step-up three-port dc-dc converter for stand-alone pv/
battery power systems. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 28(11), 5049–5062 (2013)
Performance Evaluation of Transistor
Clamped H-Bridge (TCHB)-Based
Five-Level Inverter
V. Kiranmayee and A. Sharath Kumar
Abstract Multilevel inverters are usually employed in high-power applications.

Lower harmonics in the output make the multilevel inverters capable to handle
high-power applications. Their main drawbacks are complex circuitry, with high
number of power electronic devices and passive components. So, a structure called
Transistor Clamped H-Bridge Multilevel Inverter (TCHB) is designed. This
topology gives five-level voltage output with reduced number of switches. The
simulation results employing level-shifted multicarrier modulation are presented,
and THD is observed.
Keywords Multilevel inverters (MLI) TCHB five-level MLI Reliability

improvement THD Efficiency
1 Introduction
Recently, by fast developing of high-power devices and controlling methods,

multilevel inverters are becoming more popular in industrial companies. The
multilevel inverters are kind of power electronic devices which convert a DC
voltage to favourable AC voltage [1]. Multilevel inverters (MLI) normally combine
the step voltage waveform of several levels of DC voltage sources. Power quality,
less total harmonic distortion, reduced voltage gradient across the switches, good
electromagnetic compatibility, less switching losses and low dv/dt stress are the
supplementary benefits of MLI [2]. In the case of higher number levels in the output
(>5), NPC and FC require complicated techniques for maintaining its voltage of
capacitor at constant value while CHB requires many isolated DC sources [3].
Apart from the above problems, MLIs use a more number of semiconductor
components which increase its cost and decrease the reliability.
V. Kiranmayee A. Sharath Kumar (&)

Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Kamala Institute of Technology & Science,
Huzurabad, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_16
162 V. Kiranmayee and A. Sharath Kumar
This paper propounds a new fault-tolerant technique for five-level Transistor

Clamped H-Bridge (TCHB) inverter which can be imprecise for higher levels by
using cascading connections. TCHB inverter for symmetrical configuration was
first proposed in [4]. However, the main drawback of this topology is the loss of
modularity. Hence, the cascaded version for symmetrical topology is proposed for
symmetrical configuration to achieve the modularity in TCHB inverter. In [5], the
asymmetrical operation of the TCHB inverter is proposed for high-power quality
applications. The disadvantages of these inverters are the fault intolerance capa-
bilities. Fault on switches of its H-bridge will lead to total shut down of the
operation. Hence, in [6], the fault tolerance for TCHB topology is proposed, but for
DC/DC converter [7]. In this strategy, the third support is added to the topology
which operated in case of a fault. Therefore, the TCHB topologies lag in appli-
cations where continuity is of utmost important as compared with CHB. Hence, in
this paper, a new topology for fault tolerance improvement of TCHB inverter is
presented [8, 9].
2 Operation and Principle of the Transistor Clamped

H-Bridge (TCHB) Five-Level Multilevel Inverter
Topologies
Conventional Topology
Figure 1 shows the new cascaded five-level H-bridge multilevel inverter. It has five
output voltage levels that are 0, Vs/2, Vs, −Vs/2, −Vs (Table 1).
The operating states of TCHB inverter are simulated for ten switching states. For
the output voltage Vs, the switches S1, S4 should be in ON position.
Fig. 1 A configuration of the single-phase five-level PWM inverter

Performance Evaluation of Transistor Clamped H-Bridge (TCHB) … 163
Table 1 Output voltage based on the ON–OFF position of the switch

ON switches Node A voltage (VA) Node B voltage (VB) Output voltage (VAB = V0)
S1, S4 VS 0 VS
S4, S5 VS/2 0 VS/2
S2, S4 0 (VS) 0 (VS) 0
S3, S5 0 VS/2 −VS/2
S2, S3 0 VS −VS
Table 2 Different switching states of modified topology

Output ON state Effect on capacitor if Effect on capacitor if
voltage switches iL [ 0 iL \0
Vs S1 ; S5 ; S6 No effect No effect
Vs =2 S5 ; S6 ; S7 Capacitor discharges Capacitor charges
0 S4 ; S5 ; S7 No effect No effect
Vs =2 S3 ; S4 ; S7 Capacitor charges Capacitor discharges
For the output voltage Vs =2, switches S4 ; S5 should be in ON position.

For the output voltage 0, either switches S3 ; S4 or S1 ; S2 should be in ON
position.
For the output voltage Vs =2, switches S3 ; S5 need to be turned on.
For the output voltage Vs , switches S2 ; S3 need to be turned on.
The operating states of TCHB inverter are simulated for ten switching states.
The operational states of the standard inverter are shown in Fig. 2a, b, e, f, i and j,
respectively, and the additional states in the proposed inverter operating at half level
of DC bus voltage are shown in Fig. 2c, d, g and h.
Modified Topology: The modified topology can generate five-level output
voltage (i.e. Vs ; Vs =2; 0; Vs =2; Vs ). The two capacitors connected in series will
get charged into half of the DC supply voltage. To achieve higher number of levels
in the output, cascading of the modified topology is proposed (Fig. 3).
Working levels: As the modified topology is a combination of CHB leg and
NPC leg, the faults are classified based on the switches of above-mentioned leg,
which are summarised in Table 3. The steps to be followed under fault condition
are:
(a) Isolate the leg connection of faulted switch with the help of fast fuses.
(b) Modify modulation index to half.
(c) Update the switching strategy in accordance with Table 3.
For this modified topology, the fault tolerant strategies are fault on Leg-I (i.e.
either both switches are open or one of the switches is opened or one switch open
while the other being short). The switching states of the modified topology have
been shown in Table 2.
Fig. 2 a State 1: Vo ¼ Vs ; io ¼ ð þ veÞ, b State 2: Vo ¼ Vs ; io ¼ ðveÞ, c State 3: Vo ¼ Vs =2;

io ¼ ð þ veÞ, d State 4: Vo ¼ Vs =2; io ¼ ðveÞ, e State 5: Vo ¼ 0; io ¼ ð þ veÞ, f State 6: Vo ¼ 0;
io ¼ ðveÞ, g State 7: Vo ¼ Vs =2; io ¼ ð þ veÞ, h State 8: Vo ¼ Vs =2; io ¼ ðveÞ, i State 9:
Vo ¼ Vs ; io ¼ ð þ veÞ, j State 10: Vo ¼ Vs ; io ¼ ðveÞ
Fig. 3 Modified five-level Transistor Clamped H-Bridge inverter
Table 3 Different switching states of modified topology under fault

VS =2 S5 ; S6 ; S7 Capacitor discharges Capacitor charges
VS =2 S3 ; S4 ; S7 Capacitor charges Capacitor discharges
The current path for modified topology for each state along with effect of
capacitor is shown in Fig. 4 (Figs. 5 and 6; Tables 4 and 5).
The conventional TCHB-based five-level MLI using LS-POD PWM has been
simulated and the output voltage and current waveforms and THD have been
observed (Figs. 7, 8, 9 and 10).
The modified TCHB-based five-level MLI using LS-POD PWM under fault
conditions (Leg-I) has been simulated and the output voltage and current wave-
forms and THD have been observed (Figs. 11, 12, 13 and 14).
The modified five-level TCHB multilevel inverter using level-shifted phase
opposition disposition PWM technique when under fault conditions (Leg-I, i.e. S1
open and S2 shorted) and the output voltage and current waveforms have been
observed.
The modified five-level TCHB multilevel inverter using level-shifted phase
opposition disposition PWM technique when under fault conditions (Leg-I, i.e. S2
Fig. 4 a Output voltage = Vs =2 (capacitor discharging), b output voltage = Vs =2 (capacitor

charging), c output voltage = Vs, d output voltage = Vs, e output voltage = 0 V, f output
voltage = 0 V, g output voltage = Vs =2 (capacitor charging), h output voltage = Vs =2
(capacitor discharging), i output voltage = −Vs, j output voltage = −Vs
Fig. 5 a Output voltage = 0 V, b output voltage = 0 V, c output voltage = Vs , d output

voltage = Vs
Fig. 6 a Output voltage = 0 V, b output voltage = 0 V, c output voltage = Vs , d output

voltage = Vs
Table 4 Switching state modified topology under the fault condition

Table 5 Switching state modified topology under the fault condition

Fig. 7 Output current and voltage waveform of conventional five-level TCHB multilevel inverter
Fig. 8 Conventional five-level TCHB multilevel inverter with multicarrier modulation,

THD = 39.34%
Fig. 9 Output voltage and current waveform five-level TCHB multilevel inverter
Fig. 10 Modified five-level TCHB multilevel inverter of modified THD = 4.44%
Fig. 11 Output current and voltage waveforms

Fig. 12 Modified five-level TCHB multilevel inverter for a modified five-level TCHB multilevel
inverter under post-fault conditions (Leg-I opened), THD = 2.97% under fault conditions (Leg-I
opened)
Fig. 13 Output current and voltage waveforms for modified five-level TCHB multilevel under
fault conditions (Leg-I, i.e. S1 open and S2 shorted)
open and S1 closed) has been simulated and the output voltage and current
waveforms have been observed.
The comparative analysis for a conventional five-level TCHB topology and
modified five-level TCHB topology has been studied and the results are shown in
Table 6.
Fig. 14 Output waveforms for modified five-level TCHB multilevel inverter under fault
conditions (Leg-I, i.e. S2 open and S1 closed)
Table 6 Comparison of TCHB five-level topologies

Parameters Conventional five-level Modified five-level TCHB
TCHB topology topology
PD POD APOD PD POD APOD
Switches of blocking voltage VS/2 1 1 1 5 5 5
Switches of blocking voltage VS 4 4 4 2 2 2
Total number of switches 5 5 5 7 7 7
DC source 1 1 1 1 1 1
Capacitor 2 2 2 2 2 2
Clamped diodes 0 0 0 2 2 2
Reliability in case if fault on Leg-I Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Reliability in case if fault on No No No Yes Yes Yes
Leg-II
Efficiency (%) 91.2 97.46 97.65 91.25 95.42 91.25
4 Conclusion
A five-level cascaded H-bridge multilevel with multicarrier pulse width modulation

is presented. The simulation results show that the total harmonic distortion is low
for multicarrier modulation method when compared with a conventional cascaded
multilevel inverter. This circuit also decreases the number of switches, sources and
losses. The total harmonic distortion for the presented model is observed.
References
1. J. Lai, F.Z. Peng, Multilevel converters—a new source of power converters. IEEE Trans. Ind.
Appl. 3, 509–517 (1996)
2. J. Rodriguez, J.-S. Lai, F.Z. Peng, Multilevel inverters: a survey of topologies, and
applications. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 4, 724–738 (2002)
3. J. Li, A.Q. Huang, Z. Liang et al., Analysis and design of active NPC (ANPC) inverters for
fault-tolerant operation of high-power electrical drives. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 2, 519–
533 (2012)
4. S. Ceballos, J. Pou, J. Zaragoza et al., Fault-tolerant neutral-point-clamped converter solutions
based on including a fourth resonant leg. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 6, 2293–2303 (2011)
5. S. Ceballos, J. Pou, E. Robles et al., Three-level converter topologies with switch breakdown
fault-tolerance capability. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 55(3), 982–995 (2008)
6. X. Kou, K.A. Corzine, Y.L. Familiant, A unique fault-tolerant design for flying capacitor
multilevel inverter. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 4, 979–987 (2004)
7. K. Mohana Sundaram, P. Anandhraj, V. Vimalraj Ambeth, PV-fed eleven-level capacitor
switching multi-level inverter for grid integration, in Advances in Smart Grid and Renewable
Energy, Lecture notes in Electrical Engineering (Springer, Singapore, 2018), pp. 57–64
8. M. Ma, L. Hu, A. Chen et al., Reconfiguration of carrier-based modulation strategy for fault
tolerant multilevel inverters. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 5, 2050–2060 (2007)
9. S. Ceballos, J. Pou, E. Robles et al., Performance evaluation of fault-tolerant
neutral-point-clamped converters. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 8, 2709–2718 (2010)
Enhancement of Power Quality
by the Combination of D-STATCOM
and UPQC in Grid Connected to Wind
Turbine System
M. Sumithra and B. C. Sujatha
Abstract Due to concern on the environment protection, eco-friendly technology

is developed in different kinds of delicate and micro-scale non-conventional energy
sources in our everyday life. In this paper, the WES generates power and voltage at
PCC instantaneously with the grid, which is then simulated by considering the
power quality problems occurring in grid system. To mitigate power quality issues,
combination of D-STATCOM and UPQC is used. The goal of this study is con-
cerned on power quality issues, i.e., voltage/current fluctuation, flickers, harmonic
caused by WES and FACTS device. In this paper, the parameters like voltage/
current sag/swell are analyzed and simulated in SIMULINK/MATLAB software.

Keywords Wind energy system (WES) Battery energy storage system (BESS)

Distributed static compensator (D-STATCOM) Unified power quality compen-

sator (UPQC) Total harmonic distortion (THD) Point of common coupling

(PCC) Current-controlled voltage source (CCVS)
1 Introduction
In recent days, requirement of electric power is increasing with exceeding sus-

tainable growth and social progress, the production of electricity with renewable
energy resources is more challenging task for generating systems to meet power
requirements. Hence to meet the required power, non-conventional power gener-
ating systems are used. The non-conventional power resources like wind turbine,
bio-fuel, water, and hybrid generating systems are used to fulfill required power for
increased population growth, industrialization, and environment friendly as per the
environment protection regulation guide lines [1, 2]. WES generates electricity
which converts mechanical energy from wind into electricity. Induction generator is
employed for run WES which is directly connected to grid. The wind energy
systems present a technical challenge like instability, voltage deregulation, and
M. Sumithra (&) B. C. Sujatha

Department of EEE, UVCE, Bangalore University, K R Circle, Bangalore 560001, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_17
174 M. Sumithra and B. C. Sujatha
power quality issues [2]. The power quality problems, i.e., current/voltage raise/
drop, current/voltage disturbances, THD, imbalance, and short term voltage, which
affects on the consumer instruments, cause mal-operation in their function. The
more common power quality issues caused by several power electronic compen-
sating equipments which are used for mitigation of the power quality issues, such as
SVC, STATCOM, UPFC, UPQC, SSSC, etc., are used to minimize the effects
caused by voltage variation [3]. In this paper, combination of D-STATCOM and
UPQC is used to reduce power quality problems caused by WES connected to grid
system.
2 Power Quality Problems
2.1 Voltage Variation
This is due to continuous variation of the air velocity/speed and generated torque.
The variation in direct proportion to true power (P) and reactive power (Q). Voltage
variation can be classified as voltage sag/dip, voltage swell/raise, voltage flicker/
fluctuation, and voltage unbalance.
2.2 Harmonics
Harmonics are generated by using power electronic device and non-linear load. It
should be limited to acceptable limits. Usually, it should be within 5%.
2.3 Self-excitation of WES
The self-excitation of WES with an induction generator is carried out after WES is
disconnected with non-linear load. Constant voltage block connected to the
induction generator hence reactive power is compensated, however by balancing of
the power system frequency voltage is regulated. The cons occurring in the
self-excitation are safeties, real, and reactive power balance achievement [4].
Enhancement of Power Quality by the Combination … 175
3 Analysis of Power Quality Enhancement
3.1 Power Quality Enhancement by D-STATCOM
The D-STATCOM consists of a 3-U VSC, and a capacitor is connected as DC link

with BESS, connected at PCC. The D-STATCOM provides different magnitude
and frequency component current for compensation at PCC. The D-STATCOM is
based on CCVS converter that injects current into the power system or PCC so that
the supply current (Is) become harmonics free and which is in-phase with source
voltage. Figure 1 shown BESS with D-STATCOM [3].
3.2 Power Quality Enhancement by UPQC
The quality of power to the consumers is produced by the use of UPQC. UPQC
consists of series and shunt compensators combined together which is connected
via an electrical capacitor, which acts as a dc link so that the harmonic elements are
within desired limits. The series element of the UPQC is known as dynamic voltage
restorer (DVR) used to balance voltage level, and minimize the distortion at load
side. The shunt element of UPQC is known as D-STATCOM used for load reactive
power (Q) compensation; hence, source current is free from harmonic content and
load is balanced. Generalized block diagram of UPQC is shown in Fig. 2.
The equation of real and reactive power of the line is,
Vs Vr
P¼ sin d ð1Þ
X
Fig. 1 Interior structure of D-STATCOM

Fig. 2 Interior structure of UPQC
Vs Vr cos d Vr2
Q¼ ð2Þ
X
where
Vs Supply-side voltage.
Vr load-side voltage.
X System impedance.
3.3 Wind Energy System (WES)
Based on fixed speed topology with pitch control, wind turbine generates wind
energy. In this scheme, the asynchronous generators are used because of simplicity
and do not require field circuit separately. This can confess fixed and changing load
and provide natural protection in opposition to short circuit. The obtained power
generated by WES is given under Eq. 3, [2].
1
Pout ¼ kCp qAU 3 ð3Þ
2
where
Pout Output power in kW.
k Constant to yield power in kW.
Cp Maximum power coefficient.
q Air density in kg/m.
A Turbine blade area in m.
Uwind Air speed in m/s.
4 Simulation and Result
The WES connected grid system with combination of UPQC and D-STATCOM
was modeled for a non-linear load in MATLAB/SIMULATION software. The
system parameter is shown in Table 1.
Figures 1, 2, and 3 show the interior structure of D-STATCOM, UPQC, and
completed model of grid connected WES with UPQC and D-STATCOM, respec-
tively. In this model, UPQC and D-STATCOM combined together with wind
energy system; D-STATCOM provides compensation current to maintain the
constant terminal voltage, elimination of harmonics, and balanced load. The
D-STATCOM consists of three pairs of CCVS converter base IGBT, DC link
capacitance, and AC inductance. The DC link capacitance is provided as an energy
storage device to provide reactive power compensation. Whereas UPQC consisting
of six thyristors connected altogether in each module with a dc link provided
Table 1 Simulation parameters

S. No. Parameter Rating
1 Source 3-Phase, 50 Hz, 415 V
2 Induction generator/motor 1.5 MVA, 50 Hz, 415 V, p = 4, Rs = 0.0021,
Ls = 0.06, Rr = 0.0019, Rr = 0.0016
3 Inverter parameter Vdc = 700, Switching frequency = 28 kHz,
Cdc = 0.750 µF, R = 1 Ω
4 Shunt inverter LC filter (UPQC) L = 15 H, R = 5 Ω, C = 100 µF
5 Series inverter LC filter (UPQC) L = 10 mH, R = 5 Ω, C = 10 µF
6 DC link for UPQC C = 750 µF
7 Load 40 kW
Fig. 3 Simulation model

between the series and shunt filters. The UPQC provides compensated power to
protect sensitive loads as well as enhances reliability of the network. Complete
modeling of grid connected WES by using UPQC and D-STATCOM is shown in
Fig. 3 (Figs. 4, 5, 6 and 7).
Fig. 4 a Supply current. b Wind current
Fig. 5 Swell mitigation. a D-STATCOM current. b UPQC current. c Load current
Fig. 6 Sag mitigation. a Supply current. b Wind current. c D-STATCOM current. d UPQC
current. e Load current
Fig. 7 FFT analysis. a with UPQC and D-STATCOM. b Without UPQC and D-STATCOM
5 Conclusion
This paper presents the WES, D-STATCOM, and UPQC with filter and non-linear
load connected at PCC. Due to integration of WES, power quality problems exist
and connecting non-linear load total harmonic distortion (THD) occurs in the
system. Power quality problems like sag, swell, fluctuation, and flicker are miti-
gated by using D-STATCOM and UPQC with filter. Without D-STATCOM and
UPQC, load current THD is 30.02% and then with D-STATCOM and UPQC, THD
has been reduced to 0.90%.
References
1. S. Mohamm, Power quality improvement using a novel D-STATCOM-control scheme for

linear and non-linear loads, in ICEEOT (2016)
2. M. Patel, Power quality improvement using D-STATCOM. Int. J. Electr. Eng. 3(5) (2016)
3. P.R. Kasari, M. Paul, B. Das, A. Chakraborti, Analysis of D-STATCOM for power quality
enhancement in distribution network, in Proceeding of the 2017 IEEE Region 10 Conference
(TENCON), Malaysia (2017)
4. S. Karare, V.M. Harne, Modelling and simulation of improved operation of D-STATCOM in
distribution system for power quality improvement using MATLAB simulink tool, in ICECA
(2017)
Transient Steadiness and Dynamic
Response in Transmission Lines by SVC
with TID and MPPT Controller
Ajay Kumar and T. S. Prasanna
Abstract In order to maintain stable and efficient power system with growing
demand, there is a quick progress of power electronics, which introduces the
FACTS device. That is able to resolve the volatility problem easily. The FACTS
device static var compensator (SVC) helps in improving the active and reactive
power of the system. Maximum power point tracking (MPPT) is an external con-
trolling device, which is used with FACTS device. The controller has been tested
on a two-machine and three-buses in a control system using MATLAB software.
The model consumes lesser runtime for maximum number of oscillation and to
damp out the unwanted harmonics in the system. TID and MPPT controllers are
used to control the machine and SVC device.

Keywords Static var compensators (SVC) Voltage regulator PID controller

TID tuning MPPT controller Active power (AP) Reactive power (RP)
Flexible AC transmission system (FACTS) MATLAB simulink
1 Introduction
In recent year, the customs power expertise, the low voltage counterpart of the more
commonly known flexible AC transmission system (FACTS) technology, brings up
with a feasible resolution to solve many problems relating to steadiness of supply at
the consumer. To overcome these losses, we need to use different parameters which
will reduce these losses with more stable operation. So that overall system per-
formance can be increased. It is observed that the power control capability can be
amplified by using static var compensation device [1, 2]. Most of the devices are
control electronics based. FACTS devices are coupled in series for better perfor-
mance. The power system is more affected by some factors such as AP, RP,
reactance, susceptibility, control factor, quality, fluctuation of current, and voltage
[3, 4]. The term steadiness specifies the capacity to sustain the machineries in
A. Kumar (&) T. S. Prasanna

Department of Electrical Engineering, U. V. C. E. College, Bangalore, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_18
182 A. Kumar and T. S. Prasanna
synchronism. If the fluctuation in speed level of the machines, at that moment there
will be a vibration in the system, which can be damp out by using PID controller
[5]. The tilt integral derivative controller is a newly intended controller which has
good performance and gives feasible results over PI or PID-based controller [6].
The analogous mode may work satisfactory. The main impartial of paper is to bring
the system into stable condition by using MPPT algorithm [7, 8], which is
employed in PV inverter endlessly to amend the impedance realized by the solar
array to retain the PV system operating at, or close to, the peak control point of the
PV panel under variable load conditions with change in solar irradiance, hotness,
and load [9].
2 Static Var Compensator (SVC)
The controlling device which controls the real and RP tends to make system to be
continual which sets voltage at its termini by monitoring the amount of RP injected
into or absorbed from the power network. The SVC is a shunt device of the FACTS
family using power electronics to regulate power flow and progress transient
steadiness in power networks [3]. The SVC sets voltage at its workstations by
adjusting the sum of RP vaccinated into engrossed from the power network. If
network voltage is low, the SVC generates RP (SVC capacitive). If network voltage
is high, it absorbs RP (SVC inductive). The deviation of RP is analyzed by
changing three-phase capacitor banks and inductor banks linked on the secondary
side of a coupling transformer. Each capacitor bank is switched on and off by three
thyristor switches (thyristor switched capacitor or TSC). Reactors may be switched
on-off (thyristor switched reactor or TSR) or phase-controlled (thyristor controlled
reactor or TCR).
SVC has no rotary part unlike synchronous machine. SVC is used in voltage
controller mode by controlling the reactive var in the network, where it is coupled.
SVC can draw leading or lagging var to regulate the voltage variation or regulation
in the network. If there is a drop in the voltage, then it delivers reactive control, and
if there is a rise in the voltage, then it absorbs reactive control. So, the SVC can be
used as a source or sink of reactive var in according to the necessity of user.
Here the objectives are:
a. Very fast control response time
b. Feasibility of individual phase control with parameter
c. Reduced losses
d. High reliability
e. Less maintenance (absence of rotator parts)
f. SVC voltage control.
Transient Steadiness and Dynamic Response in Transmission … 183
2.1 Configuration of SVC
It has distinct types of SVC:

1. Fixed capacitor-thyristor controlled reactor (FCTCR)
2. Thyristor switched capacitor (TSC-TCR).
The second type is quite reliable than the first one and acquires reduced rating of
the reactor and therefore generates fewer harmonic. The schematic diagram of a
TSC-TCR type SVC is shown in Fig. 1. The illustrations of the TCR and TSC are
allied on the secondary side of a step-down transformer. Tuned and high-pass
screens are also allied in parallel which deliver capacitive RP at fundamental fre-
quency. The voltage gesture is taken from the high voltage SVC bus by means of a
potential transformer.
A. Designed of PID Controller
The procedure of selecting the control parameters to meet the given performance
stipulations is called PID tuning. Here, PID controller is tuned by the triple integral
differential (TID) method.
It has three term control signal,
ZZZ
Kp d3 eðtÞ
UðtÞ ¼ Kp eðtÞ þ eðtÞdt þ Kp Td ð1Þ
Ti dt3
Fig. 1 Typical SVC

(TSC-TCR) structure

UðsÞ 1
¼ Kp 1 þ þ Td S 3
ð2Þ
EðsÞ Ti S3

1
Gc ðsÞ ¼ Kp 1 þ þ Td S 3
ð3Þ
Ti S3

1
Gc ðsÞ ¼ 0:6 Kcr 1 þ þ 0:125 Pcr S 3
ð4Þ
0:5Pcr S3

1 1
Gc ðsÞ ¼ 0:6Kcr S 0:125Pcr Kp S þ
2
þ ð5Þ
0:5Pcr S2 0:125Pcr S 0:125Pcr

16 8
Gc ðsÞ ¼ 0:075 Kcr Pcr S S2 þ 2 4 þ ð6Þ
Pcr S Pcr S

4 16
Gc ðsÞ ¼ 0:075Kcr Pcr S S2 þ 2 þ ð7Þ
Pcr S2 P2cr S2
2
4
Gc ðsÞ ¼ 0:075 Kcr Pcr S S þ ð8Þ
Pcr S2
2
Pcr S3 þ 4
Gc ðsÞ ¼ 0:075 Kcr Pcr S ð9Þ
Pcr S2
2
0:075 Kcr Pcr Pcr S3 þ 4
Gc ðsÞ ¼ ð10Þ
S Pcr S
2
0:075 200 0:2 0:2S3 þ 4
Gc ðsÞ ¼ ð11Þ
S 0:2 S
2
3 0:2S3 þ 4
Gc ðsÞ ¼ ð12Þ
S 0:2 S
For choosing the appropriate controller constraints, TID is tuned as described

above. In this process, limitation is selected as Ti = ∞, Td = 0 by using the PID
controller action as shown in Fig. 2, Simply increase in Kp = 0 to a critical value
Kcr. On which the output leading to continual alternations Fig. 4. Thus, the critical
gain Kcr and the analogous period Pcr are experimentally carried out. It is advised
that the values of the parameters Kp Ti Td would be fixed according to the for-
mulation as same as Zieglar–Nicles method. Figure 5 shows the Simulink of
interior assembly of PID controller with change in angular speed of input (Fig. 3).
Fig. 2 Block diagram of PID controller
Fig. 3 PID controller is in proportional action
Fig. 4 Analysis of continuous swinging (Pcr)
Fig. 5 Interior assembly of PID controller with dx
3 Maximum Control Point Tracking (MPPT)
The PV arrays are attached in series or in parallel. The PV array has V-I charac-
teristic as alike to those of a single solar cell. Typical V-I characteristic of a solar
cell array is shown in Fig. 5. The MPPT controller varies with irradiance as well as
with temperature. A constant voltage load such as a battery cannot extract the
maximum control under all conditions. MPPT is an algorithm implemented in PV
inverters to endlessly alter the impedance seen by the PV arrays to keep the PV
assembly functioning at, or near to the peak control point of the PV assembly under
varying loading settings like changing solar irradiance, hotness, and load. MPPT
Fig. 6 Model diagram of

MPPT controller
systems are usually used in the governing projects of PV system. It accounts for
different reasons such as adjustable irradiance (sunlight) and heat to confirm that the
PV structure breeds extreme control at all the time (Fig. 6).
The three communal MPPT algorithms are
a. Perturbation and observation (P&O)
b. Incremental conductance
c. Fractional open-circuit voltage.
Perturbation and observation (P&O): This algorithm agitates the operating
voltage to ensure extreme control. While there are numerous progressive and other
enhanced alternatives of this algorithm, a basic one is P&O MPPT algorithm.
Incremental conductance: It relates the incremental conductance to the prompt
conductance in a PV system. It depends on various factors (i.e., V, I), based on it
will rises or falls. The extreme control point is reached; unlike as in the above P&O
process, the voltage residues continue once MPPT is reached (Figs. 7 and 8).
Fractional open-circuit voltage: This algorithm works on the maximum control
at a point reached with a constant voltage.
Depending on the voltage profile, its value hikes or drops.
4 Control System Model
The modeling of a power network containing two hydraulic control plants with
three-buses with SVC is used to mend the transient steadiness and in order to damp
out oscillations. A single-line diagram represents a simple 500 kV conduction
network as shown in Fig. 9.
Fig. 7 Incremental conductance algorithm
Fig. 8 Model diagram of MPPT controller
To maintain network steadiness after fault, the conduction line is shunt com-
pensated at its center by a 200 MVAR using FACTS device. The two machineries
are coupled with a hydraulic turbine and governor (HTG), which will help to damp
out the oscillation, so that the machineries should not come out of synchronism
(Table 1).
Fig. 9 Single-line diagram of two-machine three-buses control network using controller
Table 1 Parameter of single-line diagram of two-machines and three-buses

S. No. Parameter Machine 1 Machine 2
1 Generated MVA 1000 MVA 5000 MVA
2 Transformer 13.8 kV/500 kV (D/Yg) 500 kV/13.8 kV(Yg/
D)
3 Generated MW 950 MW 4046 MW
4 At buses (MW) 944 MW (B1) 5000 MW (B2)
5 Distance between the buses 350 km (B1–B2) 350 (B2–B3)
The SVC is controlled by external MPPT controller which will mend the tran-
sitory steadiness and dynamic load on the conduction line.
5 Model
The above block diagram can be simulated using MATLAB. Model is carried out in
three different forms
1. Model without using FACTS devices
2. Model with SVC device.
Model using MPPT controller with FACTS device (Figs. 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15,
16 and 17).
Fig. 10 Simulink diagram with SVC and MPPT Controller

Fig. 11 Voltage across abc phases
Fig. 12 Current across abc phases
Fig. 13 Dynamic load

Fig. 14 Iabc, using SVC controller MPPT
Fig. 15 Vm, B, and Q using SVC controller MPPT Figure
Fig. 16 Control, voltage of M1

Fig. 17 Control, voltage of M2
6 Results and Discussions
The analysis of 2-machines, 3-buses system under various loading condition such
as without SVC, with SVC and SVC with controlling device (MPPT controller).
The following table shows different readings for voltage, current, active, and
reactive control for different loading conditions (Tables 2 and 3).
Table 2 Three-phase load

Parameters Without SVC With SVC SVC with MPPT
Voltage 0.26 s 0.18 s 0.18 s
Current 0.24 s 0.184 s 0.183 s
M1 control 0.56 W 0.57 W 0.57 W
M1 voltage 7V 7V 0.1 V
M2 control 0.57 W 0.57 W 0.56 W
M2 voltage 2.57 V 2.58 V 0.12 V
Table 3 Three phase with Dynamic load

Parameters Without SVC With SVC SVC with MPPT
Positive voltage 0 0.14 s 0.22 s
Active (P) 0.22 s 0.15 s 0.21 s
Reactive (Q) 0.2 s 0.149 s 0.198 s
7 Conclusion
From the simulation and analysis, we can conclude that SVC mechanism is con-
trolled with MPPT and TID-based controller. The switch combines the advantages
with cooperation of TID and MPPT controller. The two-machine three-bus
Simulink model is tested in MATLAB. The design is performed on several factors
like speed, angle difference, voltage, AP, and RP of the machineries. The model is
related to the conventional SVC with MPPT controller. With the help of FACTS
and other controlling device, we can improve the transient steadiness and dynamic
reaction of the system. The performance of the designed controller is steadfast and
is moderately constant. Upcoming work will be done on improving the transient
steadiness and dynamic response of SVC using neural network-based TID con-
troller or genetic algorithm with other controlling devices.
References
1. P. Kundur, Control system steadiness and control. McGraw Hill, (1994)

2. T. Sharma, A. Dahiya, Transient steadiness improvement in transmission line using SVC with
Fuzzy Logic based TID controller, in 2014 IEEE 6th India International Conference on
Control Electronics (IICPE), IEEE 1–5 December 2014
3. L. Gyugyi, Reactive power generation and control by thyristor circuits. IEEE Trans. IA-15(5),
521–531 (1979)
4. R. Das, D.K. Tanti, Transient Steadiness of 11-bus system using SVC and improvement of
voltage profile in transmission line using series compensator. Am. J. Electr. Control Energ.
Syst. 3(4), 76–85 (2014). https://doi.org/10.11648/j.epes.20140304.12
5. P.L. So, T. Yu, Coordination of TCSC and SVC for inter area steadiness enhancement. IEEE
Trans. Control Delivery. 9(1), (2000)
6. M.H. Haque, Application of energy function to access the first swing steadiness of a power
system with a SVC. IEEE Proc. Gener. Transm. Distrib. 152(6), 806–812 (2005)
7. M. Azab, A new maximum control point tracking for photovoltaic systems. WASET. ORG. 34,
571–574 (2008)
8. N. Femia, G. Petrone, G. Spagnuolo, M. Vitelli, Optimization of perturb and observe maximum
control point tracking method. IEEE Trans. Control Electron. 20(4), 963–973 (2005)
9. C. Hu, R.M White, Solar Cells, McGraw-Hill Book
Three-Level DCMLI-Based
Grid-Connected DSTATCOM
D. Suresh and R. Chander
Abstract In this paper, the grid-integrated DCML inverter-based DSTATCOM is

presented for elimination of harmonics caused by the nonlinear load and injection
of active power harvested from PV arrays. It is well-known multilevel converters
that can possess great advantages such as low switching losses and reduced size of
filter requirement. The synchronous reference frame-based reference current esti-
mation is presented with maximum power point tracking (MPPT). The MPPT
algorithm based on perturb and observe is integrated with synchronous reference
frame scheme. The simulated response of the DCML inverter-based DSTATCOM
is effective for injecting active power from photovoltaic system.
Keywords DSTATCOM Maximum power point tracking PV arrays DCML

Investor
In this paper, the grid-integrated DCML inverter-based DSTATCOM is presented

for elimination of harmonics caused by the nonlinear load and injection of active
power harvested from PV arrays. It is well-known multilevel converters that can
possess great advantages such as low switching losses and reduced size of filter
requirement. The synchronous reference frame-based reference current estimation is
presented with maximum power point tracking (MPPT). The MPPT algorithm
based on perturb and observe is integrated with synchronous reference frame
scheme. The simulated response of the DCML inverter-based DSTATCOM is
effective for injecting active power from photovoltaic system.
D. Suresh
Vignan Institute of Technology and Science, Deshmukhi, India
R. Chander (&)
University College of Engineering, Osmania University, Hyderabad, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_19
196 D. Suresh and R. Chander
1 Introduction
The increased use of power semiconductor devices in a wide variety of loads has
given birth to numerous power quality problems in the electric power networks.
These power quality problems, their causes and effects on the power system
components are explicated in this paper. Threats posed by these power quality
problems are being mitigated by installing DSTATCOM in shunt with nonlinear
loads. Earlier, passive filters were in use, but owing to drawbacks pretense by them,
viz. large size, resonance and fixed compensation, the focus of power quality
engineers has shifted toward DSTATCOM. DSTATCOMs are capable enough to
provide the solution related to harmonic compensation, reactive power compen-
sation, balancing three-phase line currents, damping of oscillation in currents and
voltage regulation. Since DSTATCOMs are connected in parallel with the load,
thus they do not burden the source on account of displacement power factor and
extra loading effect.
The most of the DSTATCOMs are based on shunt-coupled active power filter,
which is used for compensation of harmonics and volatile power of the nonlinear
load. The family of DSTATCOMs is referred to single name that is custom power
devices. The custom power devices are DSTATCOM, dynamic voltage restorer,
compensator of integrated power quality, etc. The DSTATCOM is multifunctional
device which provides the harmonics elimination, reactive power compensation,
voltage regulation, power factor correction, load balancing and termination of the
line.
The execution of the DSTATCOM to a great extent relies upon the ongoing
estimation of the remuneration current. The most usually utilized strategies in the
literature are instantaneous and synchronous theory-based detection of the com-
pensation current. Because of its ease of calculation of harmonics currents and
self-learning ability, adaptive control scheme gains attention in the estimation of
reference currents. In this paper, synchronous reference frame is arrived for har-
monics current estimation.
Nowadays, the grid integration of renewable energy-based generation is
increasing with improved power quality feature such as harmonics elimination,
reactive power compensation and load balancing. In recent studies, the two- and
three-level inverters are compared based on semiconductor losses and filter con-
sideration and evaluated that three-level inverter possesses lower semiconductor
losses for higher switching frequencies than the two-level counterparts because
three-level inverters have only one device commutated at each transition. In
addition to that, ac output waveform of a multilevel inverter possesses a lower
harmonic and reduced sizes of the AC filter components are possible [1–4].
Three-Level DCMLI-Based Grid-Connected DSTATCOM 197
Fig. 1 Topology of PV cell integrated DSTATCOM
2 Configuration of DSTATCOM Topology
The DSTATCOM configuration based on diode-clamped multilevel inverter is

shown in Fig. 1. The DCMLI seems to be most suitable inverter topology for
photovoltaic application without separate inverter. The DCMLI has common DC
bus for easy integration of photovoltaic cell. The overall power circuit of
DSTATCOM consists of PV array on DC side, DCMLI, interfacing inductor and
DC-link capacitor. The interfacing inductor is used to suppress the switching
high-frequency harmonics. The DSTATCOM is connected at point of common
coupling through interfacing inductor.
3 Control Scheme
Figure 2 shows the dynamic model of photovoltaic cell. To obtain the required
level of power from photovoltaic cells, which are connected in series and parallel to
form modules, the modules are connected array to obtain higher voltage and current
level.
The PV modules can be represented as approximate constant current source. The
equation, which is used to describing the I–V characteristic of a practical PV cell, is
Fig. 2 Equivalent circuit of

photovoltaic cell

qVoc Vout þ RS I
I ¼ IL Id Ish ¼ IL ID e 1 ð1Þ
CkT Rsh
where ID is the saturation current, q is the electron charge ð1:6 1019 CÞ, C is the
diode emission factor, k is the Boltzmann constant ð1:38 1023 J/KÞ and T is the
temperature.
The power produced will be maximum at the knee point of the I–V character-
istics of the PV module, and it is depicted in Fig. 3. Voltage and current properties
are consistent with the knee point of I–V. The maximum power can be obtained
from PV modules with maximum power point tracking (MPPT) algorithm. The
maximum point algorithm is attached to the DSTATCOM control scheme.
The DSTATCOM voltage is maintained with the MPPT algorithm at the correct
value. In this paper, the incremental conductance method is used for tracking the
maximum power from PV modules. This MPPT mechanism is the power line of the
PV MPP (where dv/dt = 0), on the left is positive, and the opposite is negative. In
the following equations, dv/di are sample delay values V
dp dðviÞ di
¼ ¼ iþv ¼ 0 ð2Þ
dv dv dv
Fig. 3 V–I characteristics of PV cell

dv i
¼ ð3Þ
di v
(
dv [ i : left
di v
ð4Þ
dv \ i : right
di v
The DC voltage regulator with MPPT algorithm used for estimation of reference
voltage is shown in Fig. 3. The reference DC voltage is estimated with incremental
conductance method and power generated from PV system also estimated for
injecting active power from DSTATCOM to grid. The active power injected carries
negative sign, which shows that the DSTATCOM injects active power into the DG
set feeding system.
4 Simulation Results and Discussion
The complete system of DSTATCOM consists of the power source, DCMLI

DSTATCOM and nonlinear load.
When DSTATCOM alone operating without photovoltaic modules connected on
its dc side and it is used for elimination of harmonics caused by the nonlinear load.
Before t = 0.05 s, the source current consists of integer multiple triplen harmonics
current. When DSTATCOM is connected at t = 0.05 s, source current tends to
sinusoidal and in synchronous with voltage waveform. The source current total
harmonics distortion before compensation is 23.62%, and its value after compen-
sation is found to be 2.04%.
The simulated response of the DCMLI DSTATCOM is shown in Fig. 4. Before
compensation with DSTATCOM, source current is highly nonlinear and contains
harmonics which is result in heating of armature of the synchronous generator.
When PV-DSTATCOM starts injecting active power harvested from PV module,
the source current tends to be sinusoidal. The source current is in phase opposition
to source voltage, which shows the active power flow from PV-DSTATCOM to the
load. As load demand increases on grid, PV-DSTATCOM compensates the load
current demand. This in turn results in reduction of fuel consumption. And also,
DSTATCOM compensates harmonics and balances the current while feeding
variety of the load.
The power variation with solar insolation is shown in Fig. 6. The different
waveforms of spectrum are identified as PV array voltage, PV array current and
active power output of the PV array. With increase in solar insolation, the quantity
of output active power also increases. The increase in power output from PV array
the quantity of active power injected at point of common coupling also increases.
This increase in active power can be observed from Fig. 5, and the value of source
Fig. 4 Simulated waveform of DSTATCOM
Fig. 5 Simulated waveform with MPPT
current gradually increases with increase in compensating current of DSTATCOM.

The active power injected from PV-DSTATCOM relieves the loading on the DG
set and also compensates the harmonics and reactive power demand of the non-
linear load connected with DG set (Figs. 7 and 8).
Fig. 6 Simulated waveform with power variation
Fig. 7 Source current THD

without DSTATCOM
Fig. 8 Source current with

DSTATCOM compensation
5 Conclusion
In this paper, DCML inverter is connected to PV-DSTATCOM and is connected to

the elimination of harmonics and reactive power compensation and active power
injections. Synchronous reference frame integrated with LMS theory is used for
MPPT controller. The algorithm is implemented based on the incremental con-
ductance method to obtain the maximum power from the PV array. The active
power control calculated from the PV range is used to introduce active power
during joint coups in combination. DCML inverter-based DSTATCOM’s simplest
response shows the potential compensation of active power injection from har-
monics, reactive power and PV array.
Acknowledgements Thanks to SERB-DST for ECR project file No: ECR/2016/000813.
References
1. B. Singh, K. Al-Haddad, A. Chandra, A review of active filters for power quality improvement.
IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 46(5), 960–971 (1999)
2. D. Suresh, K. Venkateswarlu, S.P. Singh, T2FLC based CHBMLI DSTATCOM for power
quality improvement, in IEEE conference, ICCCI (2018)
3. D. Suresh, K. Venkateswarlu, S.P. Singh, Adaptive control of three level active power filter, in
IEEE conference, ICCCI (2018)
4. D. Suresh, K. Venkateswarlu, S.P. Singh, SIFLC based control implementation of DSTATCOM,
in IEEE conference, ICCCI-2018, January (2018)
Reducing Number of Switches
in Multilevel Inverter Using Diode
Clamped and H-Bridge Inverters
Karanam Deepak, M. Rama Prasad Reddy, K. Jaya Sree

and P. Partha Saradhi Reddy
Abstract The multilevel inverters (MLI) are having more features to usage. In
existing methods like diode clamped MLI and H-Bridge MLI, more number of
switches are using compared to proposed MLI. So, a new method of 35-level MLI
topology is a combination of diode clamped and cascaded multilevel inverters. In
this method using the less number of switches and their pulse generating circuit. So,
thereby ensuring the switching loss, reducing size and installation cost also less. So,
the new proposed technology is well designed for renewable applications (RA) like
PV cell and wind energy systems. Comparing to the other existing inverters, the
switch count is very less. The results are validating by using MATLAB/Simulink
design.

Keywords Multilevel inverters (MLI) H-Bridge MLII (HMLI) Diode clamped

MLI (DCMLI) Photovoltaic cell (PV) cell Renewable applications (RA)
1 Introduction
Power electronics’ switches play a vital responsibility in the electrical power

conversions. Another advantage of MLI is control of the output power and uses in
take out power commencing renewable energy applications like PV cell as well as
wind power generation systems [1]. The conversion of DC to AC is possible to
need inverter. In an electrical power, inverter is basic circuit that converts DC into
AC. This conversion is important because AC is more useful in our daily appli-
cations. Conventional diode clamped and H-Bridge inverters having more switches
compared to proposed system [2].
K. Deepak (&) M. Rama Prasad Reddy K. Jaya Sree

G. Pullaiah College of Engineering and Technology, Near Venkayapalle,
Pasupula Village, Nandikotkur Rd, Kurnool, AP 518002, India
P. Partha Saradhi Reddy
Guru Nanak Institute of Technology, Ibrahimpatnam, Telangana, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_20
204 K. Deepak et al.
In present years, consumption of electric power is rapidly increasing day by day.

So, the demand of electrical energy is increased. Since the greenhouse production
are mostly consumes. The main reasons caused by the renewable resources a fast
development in find another and a renewable resource has attained a major interest
in research area to eliminate the lack of fossil fuels and also decreases the global
warming [3]. Therefore, the renewable energy sources have to turn into a difficult
field, and so many researchers have to focus on the renewable energy sources. So,
this paper mainly focuses on to generate novel sustainable, normal wealth and
environmental approachable natural renewable energy resources.
In present, earth for the most part of environmental renewable energy sources
can be used DC energy in environment such as solar system. In electrical power
transmission systems is in AC and not all of the AC loads like machines, etc. are
uses the DC power supply as their power sources. So, many applicants need an AC
power as the main power source. Therefore, in this reason, we need conversion of
energy DC into AC power [4].
MLI is a power electronic apparatus which converting direct current power
supply to alternate power supply. In previous conventional systems, inverter is used
to two-level inverter and is implemented using a few semiconductor switches. In
present days, rapid increases the growth of industry and also introduces the high
power applications devices which reaches the megawatt levels. So, the two-level
inverter is not able of usage of high power applications. So, in this paper, introduce
a more number of levels inverter like multilevel expand into an essential to over-
come the short of existing two-level inverters and economically elevated power
loads. Moreover, these reason multilevel inverters are designed to substitute the
existing two-level inverters to grow high-quality power quality, and switching
losses is less and capable of high voltage systems [5].
The most important scope of MLIs is to generate the multilevel output voltages
with switching losses is very less. Comparing to the existing methods, the multi-
level inverter has so many advantages. The advantages are: (1) The MLI inverter
can be produced regular method voltage so the strain of the motor reduces. (2) MLI
draws the input current with less distortion. (3) MLI can operate at both higher and
lower switching frequency; it means, at lower switching, frequency having low
switch losses and efficiency is high. (4) MLI reduces the total harmonic distortions
(THD) [6]. This paper includes the performances of two types of MlLIs, and they
are diode clamped inverter along with cascaded H-Bridge multilevel inverter. So,
our proposed method is combination of diode clamped and H-Bridge circuits. The
operation of the circuit and principle operation is discussed in the following
secessions.
The theory of multilevel inverter is to generate multilevel inverter output volt-
ages with very less switching losses and harmonic distortions. In this proposed
method the first, second diode clamped multilevel inverter (DCMI) and third one is
the proposed MLI having combination of CHMI and DCMI. So, the proposed MLI
applied for low power systems mainly photovoltaic systems.
Reducing Number of Switches in Multilevel Inverter … 205
This paper describes many sections. Sect. 1 contains the introduction part of the
MLI and Sect. 2 contains the background work of the DCMI and background work
of the CHMI. Section 3 mentions the proposed MLI principle operation and
explanation. Section 4 contains the simulation results of the proposed MLI.
2 Background Work
The MLI general structure is toward making a sinusoidal voltage since of more than
few voltage levels frequently achieve from capacitor voltage sources. Multilevel
inverter has so many applications because of MLI having low THD and very low
commutation loses. MLI develops into an efficient and valuable resolution for
amplifying power and AC load also reduced.
The multilevel inverters are divided into below categories: They are (1) cascaded
type MLI, (2) diode clamped type MLI, (3) Flying capacitor type MLI.
This paper discusses cascaded MLI and diode clamped type multilevel inverters.
Compare to the diode clamped MLI and cascaded MLI, cascaded MLI is having the
simplest arrangement.
2.1 Diode Clamped Type MLI (DCMI)
In largest parts generally use MLI method, that is, the diode clamped MLI (DCMI),
and diode is used for clamping device. It can be used as clamp the DC voltage. So it
attains the steps in the output voltage sources. Accordingly, the most important
theory of this MLI is diode that is used for the power strategy voltage strain. Vdc is
the DC voltage of apiece switch plus apiece capacitor. The No. of levels
(N) inverters we need total (N − 1) no. of voltage source, and switching devices are
need 2(N − 1) and the diodes are (N − 1) (N − 2) diodes. After the increasing of
the no. of voltage level, the superiority of the output AC voltage is increased and
the waveform of the voltage has become nearer to a sinusoidal waveform.
Figure 1 shows the five-level DCMLI. DC bus voltage having the four capac-
itors, C1, C2, C3 and C4. In a DC bus voltage of the Vdc, the apiece of capacitor
voltage is Vdc/4 and the each device voltage strain will be partial and Vdc/4 is single
capacitor voltage stage-level throughout clamp the diodes. The switches of the MLI
are S1, S2, S3, S4, S01 ; S02 ; S03 and S04 . If the voltage output level is Vdc/2, then the
switches can be conducted at S1–S4 next to the similar point. In an apiece voltage
point, four switches conduct at a time. And the maximum output voltage level will
get on partially of the DC source. So it is the main disadvantage of the DCMI. In
this difficulty can be this difficulty preserve be solving by using a two times voltage
supply or CHMLI two DCMLIs (Fig. 2).
Fig. 1 Five-level MLI diode Vdc/2

clamped inverter topology
S1
C1
D1 S2
Vdc/4
C2 D2 S 3
D 1' S4 Vo
Vdc n
a
S 1'
C3
D 2' S 2'
-Vdc/4
S 3'
C4 D3'
S 4'
-Vdc/2 0
Fig. 2 Single-phase cascade

multilevel inverter topology S1 S2
Va Hn
S3 S4
S1 S2
H2
S3 S4
S2
S1
n H1
S4
S3
Table 1 Five-level DCMLI V0 S1 S2 S3 S4 S01 S02 S03 S04

switching state table
Vdc/2 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0
Vdc/4 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0
−Vdc/4 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0
−Vdc/2 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
The five-level DCMLI amount produced voltage levels ought to the similar
voltage significance. The switching operations can survive taken in a way that
output voltage THD will become
as low 0as
possible.
The switches
arrangement of
0 0 0
the MLI is into four pairs S1 ; S1 ; S2 ; S2 ; S3 ; S3 ; S4 ; S4 . The sequence of the
switches as specified in Table 1. The state Condition 1 means that switch ON
position and 0 means switch OFF position.
The following steps are the five-level DCMLI output voltage in this circuit as
follows:
• The output voltage V0 = 0, then the upper switches of S3, S4 and the lower
switches S01 and S02 are in ON state.
• And the output voltage V0 = Vdc/4, then the switches of upper switches are S2,
S3, S4 and lower switch S01 is in ON state.
• And the output voltage V0 = Vdc/2, the switches of S1, S2, S3, S4 the entire upper
switches in turn ON position.
• And the negative output voltage of V0 = −Vdc/4, the switch of upper side S4 and
the lower side switches S01 , S02 and S03 are in turn ON position.
• Another negative output voltage of V0 = −Vdc/2, and all the switches of the
lower position in turned ON position.
2.2 Cascade H-Bridge Multilevel Inverter (CHMI)
The cascade MLI having no. of H-Bridge inverter units with separate DC source
and each H-Bridge unit is connected in series. And the H-Bridge produces +Vdc, 0
and −Vdc voltage levels is connecting the input DC source to output AC side of
dissimilar combination of the four switches S1, S2, S3 and S4. And the H-Bridge of
each output is coupled in series. So, the synthesize output voltage waveform is
nothing but a summation of all of the individual H-Bridge outputs. By linking
enough number of H-Bridges in cascade and with suitable modulation format,
almost sinusoidal output voltage waveform can be synthesized.
The output voltages in number of levels having phase voltage (2s + 1) and line
voltage (4s + 1) correspondingly. And s is nothing but a number of H-Bridges per
phase. In a three H-Bridges, five bridges and seven H-Bridges per phase require
seven levels, nine levels, respectively. The representative waveform created by

seven-level CMLI. And the magnitude of the AC output phase voltage is the sum of
the voltages created by H-Bridges.
3 Proposed Concept
Figure 3 shows the multilevel inverter topology. The proposed circuit is the com-
bination of H-Bridge and diode clamped inverter. Here, H-Bridge inverter can be
used as alternating signal model like it gives the negative and positive polarities and
in diode clamped inverter circuit having the capacitors also. So, the capacitor
voltages are added and subtracted the operating power switches to generate the (N =
2n + 1 = 35) level output voltage waveform.
And the basic operation of the main circuit is working principle of the topology
as shown in Fig. 4. In this diagram, Vdc bus is the DC input voltage, and Vo is the
output AC voltage, V01 is the fundamental voltage of Vo. In this proposed circuit
having the So-S17 switches of the diode clamped inverters and another four
Fig. 3 Proposed topology of Diode clamped

multilevel inverter connection
CK
SK
DK
C3
S3
D3
C2
S2
D2
C1 S1
D1
P1 P3 H-Bridge
connection
Vbus Load
P4 P2
Fig. 4 Basic operations of

switches
Vdc
Vdc(K)
Vdc(K-1)
Vdc2
Vdc1
wt
V0
wt
wt
SK
wt
SK-1
wt
S2
wt
S1
wt
P 1P 4
wt
P 2P 3
wt
switches are power switches P1–P4 is giving signals of the H-Bridge inverters.
And, the H-Bridge four power switches are operated at fundamental frequency of
the output voltage.
The proposed circuit having the total four switches of H-Bridge and seventeen
diode clamped switches is used to generate output of N = 35-level voltage wave-
form. And also using the n capacitors and n diodes can be used to produce the
output of overall very less switch count than an existing method.
Figure 5 shows the proposed MLI topology Simulink diagram. The output wave-
form of the staircase voltage waveforms for k different DC sources and its
amplitude is Vdc and the equation is as follows:
4Vdc X1
sinðnx0 tÞ
V 0 ðt Þ ¼ ½cosðna1 Þ þ cosðna2 Þ þ þ cosðnak Þ ð1Þ
p n¼1;3;5...:: n
The magnitude of the Fourier transform coefficients can be calculated as follows
4Vdc
Vn ¼ ½cosðna1 Þ þ cosðna2 Þ þ þ cosðnak Þ ð2Þ
np
In applied equations of the (1) and (2) are the proposed 35-level MLI topology
are studied. The output of the MLI generates 220 V AC voltage waveform so we
have to measure a DC bus voltage of the 340 V.
Figures 6 and 7 show the simulated input waveforms of DC bus (A) voltage and
(B) current of a 35-level multilevel inverter and simulated output waveforms of AC
bus (A) voltage and (B) current of a 35-level multilevel inverter of the proposed
MLI topology and the operating frequency of the proposed topology is 50 Hz.
Table 2 is the comparison of different multilevel inverter topologies power
switches count. This evaluation obviously demonstrates the superiority of our
proposed MLI structure
The voltage rating is high in cascaded H-Bridge MLI topology because this MLI
using four switches. It should be pointed that the four switches used in the H-Bridge
of our topology require a large voltage rating. These unlike switches are used in the
conventional MLI topologies. Then all the conventional method switches having
low voltage rating. The cost of the switch increases of its same low voltage rating
and the driving circuits are frequently remaining the similar. So based on that, an
important benefit in provisions of cost and easy functioning is still obtainable by
our proposed MLI topology.
Fig. 5 Simulink diagram of

the proposed concept
(A) DC INPUT VOLTAGE
(B) DC INPUT CURRENT
Fig. 6 The simulated input waveforms of DC bus, a voltage and b current of a 35-level multilevel
inverter
(A) AC OUTPUT VOLTAGE
B) AC OUTPUT CURRENT
Fig. 7 The output waveforms of AC bus, a voltage and b current of a 35-level multilevel inverter
Table 2 Comparison of S. Circuit No. of power switches

different types of MLI No used
topologies
1. Diode clamped MLI 34
2. Cascaded H-Bridge 68
MLI
3. PROPOSED MLI 21
5 Conclusion
A new 35 MLI topology is proposed. The proposed method of 35-level multilevel

inverter topology is combination of diode clamped and cascaded multilevel
inverters. The proposed MLI is the better choice for renewable source applications
like photovoltaic applications because proposed circuit having separate input DC
sources is offered. This paper explains the operation and working principle of the
proposed MLI topology. A complete study of efficiency and practical performance
is still necessary to totally confirm the advantages of this new proposed MLI circuit.
References
1. J. Rodriguez, J.S. Lai, F.Z. Peng, Multilevel inverters: a survey of topologies, controls, and
applications. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 49(4), 724–738 (2002)
2. M. Malinowski, K. Gopakumar, J. Rodriguez, M.A. Perez, A survey on cascaded multilevel
inverters. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 57(7), 2197–2206 (2010)
3. M. Kavitha, A. Arunkumar, N. Gokulnath, S. Arun, New Cascaded H-Bridge Multilevel
Inverter Topology with Reduced Number of Switches and Sources. Final year students/Dept. of
EEE/DR.S.J.S Paul Memorial College of Engineering &Technology/Pondicherry/India, vol 2,
issue 6. ISSN: 2278-1676, pp 26–36 (2012)
4. N.B. Zahari, Cascaded H-Bridge Multilevel Inverter [CHMLI]. A Proposal Submit in Biased
Fulfilment of the Obligation for Bachelor of Degree in Electrical & Electronics Engineering
(Electrical) Faculty of Electrical Engineering University of Teknologi Malaysia (2013)
5. A. Parkash, S.L. Shimi, S. Chatterji, Harmonics Elimination in Cascade Multilevel Inverters
Using Newton-Raphson and Genetic Algorithm. Department of Electrical Engineering,
National Institute of Technical Teachers’ Training and Research, Chandigarh-160019, India
(2014)
6. Description of Multi Level Inverters and Advantages of MLI. https://www.elprocus.com/
multilevel-inverter-types-advantages/
Harmonic and Reactive Power
Compensation with IRP Controlled
DSTATCOM
Haresh Nanda and Srinivas Reddy Chalamalla
Abstract The distribution system causes serious power quality problems with the
more number of nonlinear loads. The nonlinear loads cause harmonics and reactive
power problems. In this paper, a three-phase three-wire distribution static com-
pensator (DSTATCOM) with instantaneous reactive power theory (IRP) control
strategy is proposed for compensation of harmonics and reactive power problems.
The proposed IRP-based control method is used to generate reference switching
gate pulses for IGBT switches with a hysteresis control method. The proposed
control technique using IRP improves the performance of the DSTATCOM under
nonlinear voltage condition. The effectiveness of the proposed IRP theory-based
three-phase three-wire DSTATCOM is investigated through MATLAB/Simulink.
Keywords Power quality DSTATCOM IRP theory Harmonic compensa-

tion Reactive power
1 Introduction
Power quality is a key issue in the customer electric power system, and it is given a
special attention with the fast increase of modern industry. To improve the power
quality, different treatment devices can be applied, such as active power filter
(APF), dynamic voltage restorer (DVR), distribution static synchronous compen-
sator (DSTATCOM) and unified power flow controller (UPFC) [1]. A statistical
analysis shows that the harmonic is the most frequent one in all the problems of the
power quality [2]. In recent, especially in the semiconductor manufacturing area,
the harmonics are considered as a major cause of failure of the electronic devices
which are sensitive to electrical disturbance. To reduce this disturbance, a corre-
sponding compensation device is usually applied [3]. A distribution static syn-
H. Nanda
Electrical Engineerng Department, Q.Q.Government Polytechnic, Hyderabad, India
S. R. Chalamalla (&)
EEE Department, Guru Nanak Institutions Technical Campus, Telangana, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_21
216 H. Nanda and S. R. Chalamalla
chronous compensator (DSTATCOM) is a series-connected device which is

designed not only to compensate for the current harmonic disturbance problems but
also to track and regenerate the current waveform fast, when harmonic distortion of
the consumer side is outside the control range [4]. Several control algorithms have
been proposed for the controlling of DSTATCOM [5]. In which most of control
circuits are complicated and not easier to implement. In this paper, the simplified
instantaneous reactive power theory has been proposed which uses three current
sensing devices, two voltage sensing devices and a DC-link voltage measurement
device for the controlling of DSTATCOM [6]. This proposed method is simple and
total implementation cost is reduced. In this work, an IRP theory for three-phase
three-wire systems for nonlinear load distribution system is proposed. This theory
can be used for all balanced and three-phase systems. The aim of the system
simulation is to verify the DSTATCOM effectiveness for a nonlinear load.
2 System Configuration
Figure 1 shows the three-phase three-wire nonlinear load distribution system with
proposed control strategy DSTATCOM. It consists of three-phase three-wire supply
system connected through three voltage sources converter with eight-insulated-gate
bipolar transistors (IGBTs) switches with interface inductor connected at the sys-
tem. And, the interface inductor use to reducing the transients during switching the
Fig. 1 System configuration

Harmonic and Reactive Power Compensation … 217
DSTATCOM, a ripple filter, which consists of inductor in series with a small

resistance, is connected to the system. The DSTATCOM on the end bus provides
harmonics elimination and reactive power correction.
3 Control Strategy
Instantaneous reactive power theory is first introduced by Akagi in 1983. This

theory depends upon converting the three-phase values to two-phase values based
on a-b frame and calculating the active and reactive power in this frame.
This IRP theory is also known as p-q theory. The p-q theory is based on the time
domain. It is valid both steady-state and transient conditions of the system opera-
tion. The basic block diagram of p-q theory is shown in Fig. 2. For the compensated
current Icomp is given by Eq. (1)
Icomp ¼ Isource Iload ð1Þ
where Icomp is the compensation current, Isource is the source current, Iload is the load
current respectively. p-q theory converting the three-phase system voltages, cur-
rents from 0-a-b co-ordinates by applying Clark’s transformation. This is repre-
sented as given in Eqs. (2) and (3).
Fig. 2 Basic block diagram of IRP theory

2 3 rffiffiffi2 1pffiffiffi

1 pffiffiffi 1 pffiffiffi 32 3
v0 2 2 2 va
4 v / 5 ¼ 264 11= 1= 7 5 4 vb 5 ð2Þ
3 pffiffiffi2 pffiffi2
vb 03 3 vc
2 2
8 9 rffiffiffi2 pffiffiffi pffiffiffi pffiffiffi 38 9
< i0 = 24 1= 2 1= 2 1= 2 < ia =
ia ¼ 1 1=2 1=2 5 ib ð3Þ
: ; 3 pffiffiffi pffiffiffi : ;
ib 0 3=2 3=2 ic
Alternately, the power equation is given by Eq. (4)

2 3 2 32 3
po v0 0 0 i0
4 p 5¼40 v/ vb 54 i/ 5 ð4Þ
q 0 vb va ib
In the case of three-phase three-wire system, V0 = 0 and i0 = 0. So, zero

sequence power P0 = 0, and consequently power equation by Eq. (5) [3].

p v/ vb i/
¼ ð5Þ
q vb va ib
Using Eq. (5), the instantaneous active and reactive load power can be obtained
by Eq. (6).

pl v/ vb il/
¼ ð6Þ
ql vb va ilb
Which could be divided into AC component and DC component. The DC

component is the first harmonic component consists of positive component and AC
component is harmonic component consists of all harmonic component they
compensated using DSTATCOM so that the DC components remain in the mains.
After the average current, components can be calculated by using Eq. 7.

is/ 1 v/ vb p
¼ ð7Þ
isb v2/ þ v2b vb va 0
Applying Inverse Clark’s Transformation to the Eq. (7) then the compensated
current is calculated by using Eq. (8).
2 3 rffiffiffi2 3
isa 1
2 pffiffi0ffi
4 isb 5 ¼ 4 1=2 3 =2 5 is/ ð8Þ
3 pffiffiffi isb
isc 1=2 3=2
The obtained switching signal is applied to IGBT’S of DSTATCOM for proper

switching operation of DSTATCOM.
This proposed distribution system simulation results are observed with the new
modified IRP control theory strategy. The simulation results are compared without
and with DSTATCOM. The performance of the system is analyzed in terms of
harmonic distortion and reactive power. The R-, Y-, B-phase are indicated as red,
yellow and blue lines. The corresponding results are verified in MATLAB/Simulink
software. The simulation results are verified under the following cases
Case-1: Distribution system without DSTATCOM
Case-2: Distribution system with DSTATCOM
Case-3: Total harmonic distortion (THD) analysis.
4.1 Case-1: Distribution System Without DSTATCOM
When nonlinear load connected the distribution system, harmonic is developed in

the system. The harmonics not only affect the source but also affect the other load
points which are connecting at the PCC. The obtaining results with connecting the
nonlinear load are observed and also without connecting DSTATCOM as shown in
Fig. 3. The nonlinear load introduces harmonic in source current waveform as
shown in Fig. 3b and its correcting source voltage is also shown in Fig. 3b. The
corresponding system load current is shown in Fig. 3c. The per-phase representa-
tion of source current harmonic waveform is shown in Fig. 3d. The active and
reactive power supply is shown in Fig. 3e, f. The load active and reactive power is
shown in Fig. 3g, h.
4.2 Case-2: Distribution System with DSTATCOM
When DSTATCOM is connected to the distribution system at the PCC with the
proposed control method, the harmonic and reactive power is compensated as
shown in Fig. 4. The source voltage waveform is shown in Fig. 4a. The compen-
sated source current waveform is observed from Fig. 4b. The per-phase represen-
tation of source current waveform is shown in Fig. 4c. The reactive power
compensation is also observed from Fig. 4e–f. By connecting the DSTATCOM at
Fig. 3 a Source voltage waveform, b source current waveform, c load current waveform,
d per-phase source current waveform, e source active power, f source reactive power, i load active
power, j load reactive power, without DSTATCOM
Fig. 4 a Source voltage waveform, b source current waveform, c per-phase source current
waveform, d DC-link voltage waveform, e source active power, f source reactive power,
g DSTATCOM active power, h DSTATCOM reactive power, i load active power, j load reactive
power, with DSTATCOM
Fig. 4 (continued)
the PCC instead of source, the load observed the reactive power from the
DSTATCOM as observed from Fig. 4e–f. So, the reactive power compensation is
achieved. The load taking the active power from the source and DSTATCOM
supplies the reactive power to the load. The DC-link voltage wave is as shown in
Fig. 4b.
4.3 Case-3: Total Harmonic Distortion Analysis
The total harmonic distortion (THD) analysis without and with DSTATCOM is
shown in Fig. 5. Figure 5a shows the THD without DSTATCOM and Fig. 5b
shows the THD with DSTATCOM connected at the PCC. By connecting
DSTATCOM, the harmonic is reduced from 27.90% to 2.51%.
Fig. 5 a THD without DSTATCOM. b THD with DSTATCOM
5 Conclusions
In this paper, the performance analysis of DSTATCOM with instantaneous reactive

power theory has been carried out. Form the simulation output, it is observed that of
DSTATCOM more active for the elimination of harmonics and reactive power in
distorted source current compensation at the PCC. And also the simulation results
without DSTATCOM and with DSTATCOM also observed using simulation
software.
References
1. H. Tiwari, A. Agrawal, S. Agrawal, S. Shah, Power quality improvement using DSTATCOM

in distribution system, in 4th International conference on “Advance Trend in Engineering,
Technology and Research” (ICATETR-2015)
2. S.R. Reddy, P.V. Prasad, G.N. Srinivas, Design of PI and fuzzy logic controllers for
distribution static compensator. Int. J. Power Electron. Drive Syst. (IJPEDS) 9(2), 465–477
(2018)
3. R. Madhusudan, P.L. Reddy, Control strategies for DSTATCOM—a comprehensive review.
Int. J. Innov. Technol. Exploring Eng. (IJITEE) 8(5) (2019)
4. D. Suresh, G. Sravanthi, R. Chander, DSTATCOM with Improved LMS based IRP theory, in
E3S Web of Conferences, 87, 01013 SeFet (2019)
5. M. Kullan, R. Muthu, J.B. Mervin, V. Subramanian, Design of DSTATCOM controller for
compensating unbalances. Circuits Syst 7, 2262–2272 (2016)
6. R. Dehini, C. Benachaiba, A. Bassou, Simulation of Distribution Static Compensator
(D-STATCOM) to improve power quality. Arab. J. Sci. Eng. 38, 3051–3058 (2013)
Performance of Static VAR
Compensator for Changes in Voltage
Due to Sag and Swell
M. S. Priyadarshini and M. Sushama
Abstract The deviations that occur in electrical power supplied by utilities to end
users result in voltage decrease termed as sag and increase termed as swell. Due to
voltage variations, change is evident for a short duration in voltage, current or
frequency. In order to maintain constant voltage to the connected load, compen-
sation devices are used based on flexible AC transmission systems (FACTS)
technology. Based on an increase or decrease in voltage, suitable correction action
can be taken by power electronic-based devices. The performance of static VAR
compensator (SVC), which is a shunt connected FACTS device, is analyzed for
voltage sag and swell. The SVC controller scheme, reactive power generated or
absorbed, firing pulse generation and modes of SVC operation in MATLAB/
Simulink environment are explained.

Keywords Sag Swell Thyristor controlled reactor Thyristor switched

capacitor Static VAR compensator
1 Introduction
Power system is defined as an interconnection between generator and load buses

through transmission lines. If any generator is disconnected or taken out for service
or maintenance, the lines fed by that generator will be disconnected and must be
connected to other generator buses. This results in a change in voltage profile at the
buses. Sudden increase in load also affects voltage. To achieve the aim of main-
taining constant voltage, proper balance must be maintained between active and
reactive power. Electric power supplied by utilities must be free of disturbances and
M. S. Priyadarshini (&)
J.N.T.U Anantapur, Ananthapuramu, AP, India
M. Sushama
J.N.T.U.H C.E.H, Hyderabad, Telangana, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_22
226 M. S. Priyadarshini and M. Sushama
supply voltage must be within the range specified. Any violation of these conditions
results in erroneous operation of power-consuming equipment. In flexible AC
transmission systems (FACTS), control is increased and power transfer capabilities
are increased [1]. In order to minimize the impact of changes in supply voltage, the
quality of power supplied must be monitored. Static VAR compensator (SVC) is a
shunt connected reactive power generator or absorber whose output is adjusted to
exchange capacitive or reactive current [1]. It is used with the objective to maintain
or control certain quantities which are subjected to a change of the electric power
system. Based on requirement, compensation devices have to either absorb or
generate reactive power. FACTS are defined by IEEE as AC transmission systems
using controllers to increase controllability and power transfer capability. The aim
of this paper is to study the performance of FACTS-based static VAR compensator
for sag and swell. SVC and its controller operation are explained in Sect. 2 and
performance of SVC is explained in Sect. 3 with suitable correction action that is
taken and Sect. 4 ends with conclusion.
1.1 Voltage Sag and Swell
If 1 per unit (pu) is taken as reference, sag is a decrease in voltage to between 0.1
per unit (pu) and 0.9 pu for durations from half-cycle to 1 min [2]. Swell is an
increase in voltage above 1.1 pu for durations from half-cycle to 1 min [2]. Due to
momentary or persistent disturbances in supply voltage, the connected loads in the
system can be severely affected. Some of the reasons for the disturbances to occur
are load changes, faults, lightning and switching of loads with reactive components
[3]. With respect to reference voltage of 1 pu, sag is defined with a decrease in
voltage to 0.5 pu and swell with an increase to 1.5 pu out of the considered voltage
waveform duration of 0.6 s as shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1 a Three-phase voltage signal with sag and swell b current corresponding to voltage with
disturbances
Performance of Static VAR Compensator for Changes … 227
2 Static VAR Compensator (SVC) and SVC Controller
SVC comes under the category of variable impedance type FACTS devices. SVC
injects or absorbs reactive power to regulate voltage at a given bus. The two
operation modes in SVC operation are voltage regulation and VAR control mode.
In voltage control mode, the voltage at supply side of SVC is controlled, and in
VAR control mode, the SVC susceptance is kept constant.
SVC consists of parallel connection of:
(i) A reactor whose operation is controlled by a thyristor (TCR).
(ii) Three numbers of thyristor switched capacitors (TSC).
In the case of TSC, switch has only ON and OFF possibilities and no control is
possible. In the case of TCR, control of impedance is possible by varying firing
angle of the pulse generators. Figure 2 shows the block diagram representation of
SVC.
In [4], a system is considered for analysis without compensation and with shunt
and series compensation provided by SVC and thyristor controlled series com-
pensators (TCSC). Load flow results are obtained and a comparison of apparent
impedances of uncompensated case with 100 and 200% loading for SVC and TCSC
compensated cases. In [5], advanced SVC and advanced static compensator are
proposed and the optimum values of inductor, capacitor and proportional and
integral gains are obtained using optimization techniques. IEEE 14 and 30 bus
systems are considered in [5] with the variation in magnitude of voltage swell. For
an improved and cost-effective operation of grid, distribution static VAR com-
pensator (D-SVC) during internal, peak load and power losses profile is used in [6],
considering the effects of total harmonic distortion (THD) on load profile. IEEE 14
bus system is modeled and simulated in [7] with magnitude of active power,
Generating Transmission Load

Station Line Station
Coupling Transformer
Static var compensator SVC having one TCR and

three TSCs in parallel
SVC Controller providing firing pulses to SVC
Fig. 2 Block diagram showing interconnection of generators and load through a transmission line
along with SVC
reactive power and voltage magnitude with different types of variations in load. The
waveforms shown in Fig. 3 depict currents drawn by TCR, three TSCs and
resultant sum of currents drawn by TCR and three TSCs. The basic components of
SVC controller are: voltage measurement, voltage regulator, distribution unit and
firing unit which are all connected in sequence. The input signals for SVC con-
troller are measured voltage and current as shown in Fig. 1 and output is firing
angle controlled pulses for TCR and ON/OFF pulses for TSCs.
3 Performance of SVC
When the reference voltage and measured voltages are same, reactive power will be
zero. When there is a decrease in voltage for the duration between 0.1 and 0.2 s,
reactive power generated is increased from 0 to 96.14 MVAR. During restoration of
voltage to normal, the reactive power generated increases to a peak value of 417
MVAR at 0.222 s. Due to fault or overloaded conditions, when swell occurs from
0.4 to 0.5 s reactive power absorption takes place to −200 MVAR and becomes
equal to zero when reference and measured voltages are same. The minimum value
of reactive power is −224.7 MVAR at 0.461 s. The gate signals of TCR vary from a
minimum value of 90° to a maximum value of 180°.
From reactive power variation, the following are observed:
1. Due to decrease in voltage due to sag, TSCs must be switched into the power
system to boost up the voltage and produce leading reactive power. Reactive
power generation takes place.
2. Due to increase in voltage due to swell, TCR must be fired into the power
system to control the voltage and produce lagging reactive power. Reactive
power absorption takes place.
As there is a change in voltage magnitude, corresponding susceptance changes
resulting in variation of firing angle pulses. SVC controller provides suitable control
action for reactive power generation and absorption based on variations in supply
voltage with respect to reference voltage. Equation for amplitude of reactive current
shown in Fig. 4c is given by (1). As the operation of TCR depends on firing angle
delay a, the current and susceptance will be in terms of a.
ILF ðaÞ ¼ VBL ðaÞ ð1Þ

In (1), BL ðaÞ is the equivalent susceptance given by xL
1
1 2a
p p
sin 2a
.
The primary voltage of transformer is fed to measurement system which con-
verts the three-phase signal to magnitude of positive sequence component of
voltage in terms of normalized values. The error signal which is the difference
between measured and reference voltages is fed to discrete-time integrator along
with droop which is slope measured in pu per 100 MVA. All the components in
SVC controller along their sequence of connection are shown in Fig. 5. The input
Fig. 3 Currents drawn by a TCR, b TSC1, c TSC2, d TSC3, e total current drawn by SVC which
is the resultant sum of currents of TCR and the three TSCs
Fig. 3 (continued)
for distribution unit connected to firing unit is susceptance and output is firing angle
of TCR and ON/OFF control for TSCs. Distribution unit gives firing angle delay to
TCR and pulses to TCS as shown in Fig. 3. Actual voltage is converted to pu and is
compared with reference voltage 1 pu. Error signal is fed to voltage regulator which
takes into consideration droop value and the susceptance required to provide nec-
essary voltage is calculated. Droop is the slope of voltage–current characteristics of
SVC. The three inputs of voltage regulator are measured voltage, reference voltage
and reference value of susceptance Bref. This Bref value is taken to be equal to zero.
Figure 6a–c shows reactive power generated or absorbed, measured and reference
voltages and number of TSC’s that are switched on based on variations in voltage.
(a) (b)
Currents drawn by TCR and TSC are
measured at the points shown by arrows
Fig. 4 a A portion of TCR bank, b a portion of one of the three TSC bank, c steady-state current
waveform of TCR
Voltage measurement compares Voltage regulator uses

the normalized measured voltage difference in voltages to find the
with reference voltage of 1 pu susceptance that is required to
maintain constant voltage
Firing unit sends suitable
firing signals to thyristors for
control of TCR and on/ off of Distribution unit determines
TSCs required firing angle delay of TCR
Fig. 5 SVC controller with the functions of its various components
By suitable switching operation and gain multiplication, the voltage regulator

produces susceptance as shown in Fig. 6d. Firing angle delay control of TCR which
consists of delta connected antiparallel thyristors in series with an inductor is shown
in Fig. 6e. TSC is also delta connected antiparallel connected thyristor bank in
series with a capacitor. During voltage sag, three capacitors are connected, and
during swell conditions, no capacitor is switched on as shown in Fig. 6c.
There exists a relationship between Figs. 4c and 6e. For highest and constant
value of firing angle, steady current remains zero. There is no variation in current
for minimum value of firing angle.
Fig. 6 a Reactive power variation, b measured and reference voltages, c number of TSC’s that are
switched on based on variations in voltage, d input and of distribution unit, i.e., susceptance,
e firing angle delay control of TCR
4 Conclusion
SVC injects reactive power in the line by thyristor switched capacitor. SVC absorbs
reactive power from the line by thyristor controlled reactor. The supply or
absorption of reactive power is done to regulate voltage against changes in voltage.
An important benefit of using power electronic-based equipment is manifested in
the form of increase in power transfer capability. As by switching ON or OFF
capacitors, capacitive admittance can be directly connected or disconnected based
on reactive power variation. SVC controller calculates the susceptance required to
make voltage equal to reference voltage. The TSC components or banks which are
made ON/OFF are decided and the delay angle provided by reactor is calculated.
When voltage becomes as a reduced value than reference voltage, TSCs are turned
on and when voltage is greater than reference voltage TCR operation is controlled
by variation in firing angle. Corresponding to the variation in magnitude of supply
voltage, necessary action is taken by reactive power absorption or generation.
References
1. N.G. Hingorani, L. Gyugyi, Understanding FACTS. IEEE Press, First Indian Edition (2001)
2. IEEE, Recommended Practice for Monitoring Electric Power Quality, IEEE Standard
1159-1995 (1995)
3. S. Joseph, The Seven Types of Power Quality Problems. White paper 18, Revision 1, Schneider
Electric White Paper Library, pp. 1–21 (2011)
4. J. Piri, G. Bandyopadhyay, M. Sengupta, Effects of including SVC and TCSC in an existing
power system under normal operating condition: a case study, in IEEE International
Conference on Power Electronics, Drives and Energy Systems, pp. 1–6 (2018)
5. Y.M. Aboelazm, Y.E. Wahba, M.A.M. Hassan, Modeling and analysis of new advanced
FACTS devices for voltage swells mitigation, in Twentieth International Middle East Power
Systems Conference, pp-552–557 (2018)
6. M.S. Alvarez-Alvarado, C.D. Rodríguez-Gallegos, D. Jayaweera, Optimal planning and
operation of static VAR compensators in a distribution system with non-linear loads, in IET
Generation, Transmission and Distribution, pp. 3726–3735 (2018)
7. M. Priyadhershni, C. Udhayashankar, K. Chinnaiyan, Simulation of Static Var Compensator in
IEEE 14 Bus System for Enhancing Voltage Stability and Compensation, Power Electronics
and Renewable Energy Systems, Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering, vol 326 (Springer,
Berlin) (2015)
A New Efficient Z-H Boost Converter
for DC Microgrids
Ch. Sajan, T. Praveen Kumar and P. Balakishan
Abstract With the shortage of the vitality and regularly increasing of the oil value,
look into on the sustainable and efficient power vitality sources, only the sunlight
based exhibits and the energy units, turns out to be increasingly fundamental. Boost
converters are all around used to accomplish high advance up and high effective-
ness DC/DC converters and furthermore utilized as power-factor adjusted pre
regulators. A Z-H boost DC-DC converter is proposed in this paper as there is no
shoot-through exchanging state in this converter and the front-end diode is cleared
out. The Z-H boost converter can be adjusted to DC-DC, DC-AC, AC-DC, and
AC-AC power change. The simulation results confirmed the investigation and
exhibited the huge capability of the Z-H boost converter.
Keywords Z-H converter Boost converter PV module Power losses MPPT
1 Introduction
In terms of energy, PV sources are one of the significant contender to the generation
of power among all sustainable power source challengers continuously upto 2040 in
light of the fact that it is completely spotless emanation free, inexhaustible electrical
innovation with high accuracy. Boost converters are the most outstanding partic-
ularly for applications with higher DC bus voltage compared to the line input.
These are commonly connected as preregulators or even joined with the last-stage
circuits or rectifiers into single-stage circuits [1, 2]. The ease in circuit and frame
work configuration decreased weight on gadgets and high transformations high
control factor concern are the explanations behind utilizing support converter.
Ch. Sajan (&) T. Praveen Kumar P. Balakishan

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Jyothishmathi Institute of Technology
and Science, Karimnagar, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_23
236 Ch. Sajan et al.
The regular strategy for decreasing current harmonics at the input stage utilizing a
LC filter is never again used for all intents and purposes endurable to meet the
necessities in some powerful applications.
Most sustainable power sources, for example, PV power source frame works and
energy units, have very low voltage output and require a voltage booster to give
adequate output voltage [3, 4]. Be that as it may, there are a few abstractions for the
ordinary interleaved help converter in high advance up DC-DC transformation
[5, 6].
(1) The current ripples of the switches and the diodes at the output are enormous
(2) The switch voltage stress is equivalent to the output voltage, which is huge in
high-output voltage applications
(3) The switching and reverse recovery losses are enormous because of strong
switching operations and high voltage applications.
2 Design of the PV Module
The frame work structure of the forthcoming DC microgrid comprises of the typical
out spread DC Power line of 200V, to which the various circuits of the microgrid
are associated [7, 8]. Sun-oriented PV is treated as the essential well spring of the
intensity in this design. A sun-powered PV cluster is associated with the microgrid
framework that supplies a variable DC load. The setup of the DC microgrid is
planned so that it can work for AC power transformation. The two center purposes
of the H-connect are associated with the two inductors separately with no associ-
ation with the utility. The single diode model or the five-parameter model [9] is
utilized for displaying the sunlight-based cell.
The equal circuit of a solar PV cell is given in Fig. 1. It comprises of a present
source, a diode, an arrangement obstruction, and a parallel opposition. The present
source speaks to the photograph current (Iph) created inside the PV cell which is an
element of the episode sun-based radiation (G) and cell temperature (T). The pre-
sent Id is the diode current, and Ish speaks to the current in the shunt branch. Rsh and
Fig. 1 Equivalent circuit of a PV cell

A New Efficient Z-H Boost Converter for DC Microgrids 237
Rs are the shunt and arrangement protections. V and I speak to the yield voltage and
current from the cell. Utilizing Kirchhoff’s law, the condition of the current can be
composed as,
I ¼ Iph Id Ish ð1Þ
The diode current (Id) and the shunt current (Ish) are given by the following.
Id ¼ fexp½ðV þ IRs Þ=nCKT 1g ð2Þ
Ish ¼ ½V þ IRs =Rsh ð3Þ
where q is the electric charge (1.6 10–19 C), K is the

Boltzmann constant (1.38 10−23 J/K), C is the number of cells in a PV
module, T is the cell temperature (K), and n is the diode ideality factor. In order to
reduce complication, it is assumed that only photocurrent and the diode current
depend on the working conditions [9]. The dependencies are specified by the
Townsend equations which are given as,
Iph ¼ ½G=Gref ½Isc þ lscðT Tref Þ ð4Þ

Is ¼ Is ; ½T=Tref 3 exp qEg Ns=nK ð1=T 1=Tref Þ ð5Þ
where G is the incident solar irradiation, Gref is the reference solar irradiation (taken
as 1000 w/m2), lsc is the temperature coefficient of the short circuit current, and Eg
is the band gap energy of the PV cell. The value of the reference diode saturation
current is given by,
Is ; ¼ Isc =fexpðqVoc =nCKT Þ 1g ð6Þ
where Voc is the open-circuit voltage over the PV module made by associating a
string of PV cells organized so as to create the required voltage and current yield.
For an individual reference working condition, the estimations of the arrangement
obstruction, parallel opposition, and diode ideality factor are resolved and these
qualities are utilized for different conditions. Absolutely, a model of a sun-based PV
module is developed utilizing (1–6) Simulink.
For the reproduction of the DC microgrid, a PV cluster is utilized. This exhibit is
associated with the DC dispersion framework by means of a lift converter. Here, the
lift converter represents the Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT). This element
of MPPT is an unquestionable requirement as it will permit the PV cluster to
convey the greatest conceivable power for a specific illumination input.
The Z-H help converter appeared in Fig. 2 [10, 11] is a voltage source con-
verser which means there is no shoot-through exchanging state and longer. Every
one of the switches appeared in Fig. 2 is bidirectional S1 and S3, S2 and S4 are
accomplished, respectively. The control signals S2 and S3 can be in stage, or have
Fig. 2 Z-H boost converter with load
Fig. 3 Sequence of the gate signals a S2 and S3 are in phase; b S2 and S3 are interleaved
180° stage move to bring down the voltage swells. The arrangement of door sign is
appeared in Fig. 3. Here, D is the duty cycle for S2 and S3. The converter has two
working stages: current charging (T0) and current releasing (T1).
So as to create the switching signals, a triangular carrier wave is contrasted with
a steady reference signal. In the event, if the triangular wave surpasses the reference
signal, the switches S1 and S4 will be in ON condition, S2 and S3 are in OFF
condition. Boost factor is given by B = [1 − 2D] − 1.
where
0 D 0.5 for Vo 0 and 0.5 D < 1 for Vo 0 (Fig. 4).
Fig. 4 Variation of the

voltage gain versus duty cycle
for the Z-H converter
3 I2r Losses and Thermal Performances
(a) Switching and conduction losses calculations

At the point when the gadget is progressing from the blocking state to the directing
state, the other way around exchanging misfortunes happens [12]. This period is
portrayed by critical voltage over its terminals and huge current through it. Each
progress should be increased by the changing recurrence to get the exchanging
misfortunes for the vitality scattering. The exchanging misfortunes Psw are com-
municated as:
Psw ¼ ðEon þ Eoff Þ Fsw ð7Þ
where Eon and Eoff are the energy losses during turn on and turn off of the switch
and Fsw is the switching frequency. During the device is in full conduction mode,
conduction losses occur. These losses are in direct relationship with the duty cycle.
The average conduction losses Pco are expressed as:
ZT
Pavg:con ¼ 1=T ½Vce ðtÞ Ice ðtÞdt ð8Þ
0
where Vce is the on-state voltage and Ice is the on-state current. The time period T is
given as:
T ¼ 1=Fsw ð9Þ
where Fsw is inversely proportional to T.

(b) Capacitor ESR losses calculations
A perfect capacitors and inductors which are in series with resistance are called
ESR(Equivalent Series Resistance). Its value is purely equal to value of set of losses
of the energy which arises during the operating conditions. In a decent capacitor,
the ESR is extremely little and in a poor capacitor, the ESR is huge. None the less
the ESR is not just the resistance that would be estimated over a capacitor by the
ohmmeter, the ESR is a determined amount with physical starting points in both the
dielectrics conduction electrons and di-pole mechanisms. The losses in capacitors
are communicated as:
Pcap:loss ¼ I 2 ESR ð10Þ

(c) Magnetic core design calculations

High flux centers offer the most outstanding biasing capacity of all powder center
materials. The high immersion transition thickness and moderately low misfortunes
of high flux centers make them very helpful for applications including, high
influence and high DC predisposition.
In this area, the attractive center structure is represented through the accompa-
nying advances:
(1) In order to choose an appropriate center size, the DC current and the inductance
required with DC voltage to be known from the core selector outline as indi-
cated by (11):

2
LIDC ¼ mH A2 ð11Þ
A high flux 58337 core was selected for the Z-H boost converter in order to
have fair comparison from an efficiency point of view.
(2) Inductance core side and permeability are now known then calculating the no.
of turns [13] by determine, the minimum inductance factor Almin by using the
unconditional negative tolerance given in the core data sheet in
Almin ¼ Al 0:08 Al ð12Þ
The DC resistance can be estimated after knowing the winding factor of the core,
wire gauge, and the no. of turns. The DC resistance can be calculated as:
RDC ¼ MLT N ð13Þ
4 Simulation and Results
The Z-H boost converter has the capability of ideally giving an output voltage range
from zero to infinity regardless of the input voltage. This utility of the Z-H con-
verter for DC microgrid applications exhorts the superior suitability. The parame-
ters of the impedance source work is chosen as L1 = L2 = 0.4 mH and
C1 = C2 = C3 = 97 uf switching frequency used in the simulation is 20 kHz. The
simulation results for Z-H converter is shown in Figs. 5, 6, and 7.
Fig. 5 Simulink model of the Z-H boost converter with PV source for DC microgrids
Fig. 6 Current waveform at the output of the Z-H booster with load 1000 X
5 Conclusion
This paper has conferred the presentation and appropriateness of a Z-H source
support DC-DC converter for DC microgrid applications. PV framework with
power electronic interface is demonstrated utilizing MATLAB/Simulink conditions.
The PI controller outfits a controlled yield voltage for variable working states of the
PV source. It is very well seen that the working states of the Z-H support DC-DC
converter offers better execution and productivity with high efficiency and high
output power with the low ripples.
Fig. 7 Boosted voltage waveform at the output of the Z-H booster with load 1000 X
References
1. C.M. Wang, A new single-phase ZCS-PWM boost rectifier with high power factor and low
conduction losses. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 53(2), 500–510 (2006)
2. K.P. Louganski, J.S. Lai, Current phase lead compensation in single-phase PFC boost
converters with a reduced switching frequency to line frequency ratio. IEEE Trans. Power
Electron. 22(1), 113–119 (2007)
3. K. Kobayashi, H. Matsuo, Y. Sekine, Novel solar-cell power supply system using a
multiple-input DC–DC converter. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 53(1), 281–286 (2006)
4. S.K. Mazumder, R.K. Burra, K. Acharya, A ripple-mitigating and energy-efficient fuel cell
power-conditioning system. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 22(4), 1437–1452 (2007)
5. K. Ramtek, Y.N., Dynamic modeling and controller design for z-source DC-DC converter.
Int. J. Scientif. Eng. Technol. 2(4), 272–277, Apr 2013
6. W. Li, X. Lv, Y. Deng, J. Liu, X. He, A review of non-isolated high step-up DC/DC
converters in renewable energy applications. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. (2009).
978-1-422-2812-0/09
7. R.T. Naayagi, A.J. Forsyth, R. Shuttleworth, High-power bidirectional DC-DC converter for
aerospace applications. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 27(11), 4366–4379 (2012)
8. W. Li, X. He, Review of non-isolated high-step-up DC/DC converters in photovoltaic
grid-connected applications. IEEE Trans. Industr. Electron. 58(4), 1239–1250 (2011)
9. F. Evran, M.T. Aydemir, Isolated high step-up DC-DC converter with low voltage stress.
IEEE Trans. Power Electron, (early access) (2013)
10. F. Zhang, F.Z. Peng, Z. Qian, Z-H Converter. in Proc. PESC 2008 (2008), pp. 1004–1007
11. F.Z. Peng, M. Shen, Z. Qian, Maximum boost control of the Z-Source inverter. IEEE Trans.
Power Electron. 20(4), 833–838 (2005)
12. N.V. Nguyen, B.X. Nguyen, H.H. Lee, An optimized discontinuous PWM method to
minimize switching loss for multilevel inverters. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 58(9), 3958–3966
(2011)
13. Y. Tang, X. Dong, Y. He, Active buck-boost inverter. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 61(9),
4691–4697 (2014)
A Hybrid Power Conversion System
Using Three-Phase Single-Stage DC–AC
Converter
Shaik Rafi, Simhadri Lakshmi Sirisha and Ravipati Srikanth
Abstract This research article emphasizes about incremental conductance method

of tracking maximum power point and sliding variable structure control imple-
mented for three-phase single-stage DC–AC converter for hybrid electric power
generation. The variations in PV array have been reduced by MPPT converter and
tied along with wind voltage to the DC bus. At a single stage, the three-phase
voltage of 415 V, 50 Hz, has been obtained by using DC–AC converters. The
sliding mode control used aims at reducing the power stages and also produces
constant output voltage. In the proposed system, the signal harmonic components
are found to be very low. The system is developed in MATLAB–Simulink envi-
ronment, and the outputs have also been presented.
Keywords Incremental conductance method Single-stage conversion Sliding

mode control
1 Introduction
The intensive demand for electrical power and the reduction in natural fuels like
gas, oil, etc., always insists researchers to work on renewable energy sources [1]
which are environmental-friendly, economical and feasible. The solar energy and
wind energy play a prominent role in alternate energy sources. But the fragmentary
behavior of these two sources has increased the necessity of combined solar–wind
system. The integration of two or more alternate energy sources results in high
efficiency, low cost and high reliability.
Ghasemi [2] et al. presented the hybrid power system which combines solar and
geothermal energy sources. Geothermal power plants use geologic deposits which
are buried and combustible for generating the electric power, and it does not
produce greenhouse gases. So, it can be harmful to the atmosphere. A combined
S. Rafi (&) S. L. Sirisha R. Srikanth

Vignans Nirula Institute of Technology and Science for Women,
Guntur, Andhra Pradesh, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_24
244 S. Rafi et al.
solar–wind power generation using DC–AC converter is analyzed. Solar power

converters are designed by semiconducting power circuits associated with the
power inversion, control and conditioning [3] the electric power.
A single-stage three-phase combined power generation system has been sug-
gested in the article which consists of MPPT solar charger, power conversion in one
stage as shown in Fig. 1. The incremental conductance method of MPPT technique
regulates the variable DC output voltage of PV module into a constant DC and can
be stored in the battery. The three-phase DC–AC converter converts the low solar
voltage to high AC voltage with fundamental frequency in a single stage.
The topology shown in Fig. 1 maintains stable voltage under various load
conditions. This research article mainly concentrates on IC MPPT controller, SVSC
control and single-stage boosting and inverting property. The MPPT-based IC
algorithm technique [4] is implemented to manage the turnout voltage of the solar,
and the SVSC technique was [5] implemented to maintain the constant turnout
voltage of the DC–AC converter to meet the heavy loads.
100V DC BUS
WIND AC – DC
ENERGY CONVERTER SINGLE
STAGE
3-ϕ DC-AC
INVERTER Grid
MPPT
CONTROLLER NOT GATE
PV Array S Iref
DRIVER GATE SVSC
vref
δ
VPV
IPV IC
Fig. 1 Functional illustration of the 3-U system

A Hybrid Power Conversion System Using Three Phase Single … 245
2 Three-Phase Single-Stage Conversion
The proposed DC–AC converter has four switches in each phase which gives DC
biased sinusoidal voltage in each phase. The phase shift of output voltage of each
converter is p angle, which will deliver the maximum voltage differentially across
the load [6]. Reference node of each converter is commonly connected, and load
should be connected across the positive node of each converter. The circuit of the
3-U DC to AC modifier is shown in Fig. 2.
The rectification of solar panel DC voltage to utility voltage and the boosting of
low level dc to high level ac voltage in a single power conversion stage provides
good benefit of DC-AC converter with minimum power switches and nil distur-
bance sine wave of the output voltage without involving filters. The proposed DC–
AC converter of R-phase and its operation in two modes are shown in Figs. 3 and 4.
Mode-1 (R-phase): Considering during positive half cycle, with switch SR1 open
and SR2 closed, the inductor LR2 is charged increasing the loop current whereas with
SR2 open and SR1 closed the capacitor CR1 gives electrical power to the load.
Mode-2 (R-phase): Considering during negative half cycle, with SR3 open and
SR4 closed, the inductor LR1 is charged and with SR4 open and SR3 close the CR2
supplies electric power to the load.
The conduction mode of converter1 is
VCR1 1
¼ ð1Þ
VDC 1D
And the conduction mode of converter2 is
VCR2 1
¼ ð2Þ
VDC D
LR2 SR3
R
LR1 SR1
LY2 SY3
Y
LY1
SY1
LB2 SB3
B
LB1
SB1
SR2 SR4 SY2 SY4 SB2 SB4 CR1 CR2 CY1 CY2 CB1 CB2
VDC
D1 D2 D3 D4 D5 D6
Fig. 2 Circuit of DC–AC converter

246 S. Rafi et al.
rL LR1 LR1
SR1 rL SR1
IRL1 IR1
VDC SR2 CR1 rD VDC SR2 CR1 rD
VCR1
VD VD
Fig. 3 Operation of DC–AC converter (R-phase, Mode-1)
rL LR2 LR2
SR3 rL SR3
IRL2 IR2
VDC SR4 CR2 rD VDC CR2 rD
SR4
VCR2
VD VD
Fig. 4 Operation of DC–AC converter (R-phase, Mode-2)
The functionality of the converter (R-phase) can be easily evaluated with the
equations given below
VDC VDC
VR ¼ VCR1 VCR2 ¼ ð3Þ
1D D
VR 2D 1
¼ ð4Þ
VDC ð1 DÞD
DiLRI VDC rLR

¼ I ð5Þ
Dt LR1 LR1
DVCR1 DVCR2 rLR

¼ I ð6Þ
Dt rDCR LR1
In the similar manner, the converter for Y-phase and B-phase can be evaluated
with 120° phase shift each.
3 Incremental Conductance Method
Incremental conductance method of tracking of maximum power point from solar

panel will reduce the oscillations produced in P and O method. IC method uses the
power expression to track MPP. The performance of the IC method can be con-
sidered to be better under rapidly varying atmospheric conditions. We have
Po = V0 * I0 where V0 is the solar panel unclosed circuit voltage and I0 is the PV

panel current.
Differentiating the power expression
dP0 dðV0 I0 Þ dI0
¼ ¼ I0 þ V0 ð7Þ
dV0 dV0 dV0
At MPP, ddPo V0
¼0
From the above I0 þ V0 ddVI0 ¼ 0 and so ddVI0 ¼ VI00 .
0 0
If ddVI0 VI00 , then the MPP is obtained by increasing the duty cycle in steps, until
0
required point is reached.
If ddVI0 VI00 , then the MPP is obtained by decreasing the duty cycle in steps, until
0
required point is reached. Once MPP is reached, it regulates the PWM control
signals given to the converter.
The fastness of MPP tracking is determined by the increment size [7]. In con-
ventional IC algorithm, the PV array voltage Vo and current Io are to be measured to
determine the optimal direction of perturbation. The flowchart of IC method is
considered in Fig. 5, and the simulation diagram is considered in Fig. 6.
Measurement of
VPV(n),IPV(n)
( )= ( )− ( − )
( )= ( )− ( − )
( )= 0
( ) ( ) ( )= 0
+ <
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
+ > ( ) = 0
( ) ( )
( + 1) = ( )− ( + 1) = ( )+ ( + 1) = ( )
−
( + 1) = ( ) − ( + 1) = ( )
Fig. 5 Flowchart of IC method

248 S. Rafi et al.
Fig. 6 Simulation diagram of IC technique
4 Proposed Simulation Model
The simulation diagram of single-stage 3-U DC–AC modifier is shown in Fig. 7.

The design and modeling of three-phase single-stage DC–AC converter for
hybrid energy system developed in MATLAB–Simulink environment are shown in
Fig. 8 .
Fig. 7 Simulation diagram of 3-U DC–AC Modifier

Fig. 8 Simulation diagram of three-phase single-stage DC–AC modifier for hybrid energy system
Solar power and wind energy sources are designed for charging the 100 V rated
battery. Both energy sources are input of the battery. Figure 9 shows the solar panel
output, and it is maintained at 100 V; Fig. 10 shows the wind energy output, and it
delivers 104 V. The inverter input voltage of 104 V has been shown in Figs. 11,
12, 13, 14.
120
100
80
Voltage (V)
60
40
20
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
Time (sec)
Fig. 9 Solar voltage

250 S. Rafi et al.
150
100
Voltage (V)
50
0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
Time (sec)
Fig. 10 Wind voltage
105
104.5
Voltage (V)
104
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
Time (sec)
Fig. 11 Inverter input voltage
The values of the parameters of the 3-U modifier are considered to be ideal as
shown in Table 1.
The 3-U output voltage so obtained and the corresponding current are shown in
Figs. 15 and 16 which can then be connected to the grid for further utilization. The
output harmonic component is found to be very less around 3.89% as shown in
Fig. 17.
Fig. 12 Gate pulses for power switches (R-phase) of the proposed converter
Fig. 13 Gate pulses for power switches (Y-phase) of the proposed converter
252 S. Rafi et al.
Fig. 14 Gate pulses for power switches (B-phase) of the proposed converter
Table 1 Parameter values of the 3-U modifier

S. no Parameter Value (s)
1. Inductor 750 µH
2 Capacitor 20 µF
3 Switching frequency (Fsw) 400 kHz
4 DC voltage 104 V
5. Output voltage 415 V
6 Conclusion
The model of a three-phase single-stage hybrid power generation using DC–AC

converter has been evaluated in MATLAB–Simulink environment. Combined
energy is synchronized through DC bus and connected to the battery.
The turnout voltage of the solar panel is regulated by MPPT controller and
maintained constant voltage for charging the battery. Present topology has replaced
the two-stage conversion (low DC to high DC and then to high AC) to single-stage
conversion improving the effectiveness of the system. The output signal harmonic
component is also minimum around 3.89% only.
600
400
200
Voltage (V)
-200
-400
-600
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
Time (sec)
Fig. 15 3-U load voltage
600
400
200
Current (A)
-200
-400
-600
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
Time (sec)
Fig. 16 3-U load current

254 S. Rafi et al.
Fig. 17 Total harmonic distortion
References
1. R. Lamba, S.C. Kaushik, Modeling and performance analysis of a concentrated photovoltaic

thermoelectric hybrid power generation system. Energy Convers. Manag. 115, 288–298, Elsevier
(2016)
2. H. Ghasemi, E. Sheu, A. Tizzanini, M. Paci, A. Mitsos, Hybrid solar–geothermal power
generation: optimal retrofitting. Appl. Energy. 131, 158–170, Elsevier (2014)
3. Rong-Jong Wai, Wen-Hung Wang, Grid-connected photovoltaic generation system. IEEE
Trans. Circuits Syst.-I 55(3), 953–964 (2008)
4. A. Dolara, R. Faranda, S. Leva, Energy comparison of seven MPPT techniques for PV systems.
Electromagn. Anal. Appl. 3, 152–162 (2009)
5. W. Xu, Y. Cheng, Y. He, A novel scheme for sliding-mode control of DC-DC converters with
a constant frequency based on the averaging model. J. Power Electron. 10(1), (2010)
6. P.M. Venkatesh, R. Velavan, A single stage hybrid electric power generation using dual leg
DC/AC converter. J. Electr. Eng., 18(3), (2018)
7. P. Vital Rao, K.R. Sudha, S. Prameela Devi, Incremental conductance (IncCond) algorithm for
Maximum Power Operating Point (MPOP) of Photo-Voltaic (PV) power generation system.
Am. J. Eng. Res. (AJER) 02(12), 334–342. e-ISSN 2320-0847 (2013)
Enhanced Optimal Control
Scheme for Attaining Improved
Efficiency and Dynamic Response
of WECS Using SVC
C. Veeramani, A. N. Malleswa Rao, K. V. G. Aravind,

M. Likhitha Reddy, M. Vipin Krishna and K. Maheswari
Abstract In a WECS, it is significant to understand its characteristics and then find

an optimal solution to produce electricity with greatest efficiency. The major issues
in the wind energy conversion system (WECS) required to be improved with
advantageous controller parameters of a DFIG to enhance efficiency factor and
varying response of the system needs to be modified. A study on the FACTS
device, namely SVC, is in the WECS and then to compute the output signal waves
of the system with various trade-off between voltage (V), current (C), power (P),
rotor speed (Rs) and pitch angle (/p). The work was experimented using MATLAB
7.5, and the results are compared conventional technique with the proposed
approach for authenticating the robustness of the methods.
Keywords SVC DFIG Compensator CA
1 Introduction
Current world is running with the service of electricity. This cannot be an ampli-
fication to ratify that provides the strength for technology development. Especially,
it is the most required to uplift modern urban life. Keeping this in observation,
renewable sources like wind energy is being preferred for production of electric
power [1, 2]. The kinds of wind power generators are utilized in power stations
which are classified in two ways: DFIG and SCIG. A doubly fed induction gen-
erator (DFIG) is preferred ahead of SCIG which has the capability to manage active
and reactive power and also control voltage [3]. When a DFIG is being used
sometimes, we find certain disturbances. Hence, proposing proper methods for
enhancement of transient stability, DFIG scheme is more vital. The SVC balances
the system voltage by consuming or feeding reactive power. Hence, the cultural
C. Veeramani (&) A. N. Malleswa Rao K. V. G. Aravind

M. Likhitha Reddy M. Vipin Krishna K. Maheswari
Department of EEE, Sri Indu College of Engineering and Technology,
Sheriguda, Hyderabad, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_25
256 C. Veeramani et al.
algorithm (CA) is introduced for the adjustment of parameters of static VAR

compensator and also functionality procedure [4, 5]. The simulation results and
experimentation study authenticate the stability of DFIG with the measurable
parameters potential difference, active power and rotor acceleration which is
implemented in MATLAB IDE [6].
2 Perpetration of SVC
The static VAR compensator is one of the classification of the FACTS to control
power stream and for better transient soundness on power matrices. The incon-
sistency in responsive power is performing by exchanging 3ø capacitor banks and
inductor banks associated with the optional side of a coupling transformer [3, 7]
(Figs. 1 and 2).
3 Power System Model (PSM)
Here, the PSM network is examined, and it includes windmills, matrix system and
FACTS-based reactive power compensation devices [3] (Fig. 3).
4 Cultural Algorithm
A CA is an accumulation of developmental populace of operators whose encounters

are consolidated into a conviction space comprising of different types of repre-
sentative learning. The different information sources in the conviction space can be
seen as an outfit of classifiers with the acknowledgment capacity gathering test
information utilizing methods, for example, sacking and boosting from the operator
Fig. 1 SVC voltage damper with variations in order to choose the peak rate of K
Enhanced Optimal Control Scheme for Attaining Improved … 257
Fig. 2 V-I characteristic of static VAR compensator
Fig. 3 Experimental setup of an integrated WECS—SVC DFIG scheme
population [7–9]. Selected people from the populace space add to social learning by
methods for the acknowledgment work. The social learning dwells in the conviction
space where it is put away and refreshed dependent on individual encounters and
their triumphs or disappointments. There are five essential classifications of social
learning that are significant in the conviction space of any social development
model: situational, regulating, topographic, authentic or worldly and area knowl-
edge [10].
5 Simulation Result and Discussion
Two scenarios of wind dynamics are depicted here to show the benefits of the
proposed CA-SVC controlled model over the coordinated CA controlled model. In
first situation, the breeze speed (WS) is at first set at 12 m/s and after that at
t = 1.5 s breeze speed ascends to 15 m/s at 3 s. Here on, the WS is kept steady at
15 m/s from 3 to 10 s, while in second situation, wind speed is at first set at 15 m/s
and after that at t = 1.5 s breeze speed tumbles to 12 m/s at 3 s. Here on, the breeze
speed is kept consistent at meter/s from 3 to 10 s. The reenactment is performed for
10 s.
5.1 DFIG System Parameters
There are six wind turbines in the ranch; however, reenactment is finished by taking
single wind turbine to obstruct at once and afterward on increasing by 6 we get the
required parameters, as pursues: The ostensible breeze turbine mechanical yield:
6 * 1.5 MW, The generator evaluated control: 6 * 1.5/0.9 MVA (6 * 1.5 MW at
0.9 PF), The ostensible DC transport capacitor: 6 * 10000 uF. The subtleties of
SVC parameters utilized in this recreation study are recorded as pursues: the system
ostensible voltage (Vrms L-L) = 25 kV, frequency (f) = 60 Hz, 3/ base power
(Phase) = 100 MVA, reactive power lower limits (Qc_min) = 100 MVA, reactive
power lower limits (Qc_max) = 100 MVA.
Scenario 1
In this case, an initial WS of 12 m/s is set meter/s at 3 s. Now, the WS is kept
constant at meter/s from 3 to 10 s. The ideal controller addition esteems acquired
from the proposed cultural algorithm for situation 1 is arranged in Table 1. System
with SVC FACTS device and the system with coordinated CA controller and SVC
device are tabulated in Table 2.
Figure 1 shows the comparison waveform of DFIG output current for proposed
CA-based controller, system with SVC FACTS device and the system with coor-
dinated CA controller and SVC device when the breeze speed varies from 12 to
Table 1 Voltage regulator control mode, reference voltage (Vref) = 1 p.u, droop (Xs) = 0.03 p.u/
Phase Kp = 3, Ki = 500
Parameter DC bus voltage Grid-side converter Rotor-side Pitch
regulator gains current regulator converter current controller
[Kp Ki] gains [Kp Ki] regulator gains [Kp] gain [Kp]
Proposed CA
Kp 8.3 0.85 0.58 145
Ki 403 5.97 8.3 –
Table 2 Response of Parameters CA SVC SVC + CA

generator current for
unexpected change in wind Overshoot (p.u) 0.7 0.75 0.77
speed Settling time (s) 8.8 8.2 7.8
15 m/s. Time values of DFIG output current for proposed CA-based controller,
system with SVC FACTS device and DFIG-based WECS using cultural algorithm
tuned controller and SVC gadget when exposed to the breeze speed changes from
12 to 15 m/s. From Fig. 1 and Table 1, similarly, the DFIG output current of test
system with coordinated CA controller and SVC device has minimum overshoot of
0.82 (p.u), when compared to that of conventional controller-based test system and
other intelligence controller-based test systems (Fig. 4).
Figure 5 demonstrates the correlation waveform of converter DC-connect
capacitor voltage for proposed CA-based controller, framework with SVC FACTS
gadget and the framework with facilitated CA controller and static VAR com-
pensator device. The framework with SVC actuality gadget and the framework with
composed CA controller and SVC gadget when exposed to the breeze speed
changes from 12 to 15 m/s. From Fig. 5 and Table 3, it is obviously that the
converter DC-connect capacitor voltage of test framework with composed CA
Fig. 4 Examination of generator current waveform for abrupt change in wind speed from 12 to
15 m/s with SVC
Fig. 5 Correlation of direct current voltage waveform for sudden variation in breeze speed from
12 to 15 m/s with SVC
controller and SVC gadget has settled rapidly with settling time of 6.8 s when
contrasted with that of framework with proposed CA-based controller and
SVC FACTS gadget.
Figure 6 shows the comparison waveform of turbine blade pitch angle for
proposed CA-based controller, system with SVC FACTS device and the system
with coordinated CA controller and SVC device at the point when exposed to the
breeze speed changes from 12 to 15 m/s. Table 4 demonstrates the overshoot/
undershoot and settling time estimations of turbine blade pitch angle for proposed
dinated CA controller and SVC device when subjected to the WS varies from 12 to
15 m/s.
Figure 7 demonstrates the correlation waveform of DFIG yield control for
proposed CA-based controller, framework with SVC reality gadget and the
framework with facilitated CA controller and SVC gadget when exposed to the
breeze speed changes from 12 to 15 m/s. Table 5 demonstrates the overshoot/
undershoot and settling time estimations of DFIG yield control for proposed
CA-based controller, framework with SVC actuality gadget and the framework with
composed CA controller and SVC gadget when exposed to the breeze speed
changes from 12 to 15 m/s. From Fig. 7 and Table 5, it is plain that the DFIG yield
Table 3 Reaction of direct current voltage for sudden variation in WS

Parameters CA SVC SVC + CA
Overshoot (V) 1149.92 1149.93 1149.95
Settling time (s) 4.2 3.8 3.5
Fig. 6 Response of turbine cutting edge pitch point waveform for blast change in WS from 12 to
15 m/s with SVC
Table 4 Response of pitch angle for blast variation in breeze speed

Overshoot (deg) 8.4 8.3 8.2
intensity of test framework with facilitated CA controller and SVC gadget has
settled rapidly with settling time of 7.8 s when contrasted with that of framework
with proposed CA-based controller and SVC FACTS gadget. Additionally, the
DFIG yield intensity of test framework with composed CA controller and SVC
gadget has least overshoot of 9.7 MW, when contrasted with that of regular
controller-based test framework and other knowledge controller-based test
frameworks.
Fig. 7 Feedback of doubly fed induction generator output power waveform for a rapid variation
in breeze acceleration from 12 to 15 m/s with SVC
Table 5 Feedback of doubly fed induction generator gain power waveform for surge variation in
breeze acceleration
Overshoot (MW) 7.3 7.6 7.8
Settling time (s) 10 8.8 7.9
Scenario 2
For this situation, the most extreme breeze speed is set at 15 m/s and after that at
t = 1.5 s wind speed tumbles to 12 m/s at 3 s. Presently, the breeze speed stays
kept steady at 12 m/s from 3 to 10 s. Here, the recreation is accomplished for 10 s.
In this way, the yield waveforms of current, control converter of DC voltage, rotor
speed and pitch point of the DFIG are acquired. The ideal controller addition
esteems for the DFIG-based WECS utilizing social calculation for situation 2 which
is organized in Table 6.
Table 6 Optimal controller gain values obtain scenario 2

Parameter DC bus voltage Grid-side converter Rotor-side converter Pitch
regulator gains current regulator current regulator controller
[Kp Ki] gains [Kp Ki] gains [Kp Ki] gain [Kp]
Proposed CA
Kp 7.9 0.85 0.58 150
Ki 390 5.97 8.3 –
Figure 8 shows the comparison waveform of DFIG output current for proposed
dinated CA controller and SVC device when wind speed changes from 15 to 12 m/s.
Table 7 demonstrates the overshoot/undershoot and settling time estimations of
DFIG yield current for proposed CA-based controller, framework with SVC actu-
ality gadget and the framework with composed CA controller and SVC gadget when
exposed to the breeze speed changes from 15 to 12 m/s. So also, the DFIG yield
current of test system with coordinated CA controller and SVC device has minimum
undershoot of 0.7 (p.u), when compared to that of conventional controller-based test
system and other intelligence controller-based test systems.
Figure 9 demonstrates the examination waveform of converter DC-connect
capacitor voltage for proposed CA-based controller, framework with SVC certainty
gadget and the framework with composed CA controller and SVC gadget when
exposed to the breeze speed changes from 15 to 12 m/s.
Fig. 8 Analogy of generator current feedback for surge variation in breeze acceleration from 15 to
12 m/s with SVC
Table 7 Outcome of generator current for surge variation in WS

Undershoot (p.u) 0.7 0.72 0.74
Fig. 9 Analogy of direct current voltage feedback for gust variation in breeze acceleration from
15 to 12 m/s with SVC
Table 8 Feedback of direct current voltage for surge variation in WS

Undershoot (V) 1149.92 1149.93 1149.95
Table 8 demonstrates the overshoot/undershoot and settling time estimations of

converter DC interface capacitor voltage for proposed CA-based controller.
Figure 10 and Table 9 show the overdamped system and settling time estimates
of turbine blade pitch angle for both the proposed and coordinated models. In
Fig. 10 and Table 9, it is clear that the turbine blade pitch angle of test system with
coordinated CA controller and SVC device has got settled quickly to reference pitch
angle of 0° with settling time of 3.6 s which is quick enough than proposed
CA-based controller and SVC FACTS device.
Fig. 10 Output waveform of pitch angle of turbine blade for sudden variation in airstream flow
between 15 and 12 m/s with SVC
Table 9 Feedback of pitch angle for sudden variation in breeze acceleration

Undershoot (deg) 8.4 8.3 8.2
Fig. 11 Output power waveform of a DFIG for sudden variation in WS from 15 to 12 m/s with
SVC
Table 10 Feedback of doubly fed induction generator output power for surge variation in breeze
acceleration
Undershoot (MW) 7.3 7.6 7.8
Figure 11 shows comparison waveform of DFIG output power for proposed CA

controller, and from Fig. 11 and Table 10, we find the DFIG output power of the
coordinated CA controller and SVC device has got settled quickly with settling time
of 8.8 s which is quiet faster than that of system with proposed CA controller and
SVC FACTS device. Similarly, the DFIG output power of test system with coor-
dinated CA controller and SVC device has minimum undershoot of 7.5 MW, when
compared to that of conventional controller-based test system and other intelligence
controller-based test systems.
6 Conclusion
The cultural algorithm controller-SVC FACTS-based model and control plan of

DFIG joined WECS are displayed. The total reenactment procedure was performed
in MATLAB programming. The outcomes in this manner profited from the pro-
posed model gave improved framework proficiency and better unique soundness. It
is likewise evident that the proposed CA controlled-SVC FACTS-based framework
holds predominance and has numerous favorable circumstances over the organized
CA controller-based test model, test model with GA-tuned controller, as far as
framework effectiveness, soundness and dynamic reaction for the doubly encour-
aged enlistment generator utilized. In this manner, the proposed procedure can
likewise be utilized for illuminating even the most confounded power framework
advancement.
References
1. R.C. Pena, G.M. Asher, Doubly fed induction generator using back-to-back PWM converters
and its application to variable speed wind-energy generation. IEE Proc. Electr. Power Appl.
143(3), 231–241 (1996)
2. D.E. Goldberg, Genetic Algorithms in Search (Optimization and Machine Learning.
Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, 1989)
3. C. Veeramani, J.P. Williams, P. Ramadevi, Evaluation of wind energy parameter pptimiza-
tionof A DFIG controllerBased on cultural algorithms. 2018 International Conference on
Communication and Signal Processing (ICCSP) (2018)
4. Z. Jian, X. Ancheng, A new method to coordinate the PI controllers’ parameters of doubly-fed
induction generator. 31st Chinese Control Conference (CCC), (25–27 July 2012), pp. 6747–
6751. ISSN: 1934–1768
5. O. Anaya-Lara, N. Jenkins, J. Eknayake, P. Cartwright, M. Hughes, Wind Energy Generation,

Modeling and Control (Wiley, 2009). ISBN: 978-0-470-71433-1
6. S. Abulanwar, Zhe Chen, Iov F., Enhanced LVRT control strategy for DFIG-based WECS in
weak grid. International Conference on Renewable Energy Research and Applications
(ICRERA) (2013), pp. 476–481
7. T. Ackermann, Wind Power in Power Systems (Wiley, UK, 2005)
8. P.M. Anderson, A. Bose, Stability simulation of wind turbine systems. IEEE Trans. Power
Apparatus Syst. PAS-102(12), 3791–3795 (1983)
9. A. Tapia, G. Tapia, X. Ostolaza, J. Ramon, Modelling and control of a wind turbine driven
doubly fed induction generator. IEEE Trans. Energy Convers. 18(2), 194–204 (2003)
10. A. Petersson, T. Thiringer, L. Harnefors, T. Petru, Modeling and experimental verification of
grid interaction of a DFIG wind turbine. IEEE Trans. Energy Convers. 20(4), 878–886 (2005)
Design and Modelling of L-type
Bi-directional Roller Conveyers
for Glass Hauling
S. Madhankumar, T. Vignesh, P. Anand Raj, Anirudh Varadarajan,

T. Arul Praveen and S. Rajesh
Abstract In production industries and assembly sectors, the transportation of various

parts within the plant and even outside the plant is crucial. For this, several types of
shipment methods exist. These conveying methods are generally based on different
materials that are transferred, their chemical and physical properties and so on. Glass is
the best delicate substance that needs to be handled so cautiously in the manufacturing
sectors. This paper provides the considerations and design calculations of the roller
conveyer that is to be used for transporting the glass in the perpendicular direction. The
roller convey or designed is powered, and different types of rollers are used rather than
using conventional cylindrical rollers. The most important aspect of the design is to
move the glass in the L-type conveyer without rotating the glass. Upon the successful
completion of this project, a conveyer set-up is able to haul the glass in ninety degrees
without changing the orientation and direction of the glass.
Keywords Transport Roller conveyer Glass Haul Rotation
1 Introduction
The material handling system is a combination of mechanical and electrical systems

that is used to transfer the components or substances in the production, assembly,
packaging and shipment areas [1]. The handling of materials in the factory can be
done using many ways. Some of the ways are by using forklifts [2], AGVs, trolleys,
belt conveyers [3], gantry cranes, etc. These conveying methods are generally based
on different materials that are transferred, their properties and so on. Glass is the
S. Madhankumar (&) T. Vignesh P. Anand Raj A. Varadarajan T. A. Praveen

Department of Mechatronics Engineering, Sri Krishna College of Engineering and
Technology, Coimbatore 641008, India
S. Rajesh
Department of Mechanical Engineering, R.M.K. Engineering College, Tiruvallur 601206,
India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_26
270 S. Madhankumar et al.
best substance that needs to be handled so cautiously in the manufacturing sectors.

This paper provides the design and fabrication of the roller conveyer that is to be
used for transporting the glass in the perpendicular direction. Each method has own
advantage and drawbacks. Roller conveyers are generally used for the linear
movement of materials within the plant. Similarly, glass is also transported using
roller conveyers in industries. This glass must be carried out manually from one
place to another in order to do the grinding process in all the four dimensions of the
glass. This process involves more time consumption and hence reduces efficiency
for the whole system. In order to avoid this, a new system based on various different
features is proposed. In this system, a new conveyer bed is proposed which is used
effectively to transport the glass in a perpendicular direction without changing the
orientation of the glass. For this, special types of Omni wheels are used. The Omni
wheels can be set up in such a way that the load can be moved in all possible
directions. These wheels contain a sub-roller set-up in them which rotates freely in
perpendicular direction to that of the original wheel rotation [4]. In this paper, a
multi-directional driven installation based on interlacing two different sizes of Omni
wheels, ninety degrees offset to one another, is proposed. This allows the shaft of
both wheels to cross one another without interfacing while creating a common
surface plane. Using such a system, the glass can be easily transferred in L-shape
conveyers without changing its orientation.
2 Components and Their Properties
2.1 Bi-directional Omni Wheel Rollers
Omni wheels are generally made up of hard plastic or aluminium based upon
different requirements. Their assembly is so complex from conventional wheels.
These Omni wheels can be mated with another Omni wheel in order to provide
double Omni wheel rollers. Similarly, there are also triple and quadric Omni wheel
rollers [5]. A typical picture of triple Omni wheel is shown in Fig. 1.
These wheels consist of discs mounted around the circumference which ensures
the rotation of those discs in tangent to that of the normal direction of the main
wheels. They are commercially available in markets up to a standard diameter of 200
millimetres [7]. The average load capacity of an Omni wheel roller depends on its
diameter. For example, a 200-mm double Omni wheel can hold 25–30 kg of load.
2.2 Mild Steel Cylindrical Rods
Cylindrical rods are normally used in the conveyer systems as rollers [8]. The
materials of the roller may be of stainless steel, mild steel or cast iron. Since the cast
Design and Modelling of L-type Bi-directional Roller … 271
Fig. 1 Triple omni wheel [6]
iron is so heavy and stainless steel is so costly, mild steel material is preferred.
These rollers can carry large-sized materials smoothly without any damage to the
materials because of the absence of sliding friction. Figure 2 shows the view of a
mild steel roller pipe.
There are many rollers combined together to rotate and bring forth the linear
movement of materials. The rollers can be a solid or hollow. But the hollow roller
proves to be strong, and it does not bend or break when a huge load is applied.
2.3 Double-Reduction Helical Gear Box Motor
The motor is a device which is used to actuate the rollers [9]. Thus, the rollers rotate
with a speed similar to that of the shaft of the motor. The motor as depicted in
Fig. 3 is a double-reduction induction motor which contains a helical gear box.
Fig. 2 Mild steel roller

Fig. 3 Double-reduction
helical gearbox motor. Image
courtesy Transtecno Group
This motor is chosen since the motor can be coupled directly to the shaft of the
roller. When other types of motors are used, a chain drive must be separately
provided to the shaft which in turn reduces efficiencies for the whole system.
2.4 Proximity Sensor
The sensor is used to sense the values and provide it to controller for further
processing [10]. The proximity sensor as shown in Fig. 4 is used to detect objects
without any physical contact. This sensor is classified into inductive and capacitive
types based upon the detection principle.
The inductive-type sensor can only detect ferrous material, so capacitive-type
proximity sensor is used for the detection of glass.
Fig. 4 Proximity sensor.

Image courtesy Baumer
Industries
3 Design Methodology
The conveyer system is initially designed in one of the CAD software like
SolidWorks or AutoCAD. In the design, various constraints are taken [11], which
effectively increase the precision of the final outcome.
3.1 CAD Model
The system designed in CAD software is as shown in Fig. 5. In this design, an L-

shape conveyer bed is made with the combination of both Omni wheel rollers and
mild steel cylindrical rods.
Both these rollers are powered, and they are actuated by the double-reduction
helical gearbox motor. A chain drive is used in this system since belt drives will be
not efficient and they need to be maintained periodically. Each rod attached with the
frame by following means:
• First, the rod is to be extended to about 10 cm outside the main frame.
• Second, in order to fix the rod in the main frame, they must be fitted with
plummer block bearing. To do so, the rod diameter needs to be step down and
inserted into the bearing.
• In order to provide transmission to all the rods, the rods are fitted with two
sprockets in them so that the chain drive passes through each of the rod.
A similar set-up is provided in the other side of the L-shape system. The junction
part of the L-shape system contains the Omni wheel rollers which need to be
Fig. 5 CAD design

Fig. 6 Sprocket set-up
powered with the help of two motors. In this case, the shafts which are interlaced
must be combined with the help of chain drive, and these shafts are also provided
with the sprocket set-up [12] as shown in Fig. 6.
3.2 Process Flow
The hauling process functions as a series of steps which occurs sequentially one
after another. It starts with the glass being placed on the conveyer and ends at the
place where sides of the glass are grinded. The process flow diagram is shown in
Fig. 7.
• Firstly, the total system is manually switched ON. This is the only manual action
taking place in the overall system.
• Secondly, the glass is lifted and kept on the conveyer bed by the bridge crane
system.
• Thirdly, the proximity sensor 1 senses the presence of glass in the system, and it
transmits to the controller. The PLC [13] on other hand processes these signals,
and outputs are produced which activate motors 1 and 2. Motor 1 is fitted with
the initial cylindrical rods, and motor 2 is attached with the shafts of one of the
Omni wheel rollers. As a result, the glass moves on the conveyer in the correct
direction in a straight line.
• Fourthly, a proximity sensor 2 is placed on the top-left corner of the conveyer
system which detects the glass coming in the straight line. Now the glass needs
to move in the L-direction without rotation. So, the sensor 2 detects the glass and
transmit to the controller again.
Now the controller processes this request, and turn ON the motors 3 and 4, thus
switching OFF the motors 1 and 2. This implies that the glass will now be moved in
Fig. 7 Process flow diagram
the horizontal direction. Motor 3 is attached with other set of Omni wheel rollers
and motor 4 is attached with the horizontal cylindrical rods via chain drives.
3.3 Spacing Between Omni Wheels
The number of Omni wheels is decided based on the spacing rule. In case of our
system, there are around 180 Omni wheels used. The rule depends on sense that at
least three wheels must always be present below the glass. If the number of wheels
Fig. 8 Spacing
below the glass becomes less than three in any instance, then the glass may fall in
between the wheels because of lack of support. The rule is shown in Fig. 8.
According to the rule, for any dimension of glass, the rule can be extrapolated,
and the number of rollers or wheels can be found. Thus, the glass can remain stable
on the conveyer bed, and the system ensures the safe haul of glass from one place to
another.
4 Calculations
Equations play an essential part in developing a successful working system. Since it

is an automation unit, a number of factors and equations are to be made. An
example system is considered, and the calculations are made below.
4.1 Bearing Calculations
Bearings withstand the total load exerted by the object placed on the conveyer bed
[14]. So, this is best crucial calculation.
1=k
l
C¼ P ð1Þ
106
C is the capacity of dynamic load

L is the required life of bearing in million revolutions
K is the constant for ball bearings. Here k = 3
P is the equivalent load in kilogram-force (kgf).
Using this formula, C is found. This C can now be checked with the data book,
and the suitable value of inner and outer diameters of bearings can be calculated.
According to this example, C value is found to be 880 kgf. Based on kgf rating, the
diameter of bearing is calculated from data book as
d = 35 mm
D = 62 mm.
Here d is the inner diameter of bearing, and D is the outer diameter of bearing.
Thus, with the help of these diameters, suitable series of bearing are chosen. The
chosen bearings are SKF 6007 and Series 60 bearing. Bearing calculation was made
considering the load as a UDL and the beam as a simply supported beam.
4.2 Shaft Diameter Calculation
The following calculation for finding the suitable diameter of the shaft for the
rollers is an example. The diameter can be found as a result of involving various
formulas which is a hectic process [15]. This calculation involves momentum,
torque, torsion and many more notations.
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
Te ¼ m2 þ T 2 ð2Þ
Here Te is the twisting moment, m is the bending moment, and T is the torque
produced on the shaft.
The bending moment of the shaft ‘m’ can be found by the formula below.
wL2
m¼ ð3Þ
8
Here w is the weight acting on shaft (weight of the rollers + weight of the glass),
and L is the total length of the shaft.
The torque ‘T’ can be found by the formula shown below:
T ¼Fr ð4Þ
The torque is the multiplication of force ‘F’ and the perpendicular distance from
the centre ‘r’. Using these formulas, Te can be found and is substituted in the
consequent formula to obtain the shaft diameter.
p 3
Te ¼ sd ð5Þ
16
Here, s is the constant value for the given material. For mild steel, s is given by
96 106. From this equation, the shaft diameter can be found.
4.3 Power of Motor
The power of the motor is the most important parameter in choosing the type of
motor. If the power rating of the motor is found, then other specifications of motor
like torque, service factor and efficiency rating can be found.
2pNT
P¼ ð6Þ
60
Here P is the power of the motor, N is the speed of the motor, and T is the torque
of the motor.
The bi-directional L-type roller conveyer system results in a more efficient way of
hauling glasses in the respective industries. This greatly enhances the productivity
rate of the glasses that are machined. When compared with the manual methods of
hauling the glass, the newly developed mechanism greatly reduces the human errors
involved in handling of the glass. Some of the errors involved during manual
hauling are scratches in the glasses, misalignment of glasses and angular tilt of the
glasses. All these errors in the manual hauling can be successfully overcome by the
Omni wheel roller conveyers which use highly accurate sensor unit and controllers
like programmable logic controller unit.
6 Conclusions
The paper is concluded with a system able to transport the glass in a tangential way
without taking the orientations of glasses into account. The system designed is a
cost-effective, fully automated system and involves human effort in supervision
only. The system developed involves many unique features like Omni wheel
set-ups and spacing rules. Thus, the paper opens a new perspective of designing a
conveyer system which can be used for any type of objects to be transferred in any
direction required.
References
1. B.S. Manda, U.S. Palekar, Recent advances in the design and analysis of material handling
systems. J. Manuf. Sci. Eng. 119(4B), 841–848 (1997)
2. S. Ugale Sachin, S. Salvi Tushar, S. Lanjekar Sachin, R. Kshirsagar Prashant, Design,
development and modelling of Forklift. Int. J. Eng. Res. Technol. 3(4), 1234–1238 (2014)
3. D. Gupta, D. Dave, Study and performance of belt conveyor system with different type
parameter. Int. J. Innovative Res. Sci. Technol. 2(6), 29–31 (2015)
4. A.P. Mohanraj, A. Elango, S. Karthick Karuppiah, M. Dinesh Babu, P. Manikanda Prabhu,
Design and performance analysis on movement of square, triangular and octagonal structured
omnidirectional mobile robot. Int. J. Sci. Eng. Res. 5(5), 513–518 (2014)
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6. Patented Rotacaster omni directional floor wheels combine 360° movement with fixed
orientation. http://www.rotacaster.com.au/inactive–multi-directional-wheels—mounts
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double-reduction-gearbox
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identification of paper and plastic from recycling materials. Res. J. Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol.
12(12), 1128–1221 (2016)
11. T. Peng, J. Qian, B. Zi, J. Liu, X. Wang, Mechanical Design and Control System of an
Omni-directional Mobile Robot for Material Conveying. Procedia CIRP 56, 412–415 (2016)
12. W. Suwannahong, C. Suvanjumrat, Analysis of roller chain drive system with multi-flexible
body dynamics methodology. MATEC Web of Conferences, vol. 95(06007) (2017)
13. N. Thakur, M. Hooda, A review paper on PLC & its applications in robotics and automation.
Int. J. Innovative Res. Comput. Commun. Eng. 4(4S), 209–214 (2016)
14. B. Ghalamchi, J. Sopanen, A. Mikkola, Simple and versatile dynamic model of spherical
roller bearing. Int. J. Rotating Mach. Article ID 567542, pp. 1–13 (2013)
15. S. Pandit, A.G. Thakur, A review paper on redesign of gravity roller conveyor system for
weight reduction through optimization. Int. J. Sci. Eng. Res. 6(2), 499–503 (2015)
Gyro-stabilized Platform in Ambulance
T. Vignesh, S. Madhankumar, P. Anand Raj,

Anirudh Varadarajan and T. Arul Praveen
Abstract The objective of this process is to develop a platform which is installed

in an ambulance that can maintain its position perpendicular to gravitational force,
irrespective of the position of the ambulance using servo motors which are placed
perpendicular to each other. In this prototype, Arduino Mega 2560 Rev3 micro-
controller is used to process the input from MPU-6050 inertial measurement unit.
The code in Arduino 2560 Mega controller Rev3 analysis the input data, and when
the C code receives the input from MPU and analyzes the angle and gives an output
to the MG995 servo motor, it receives the signals and moves to the corresponding
coordinates, so the movement of the vehicle will be nullified, for example, if the
vehicle tilts 20 degrees with respect to x-axis, the servo motor moves −20 degrees
with respect to x-axis.
Keywords Gyro MPU Stabilized platform
T. Vignesh (&) S. Madhankumar P. Anand Raj A. Varadarajan

T. Arul Praveen
Department of Mechatronics Engineering, Sri Krishna College
of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore 641008, India
S. Madhankumar
P. AnandRaj
A. Varadarajan
T. Arul Praveen

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_27
282 T. Vignesh et al.
1 Introduction
The self-enhanced gyro-stabilized platform atomically based on the sensor feedback

is discussed [1]. Gyro-stabilized platform is a platform which maintains its position
perpendicular to gravitational force which is acting on the body, to know the
ordinates to get the coordinate value accelerometer sensor used. Based on this
sensor feedback, dual-axis-stabilized platform is designed [2]. The stability armored
flexible firing device system is developed [3]. The gyro-stabilized platform has the
parallelogram and cardan frame. It has two rotating gyroscopes—the system having
five generalized coordinates with two cyclic coordinates [4]. To find the x, y, and z
axes displacements, the MPU-6050 sensor is used [5]. To process the given data,
Arduino Mega 2560 is used which has 54 digital I/O pins in which 15 PWM pins
are used as pulse width modulation (PWM) output, 16 pins as analog inputs, and 4
pins as universal asynchronous receiver–transmitter (UART) and has 16 MHz
crystal oscillator which runs on dc power; it also has a USB connection, an ICSP
header, a reset button, and a power jack [6, 7]. This processes the input and gives
output for servo motor. The servo motor used is MG995 servo motor which is 55 g,
the operating voltage of this motor is 4.8 V DC, torque created by this motor is
8.5 kgf.cm at 4.8 V, dead bandwidth is 5 ls, the operating temperature of this
motor is 0–55 °C, and this servo motor has three pins—orange pin for PWM, red
pin for +ve, and brown for ground [8, 9]. C language is used for coding.
This platform can be placed inside an ambulance. When the ambulance moves in
the inclining or declining road, the platform adjusts itself perpendicular to the
gravity, irrespective of the position of the ambulance. As it maintains its position,
the patient gets a comfortable and safe journey even when he is critical and being in
a life support with help of medical equipment like ECMO [10].
The objective is to develop a platform which will be installed in an ambulance
which maintains its position perpendicular to gravitational force, irrespective of the
position of the ambulance using servo motor.
2 Methodology
In this design, there are two servo motor connected perpendicular to each other. So
that it provides stability for two axes, at first MPU 6050 [11] send the ordinates to
Arduino Mega I2C bus is used to connect the IMU with the controller gyroscope
gives fast but not accurate value and accelerometer gives slow but accurate value,
therefore should combine both by using the complementary filter to acquire fast and
accurate value. The I2C library is used in the program. When the microcontroller
receives the input data, the code is executed and the output signal is sent to the
servo motor; all the connection is made using jumper wire, and servo rotates
opposite direction to nullify the tilt made by the vehicle. The connection is made as
shown in Fig. 5.
Gyro-stabilized Platform in Ambulance 283
At the bottom, there are four DC motors connected with wheels for driving the
vehicle setup; wheels are made up of plastic, and at the end of the wheel [12], it is
coated with rubber to improve friction between the vehicle and the surface. All the
four motors are connected to the frame which is made up of acrylic sheet. Acrylic
sheet is used for building the platform because of its lightweight. The connection is
made as shown in the image, and the signal given by MPU-6050 is successfully
received by Arduino Mega, and IDE program is executed; servo motor receives the
signal from Raspberry Pi, and the platform is maintained its position perpendicular
to the gravitational force.
3 Components Used
3.1 MPU-6050
MPU-6050 is an IMU which gives the information to the microcontroller about the
angle of the body; the sensor used here is MPU-6050. It has a ground and Vcc pins
for power supply and analog pins which are used to get the signals from sensor.
This analog value is sent to the controller based on the algorithm used; it gives the
output for axis motors shown in Fig. 1.
3.2 Arduino Mega 2560 Rev3
Arduino has 54 digital I/O pins in which 15 will be used as PWM output, 16 analog
inputs, and 4 universal asynchronous receiver–transmitter and has 16 MHz crystal
Fig. 1 MPU-6050
Fig. 2 Arduino Mega 2560

Rev3
oscillator which runs on DC power shown in Fig. 2; it also has a USB connection, a
reset button, and a power jack [13]. Arduino Mega processes the given data and
gives the output to servo motor.
3.3 Servo Motor
The servo motor used is MG995 servo motor shown in Fig. 3 which is 55 g, and
operating voltage of this motor is 4.8 V DC, torque created by this motor is 8.5 kgf.
cm at 4.8 V, dead bandwidth is 5 ls, the operating temperature of this motor is 0–
55 °C, and this servo motor has three pins—orange pin for PWM, red pin for +ve,
and brown for ground [11]. Servo motor was chosen because high-speed operation
is possible [14].
3.4 DC Motor
Dc motor was used for running the four wheels in the chassis; a DC motor was
selected because of its reliability shown in Fig. 4 [15].
Fig. 3 Servo motor

Fig. 4 DC motor
Fig. 5 Circuit diagram
4 Calculation
Complementary filter:
h ¼ ð1 aÞ ðh þ b dÞ þ ða cÞ ð9Þ
For more accurate results, Kalman filter can be used.

Fig. 6 3D model
5 3D Model
The model is created using modeling software. Figure 6 shows that the CAD model
of gyro-stabilized platform in ambulance. For stabilization of platform, the pro-
posed design has two motors which are attached for controlling three axes. It has
four wheels controlled by the Arduino controller. It has a gyroscope for getting the
feedback from the uneven surface. The feedback sent to the controller is based on
the response from the axis motor controller output.
6 Result
The body and the platform of the prototype are made using the acrylic sheet, and the
servo motor is placed as per plan; this setup is placed on a chassis and the platform
successfully. Figure 7 shows the prototype of the proposed design.
Fig. 7 Prototype
7 Conclusion
The signal given by MPU-6050 is successfully received by Arduino Mega, IDE

program is executed, servo motor receives the signal from the controller, and the
platform maintains its position perpendicular to the gravitational force.
References
1. S. Turalkar, O. Padvekar, N. Chavan, P. Sawant, Self stabilizing platform. Int. J. Innov. Res.
Technol. 3(11), 220–224 (2017)
2. S. Li, Y. Gao, G. Meng, G. Wang, L. Guan, Accelerometer-based gyroscope drift
compensation approach in a dual-axial stabilization platform. Electronics 8(5), 1–12 (2019)
3. Z. Yao, J. Liu, Y. LI, X. LI, Z.-Y. Zhang, Design and implementation of a flexible GYRO
stabilized platform. Adv. Comput. Sci. Res. 75, 810–816 (2018)
4. R. Votrubec, Stabilization of platform using gyroscope. Procedia Eng. 69, 410–414 (2014)
5. B. Ave, MPU-6000/MPU-6050 product specification. InvenSense 1(408), 1–54 (2012)
6. Bizdev, Arduino mega 2560. ardunio.cc (2019)
7. T. Vignesh, P. Karthikeyan, and S. Sridevi, Modeling and trajectory generation of bionic hand
for dexterous task, in IEEE international conference on intelligent techniques in control,
optimization and signal processing, pp. 1–6 (2017)
8. H. Speed, M. Gear, D. Ball, B. Servo, MG995 high speed metal gear dual ball bearing servo,
vol. 6 (Electronicos Caldas, Columbia, 2018). P. 1–8
9. T. Vignesh, N. Manikandan, S. Kannaki, C. Prasath, M. Bhuvaneswari, S. Vignesh,
Development of low-cost robotic arm for welding. Int. J. Innov. Technol. Explor. Eng. 8(8),
1238–1243 (2019)
10. R.H. Bartlett, A.B. Gazzaniga, M.R. Jefferies, R.F. Huxtable, N.J. Haiduc, S.W. Fong,
Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation (ECMO) cardiopulmonary support in infancy.
J. Extra. Corpor. Technol. 11, 26–41 (1979)
11. M. Royal, Wavelet de-noising for IMU alignment. IEEE Aerosp. Electron. Syst. 19(10), 32–
39 (2004)
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Design and modelling of disaster relief vehicle using Rocker Bogie mechanism. Int. J. Innov.
Technol. Explor. Eng. 8(6), 1274–1276 (2019)
13. S. Jose, S.S. Weerasooriya, L. Forest, P.E.K. Wong, Servo writing a disk drive using a
secondary actuator to control skew angle (2009)
14. E. Outreach, Servo Motor – Working, Advantages & Disadvantages, elprocus. pp. 1–7 (2019)
15. Mark, Brushed vs brushless RC motors. RC Roundup. pp. 1–10 (2018)
Power Systems
Performance and Comparison
of Harmonics Using Active Power
Filters and DVR in Low-Voltage
Distributed Networks
P. V. Kishore and D. Naveen Kumar
Abstract The objective of this paper is to figure out the harmonic deviations and
suppress the harmonics in a power system due to nonlinear loads coupled at
common coupling point (PCC). Harmonics are the major index for low power
quality of the distribution system which may also effect the life expectations of the
power converters. Passive harmonic moderation approach has better solutions in
power converters which gives distinct harmonic accomplishments at a system level
where plenty of units are allied in parallel nearer to point of common coupling.
There are various modes for harmonic moderation techniques present in a system,
but based on operation and excellence usage of the system the shunt active power
filter (SAPF) and dynamic voltage restorer (DVR) methods are considered. This
paper provides significant approach to the performance of DVR and SAPF and
various compensation accomplishments which are used to evaluate the harmonics
and its effect on nonlinear loads by using MATLAB/Simulink.

Keywords Dynamic voltage regulator (DVR) Harmonic mitigation Inductor

Power quality Shunt active power filter (SAPF)
1 Introduction
As the technology is growing in a deadly manner, several inventions have come

into presence. In order to make the life style simpler, several nonlinear loads have
come into picture which introduces harmonics into the system, and also another
severe reason for the harmonics is the use of power electronic devices for com-
mercial as well as domestic loads which vastly affects the nature of devices in
P. V. Kishore (&) D. Naveen Kumar

Professor, Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Guru Nanak
Institutions Technical Campus, Hyderabad, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_28
292 P. V. Kishore and D. Naveen Kumar
power system. Enhancing the power quality as dominant issue to alleviate the
harmonics, several approaches are developed but in that passive harmonic mod-
eration approach has better solution in power converters than earlier approach
which gives distinct harmonic accomplishments at a system level where plenty of
units are aligned in parallel to PCC. To alleviate the harmonic distortions, several
approaches have been available, but the mostly used techniques are
• Passive techniques
• Multi-pulse rectifier techniques
• Active harmonic cancellation techniques.
The passive filters such as inductance, capacitance, and resistance elements are
coordinated to control harmonics [1]. They are frequently used and inexpensive to
alleviate the harmonics. But these are helpful to alleviate only single harmonic at a
time so as to compensate more number of harmonics more number of devices have to
be installed which makes the system so bulky and expensive. Some disadvantages are:
• Many components are required
• Bulky and depends on system impedance
• Tuned for certain loading conditions (i.e., cancels a single harmonic)
• Parallel and series resonance may occur for certain harmonics
• Affected by capacitor aging.
For that reason, multi-pulse filters are used to alleviate one or more harmonics
using phase-shifting transformers along with passive filters which make the system
bulky [2] and expensive which is not reliable for high loads. Based on the field of
power electronics, another approach, active harmonic cancellation technique, is
again classified into
• Active front end (AFE)
• Active harmonic filter (AHF).
The active front-end (AFE) filter allows line current from the drives nearer to pure
sine, but it has more losses and overpriced resolution of low-power appliances. Active
harmonic filter (AHF) uses active switching components to inject equal and opposite
currents or voltages in power system to cancel harmonics produced by other loads. It
requires only one filter to eliminate all unwanted harmonics so it is also defined as
active power filter (APF) which is again classified as shunt APF and series APF.
Recently, a slim DC-link capacitor is used in converters as harmonic mitigation
technique [3] which gave an unfavorable harmonics behavior to other conventional
devices. However, the phase-angle deviations of the current harmonics of a single unit
to a multi-unit system with various grid conditions have been evaluated and compared
for each individual topology. Therefore, in this article, the harmonic analysis is
studied without compensation and with SAPF and DVR at a system level, the THD
analysis has been done at point of coupling, and the current harmonic cancellation of a
combined single-phase and different three-phase systems’ topologies are shown by
comparing the 3rd, 5th, and 7th harmonics at system level.
Performance and Comparison of Harmonics Using Active Power … 293
2 System Description
In general, plenty of nonlinear loads are aligned at translocations via diversified

step-down transformers labeled in Fig. 1a having low- and medium-voltage net-
works. Microgrids having enormous amount of power electronic devices (three
phases or single phase) are linked in parallel to PCC is shown in Fig. 1b. Let us
Fig. 1 a Layout of distribution network. b Detailed outline of low-voltage distribution network

Fig. 2 Power converter topologies, three-phase diode rectifier a DC choke, b AC choke, c slim
DC-link capacitor, and d single-phase diode rectifier with DC choke
consider a system inductance (Ls), which is a combo of grid inductance (Lg) and
transformer inductance (Lt); Ls = Lg + Lt.
To alleviate the line-current harmonics in three-phase diode rectifier, AC and DC
chokes’ [4] configurations are used as shown in Fig. 2 which helps to analyze the
low-order harmonic effects in system level which are helpful in addressing the
configurations of a two kinds of generators and transformers with Ls = 2 µH
(Lg = 1 µH and Lt = 1 µH) and Ls = 130 µH (Lg = 100 µH and Lt = 30 µH)
having base impedance of 10–15% for microgrid generator and 5–15% to the
transformers with short circuit ratios in the range of 120–230.
2.1 Distribution Network Analysis
The main theme of this article is to evaluate the consequences of grid system
configuration on single-phase and three-phase power converter and a comparative
analysis on phase-angle deviations [5] in line-current harmonics. For that reason,
here, two cases are studied with the help of a mathematical expression derived for
parallel systems:
(a) Performance and analysis of three-phase power converter in system level
(b) In order to alleviate the harmonic cancellation procedure in industrial area
where a number of three-phase and single-phase units are aligned at PCC.
In this scrutiny, one three-phase power converter is merged at the PCC, from
Fig. 3, with the DC-choke topology stated in Fig. 2a.
For evaluating the operation of the multi-parallel power converters at system
level, consider a system as shown in Fig. 3. An idea of harmonic cancellation for
the above system a mathematical equation has been evolved where a number of
systems are aligned in parallel with a voltage source (Vs) and system inductance (Ls)
shown in Fig. 4.
Fig. 3 Module diagram of three-phase power converter
Fig. 4 Example of n number of parallel loads as current harmonic sources
From Fig. 4, ihð1Þ ; ihð2Þ ; . . .. . .. . .ihðnÞ are the n current harmonics having nota-
tions i as converter current and h as harmonics order.

ihð1Þ ðtÞ ¼Ihð1Þ sin xh t þ uhð1Þ

ihð2Þ ðtÞ ¼Ihð2Þ sin xh t þ uhð2Þ ð1Þ

ihðnÞ ðtÞ ¼IhðnÞ sin xh t þ uhðnÞ
where xh ¼ 2phf and ;h = harmonics phase angle
X
n
i h ðt Þ ¼ ihðnÞ ðtÞ ¼ ihð1Þ ðtÞ þ ihð2Þ ðtÞ þ þ ihðnÞ ðtÞ ð2Þ
h¼1
Now, let us consider only two converters of the system and evaluate the total
harmonic current ih ðtÞ which is given as
ih ðtÞ ¼ ihð1Þ ðtÞ þ ihð2Þ ðtÞ ð3Þ
Hence, the total current harmonics for the two power converters is the vector
sum of the above two harmonic currents which are expressed in Eq. (4). Therefore,
the total current harmonic of a particular nth order is evaluated by the formula given
below in Eq. (5).
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi
ih ðtÞ ¼ Ih2ð1Þ þ Ih2ð2Þ þ 2Ihð1Þ Ihð2Þ cos ;hð1Þ ;hð2Þ ð4Þ
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
!
u n
X
n uX X n
ihðnÞ ðtÞ ¼ t IhðiÞ ðtÞIhð jÞ ðtÞ cos ;hðiÞ ;hð jÞ ð5Þ
h¼1 i¼1 j¼1
Hence, in order to figure out the performance of current harmonics, the

phase-angle value plays a major role in a multi-level system converter. Therefore,
the simulation miniature of n three-phase power converters and single-phase con-
verters is shown in Fig. 5 which is implemented by 90 power converters in order to
study and analyze [6] the effect of load profiles and system configuration and
overall harmonic distortion (THDi, phase-angle values) which is captured on pri-
mary side of transformer. From Eq. (5), it is clear that harmonic alleviation of
multi-converter system is done by the vector sum and phase-angle values of total
current harmonics at PCC by using 90 loads for simulation as shown in simulated
results. In modern scenario low voltage distribution network consists of single
phase loads and other domestic devices are coupled with power network along with
the three phase non linear loads are connected as shown in Fig. 5.
So, for this type of network, the harmonic analysis is done by coupling single
phase and three phases at a common point and the results are analyzed, whereas
better performance of the system is obtained when the THD is below 5% which is
obtained by using shunt and series compensating devices such as shunt active
power filter (SAPF) and dynamic voltage restorer (DVR), respectively [4].
3 Active Compensation Techniques
3.1 Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR)
The dynamic voltage restorer (DVR) is a power electronic device which works on
the voltage unbalances in a system. It is very helpful in maintaining the voltages at a
predominant level. This will inject the voltages into the transformers which are in
Fig. 5 Distribution system with several single-phase and three-phase power converters connected
at the PCC
Fig. 6 Schematic diagram of DVR
series in order to compensate the unbalances in voltages, and it will be in idle

position during balanced conditions [5]. It is a series compensator which protects
the critical loads from all the supply side deviations rather than outages is called
dynamic voltage restorer. The DVR components are VSC inverter, injection
transformer, harmonic filter, and energy storage device as shown in Fig. 6.

DVR
The injection transformer is aligned in series with the sensitive load which is
safeguarded by the DVR. The basic function of this transformer is to connect the
DVR to the distribution system, and the injected voltages generated by the inverter
are introduced into the distribution system. The basic operational principle of DVR
is to interject proper series voltage to grid in order to restore the load voltage level
to its desired level.
As shown in Fig. 7, the Z-impedance, ZDVR, is dependent on the fault level of
the load bus. When there is dip in system voltage, Vth, then DVR injects the voltage
in series with the injection transformer so that the desired voltage magnitude, VL,
can be maintained. The series-injected voltage of DVR can be written as
VDVR or VINJ ¼ VL þ Zth IL Vth
where
VL Desired load voltage magnitude
Zth = Zline + ZDVR Desired load impedance
IL Desired load current
Vth System voltage during fault condition.
The current harmonic compensation and the total harmonic distortion of the
system using DVR are given in MATLAB/Simulink results given in the next
section.
3.2 Shunt Active Power Filter (SAPF)
We know that, passive filters do not reach the expected performance of the system
since most of the systems are operated in an interlinked manner so large amount [7]
of harmonics are generated by the nonlinear loads in the system. So, these har-
monics are compensated by the help of the SAPF which interjects the currents in the
opposite direction to the generated current harmonics. The basic structure of the
Fig. 8 Working of shunt active power filter
Fig. 9 Schematic diagram of shunt active power filter

SAPF is shown in Fig. 9, whereas Fig. 8 gives a detail idea of working of SAPF
about current harmonics’ compensation. The current harmonic compensation and
the total harmonic distortion of the system using SAPF are observed in MATLAB/
Simulink results given in the next section.
4 MATLAB/Simulink Results
Because of enormous usage of power and electrical loads like single-phase and
three-phase nonlinear loads, it has became a priority to alleviate the harmonics
when large number of three-phase loads and single-phase loads are connected
together at PCC. In this three phase loads like VFD for heating, ventilation and few
single phase loads like computers florescent lamps are coupled at PCC which are
selected for analysis 90 units are considered, out of them 45 units are three phase
power converter having DC choke configuration each operates at 6KW. Each and
every 15 single-phase loads is combined with the three phases in order to prevent
any unbalance condition at PCC. To better figure out the harmonics cancellation
process, three simulations have been performed in MATLAB, and the current wave
(a)
(b)
Fig. 10 a Line current of combination of three-phase and single-phase (90 units) loads of
uncompensated system 10 and b %THD of uncompensated system of 90 loads
(a)
(b)
Fig. 11 a Combination of three-phase and single-phase (90 units) loads of compensated system
with DVR.and b %THD of compensated system with DVR of 90 loads
(a)
(b)
Fig. 12 a Line current of combination of three-phase and single-phase (90 units) loads of
compensated system with DVR and b %THD of compensated system with SAPF of 90 loads
Table 1 Comparative analysis of fundamental, SAPF, and DVR

System configuration %THD 3rd 5th 7th
with 90 loads
Uncompensated system 19.44 0.19 \ 72.1º 86.49 \ 68.8º 41.63 \ 104.2º
Compensated system 4.19 1.41 \ 152.3º 17.96 \ 257.2º 7.84 \ 180.5º
with DVR
Compensated system 1.34 0.16 \ 173.7º 6.14 \ 35.3º 1.57 \ 203.3º
with SAPF
forms are provided in Fig. 10a. Line current of combination of three phase and
single phase (90 units) loads of without compensated system. The numerical pro-
cedure of harmonic cancellation is expression (5). Therefore, magnitude of the fifth
harmonic component is obtained from expression (5) which makes an error of
*3% with the simulated value. For better and easy understanding, only fifth har-
monic component is considered and expecting the same for other order. The per-
formance of the system, THD analysis and line-current behavior of system without
compensation and with DVR and with SAPF, is shown from Figs. 10a, b, 11a, b,
12a, b. Table 1 represents the 3rd, 5th, and 7th harmonic currents and its
phase-angle behavior for uncompensated system and compensated system with
DVR and with SAPF. The %THD is also calculated for system without compen-
sation and with compensation (Fig. 11).
5 Conclusion
In this paper the Dynamic voltage restorer and shunt active power filter are used
either in loaded or unloading conditions are specified. The process of controlling
these elements is easy while compared to others, and the harmonic cancellation in
the system is nearly up to limits at the PCC. The most peculiar thing is that the
harmonic performance of a system is generally based on some factors like grid
inductor, transformer parameters, load profiles’ power converter topology, and the
number of converters merged at the PCC. The significance of phase angle values of
current harmonics has been discussed and the harmonic cancellation mechanism in
large system including several different nonlinear power electronics based loads and
subsequently from the case study a theoretical and practical analysis the control
harmonic emission and control of THD is below 5% is obtained. However, from the
analysis of combined three-phase and single-phase loads at PCC helps us for better
understanding of harmonic cancellation and shows a vast difference in phase angle
of current harmonics in multi-parallel power converter system.
References
1. D. Kumar and F. Zare, Harmonic analysis of grid connected power electronic systems in low
voltage distribution networks. IEEE J. Emerg. Sel.Top. Power Electron. 4(1) (2016)
2. D. Kumar, F. Zare, Analysis of harmonic mitigations using hybrid passive filters. in
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(PEMC), pp. 945–951 (2014)
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power-electronics-based power system. IEEE Trans. Power Electron. 29(12), 6421–6432
(2014)
5. K.S. Chandragupta Mauryan, J. Manikanda Prabhu, N.K. Senapathi, D. Madhumitha,
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6. F. Meng, W. Yang, and S. Yang, Effect of voltage transformation ratio on the kilovoltampere
rating of delta-connected autotransformer for 12-pulse rectifier system. IEEE Trans. Ind.
Electron. 60(9), 3579–3588 (2013)
7. S. Rahmani, N. Mendalek, K. Al-Haddad, Experimental design of a nonlinear control
technique for three-phase shunt active power filter. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 57(10), 3364–
3375 (2010)
8. T.I. El-Shennawy, A.M.E. Moussa, M.A. El-Gammal, A.Y. Abou-Ghazala, A dynamic voltage
restorer for voltage sag mitigation in a refinery with induction motors loads, Science
Publications (2010)
9. P.T. Nguyen, T.K. Saha, Dynamic voltage restorer against balanced and unbalanced voltage
sags: modelling and simulation. IEEE Trans. Power Deliv, 1–6 (2004)
Overview of Restructured Power System
Prakash Vodapalli and Ramaiah Veerlapati
Abstract Power restructuring, a systematic running of modifying the rules and

instructions that control the power market to impart consumers for the option of
power producing, those are may be traders and allowing rivalry within the traders.
Deregulation improves the stock rate and usage. Due to gain in the electric market,
the power rates are likely to come down which welfare the consumers.
Keywords Deregulation Competition Market Efficiency Cost
1 Introduction
It is happening throughout the world, there which is a worry concerning about

re-modelling and re-regulation of the property market over the aftermost decade.
The rivalry in the wholesale generation market and the retail market combined with
the open entry to the delivered circuit can tie many benefits to the extreme con-
sumers, such as lower electricity rates and better favour. However, this rivalry also
escorts different productive issues and oppositions to the operation of re-modelled
power circuit.
The re-modelling of the electricity branches is bracing by the economic
opportunities to society resulting from the re-regulation of other communities such
as communication, textiles, cement and airports. Presently, electrical utilities around
the world are withstanding an extensive transformation from an essentially regu-
lated and monopolistic industry to a new model distinguished by competition in
generation/distribution [1, 2] with promised access to open transmission. Rivalries
among the traders increases creation, thoughts and implementation efficiency. The
target of re-regulation is to enable competitiveness based upon tropical efficiencies,
and to erase the monopoly handling and market [3] imperfections that lie under the
vertically integrated utility circuit.
P. Vodapalli (&) R. Veerlapati

Kakatiya Institute of Technology and Science, Warangal, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_29
306 P. Vodapalli and R. Veerlapati
The electric power market is running by as a vertically run and controlled single
entity shown in Fig. 2, they retain producing, supplying and dispersal amenities.
2 Properties of Deregulated Market
Monopoly permit is the only regional electric utility that can generate, purchase or
sell electric power within its resource area. This utility must operate by adopting
their own styles and reduces its overall probable revenue chances.
The utility’s rates are adjusted in accordance with government rules and
guidelines. There is an advantage that guaranteed return on its actual amount. If it
confirms to be the regulatory exercises and practices.
The main intent of the deregulated power market:
• To provide continued promised supply at reasonable cost.
• To encourage the contention in the available supply and demand.
• To provide quality of service to all types of consumers.
3 Stimulus for Restructuring the Power Market
Advantages of Deregulation are:

• Electricity rates may reduce due to new revolution and alternatives.
• Expected to result in broad consumer choice and more attention to
• Give better service.
• Deregulation also provides strong buyers and new producers.
A fierce environment will provide awards and bonus to risk takers and stimulate
the use of new technologies and business methods. The structural components
representing various segments of the power industry as generation companies or
power producers, power marketers units of power exchange, schedule coordinators,
transmission owners, independent system operator, ancillary services, retail service
providers and local distribution companies.
Power producers and power marketers are the primary and secondary generation
sectors, respectively. Power producers are accountable for operating and main-
taining plant in the generation area.
Distribution companies are the ones restricted in running the distribution sector
and providing various options for power merchandisers that are detached from
distribution companies. In the regular process, designate a person who operates the
system, to run the transmission network and facilitate delivery. Maintenance of the
supplying network is own headache for the owners.
Overview of Restructured Power System 307
• Maintains the security first.

• To maintain fairness, it should be dependent from others.
• Own computing.
• Non-profitable.
• Maximize the utilization.
Benefits of power exchange: The power exchange creating liquidity, encourage
competition with hourly bids, standardized contracts with uniform pricing and more
over is an unbiased unit. Figure 1 shows the components in a deregulated market
• Process flow:
• It receives bids from power producers and various customers.
• Match the bids then decide the market last clearing rate and prepare plan.
• Provide slots to the operator.
• Balance the desired plan and in such cases, system is overloaded.
Schedule coordinators—Customers in the power merchandising, they can vol-
untarily use their own trade rate.
Secondary services—Secondary (Additional) service owners supply to the net-
work brace services those were useful to system
Response time is the significant factor that will determine whether the inde-
pendent actions of participants in competitive markets can perform some reliability
Fig. 1 Components in a deregulated market

308 P. Vodapalli and R. Veerlapati
Fig. 2 Electric power market

vertically run and controlled
single entity
functions. Time-to-time, depends on the market trends, rates and targeted revenue
from the sale of electricity.
A customer is an entity, in a fully deregulated market, where retail market is also
open for competition [4, 5], and the end consumer has different available options for
purchasing electricity. We can also buy power from the spot market by trading or
contacting the owners or regional market. Sometimes, this also happens where
exactly there is a demand in the markets at the wholesale level, only the big
consumers have the option to select their supplier (Fig. 2).
4 Need for Computation Tools and Software Systems

in Markets Paper Preparation
New computational devices, tools and software systems are needed for generators,
retailers, the ISO and all other market participants to have proper intimation about
how to meet the planning objectives, controlling the existing one, future expansion
and financial support to achieve the scheduled plans, appearing in the competitive
market environment. For example, power producers need latest bidding systems to
decide their bidding strategies and to properly communicate to their bidding
information with the market operator; the retailers and distribution companies may
need new billing systems and new load management system to meet the
time-varying spot prices.
Overview of Restructured Power System 309
It all depends on how resources are available in the market, present demand,
stock available [6], any shortage of supply, any congestions market, skilled workers
or workers having lack of experience, clearing price, transportation availability and
weather conditions.
5 Conclusions
Deregulation is an important aspect in the restructured electrical power system. It is

an efficient, powerful tool and system will get benefited. This existing system is still
modified in all the aspects.
References
1. S. Wu, T. Mei, J. Gong, D. Gan, Voltage fluctuation and flicker caused by distributed
generation. Energy Eng. 4, 54–58 (2006)
2. E.A. Androulidakis, A.T. Alexandridis, H.E. Psillakis, P. Agoris, Challenges and Trends of
Restructuring Power Systems due to Deregulation
3. K. Uhlen, L. Warland, O.S. Grande, Model for area price determination and congestion
management in joint power market. IEEE International Symposium CIGRE, pp. 100–109
(2005)
4. J. Vora Animesh, Congestion management in deregulated power system—a review. Int. J. Sci.
Res. (IJSR) ISSN (Online): 2319–7064 Impact Factor (2012): 3.358. MS University, Faculty of
technology and Engineering, Kalabhavan, Vadodara, Gujarat-390001, India
5. A.J. Wood, B.E. Wollenberg, Power Generation, Operation and Control, 2nd edn. (Wiley
Interscience, New York, 1996)
6. G. Mahesh Kumar, P.V. Satyaramesh, P. Sujatha, A review on congestion management in the
restructured power system. Int. J. Appl. Eng. Res. ISSN 0973-4562, 13(10), (2018) (Special
Issue) © Research India Publications. http://www.ripublication.com
Single-Phase PV System
with Continuous H-Bridge Inverter
Vodapalli Prakash, Mucherla Narasimha Rao

and Chillappagiri Pavan Kumar
Abstract Continuous piercing of photovoltaic grid systems are increasing gradu-

ally in all most all applications. It enhances the efficiency and successful application
of solar system. In this paper, an inverter was drafted and run only solar PV system.
The given system utilises sinusoidal pulse width modulation (SPWM) control
scheme in the inverter to modify steady-state voltage from the battery, given to
alternating loads and MPPT. Thus lessening the problems of the system, these
MPPT methods which required to employing disturbance and observe methods
have been initiated with the PV panel by indicating economic handling current to
get desired power. Here presented to demonstrate the given system of competent
behaviour.
Keywords Photovoltaic Inverter MPPT SPWM
1 Introduction
The demand of effective and continuous power is required in the electricity oper-
ation. Present power systems are highly condemnatory and require proper and
effective control. Everyone’s moral duty is to the environmental kind of problems
relating to the fossil resources and economic magnification. Among available
natural sources, sunlight and wind energy have become very famous and
demanding more due to the latest technology world. PV resources are used fre-
quently nowadays with benefits such as free from pollution. Solar-electric source
requirement slowly increases day-by-day. Because they are available at lower rates
[1, 2]. Solar inverter is used to transform steady-state power which is used to get
from PV modules, alternating power which is injecting to the load.
Power electronic change is a pointer component to improve the total efficiency
and generation levels of PV grid-connected system. In the existing work, a vast
diversity of PV system models which are entered depends on various types of
V. Prakash (&) M. Narasimha Rao C. Pavan Kumar

Kakatiya Institute of Technology and Science, Warangal, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_30
312 V. Prakash et al.
grid-connected inverter configuration. In single stage standalone PV connected

system, oppose-type inverters are generally employed to connect solar to the grid.
2 Modelling of a PV Cell
A photovoltaic cell is the backbone of a solar panel. A photovoltaic plate is formed

by connecting large no. of cells in ground and vertical. Demonstrating a uni-diode
representation of PV cell is shown in Fig. 1.
IL ¼ Ish Id
Id ¼ Io ½eðqvaKT Þ 1

V þ I Rs V þ I Rs
I ¼ Ilg Ios exp q 1
AKT Rsh
Ilg ¼ fIscr þ Ki ðT 25Þg Iambda
where
I and V Cell output current and voltage
Ios Cell reverse saturation current
T Cell temperature in celsius
K Boltzmann’s constant
q Electron charge, 1.6 10−23 °C
Ki Shorted current temperature coefficient
Iscr Shorted current at 25 °C
Ilg Light-generated current
Ego Band gap for silicon
A Ideality factor
Tr Actual temperature
Ior Cell saturation current
Rsh Parallel resistance
k Solar irradiation in W/m2
Rs Series resistance
Fig. 1 Uni-diode
representation
Single-Phase PV System with Continuous H-Bridge Inverter 313
The current power and voltage curves of a PV cell are controlled by the solar
visible light values. Due to the environmental changes from morning to evening,
the solar irradiation is always floating, and still, there are some techniques to trace
out the variation and can change the working of the PV cell to get the suitable load
requirement. As more the irradiation, greater be the initiation to the cell and hence
power magnitude would slowly improve for the identical voltage.
3 Influence of Changes of Temperature
On the conflicting, as the temperature changes slowly on the cell, it has a reverse
effect on the power producing capability. Reverse relation works between tem-
perature and voltage. Increase in temperature leads to an increase in the band gap of
the material, and thus, more energy is required to cross this barrier. Thus, the
efficiency of the solar cell is reduced (Figs. 2, 3, 4 and 5).
Fig. 2 Observation of power–voltage
Fig. 3 Current–voltage plot curves

Fig. 4 Power–voltage plot
Fig. 5 Current–voltage plot
4 Result of Changes in Temperature
‘The voltage at which panel can give resultant power is called key point’. Controller
refers the voltage the suitable value from the module and generates required power.
Here, Vpv (k) is the reference voltage generated after perturbation, i.e. present
voltage,
Vpv (k − 1) is the voltage prior to perturbation.
Ppv (k) is the present power, Ppv (k − 1) is the previous power.
Here, the used techniques for greater power point tracking are
1. Perturb and Observe Method.
2. Incremental Conductance Method.
MATLAB-based embedded function block generates a reference voltage which
is compared with the desired PV voltage to get perturbations. The continuous
perturbation affects the net voltage of resist converter resulting in a change in the
effective resistance of the converter. The solar PV array is optimised, when the
resistances are traced.
Cascaded H-Bridge Multilevel Inverter:

See Figs. 6 and 7.
Fig. 6 Cascaded H-Bridge inverter
Fig. 7 H-Bridge multilevel inverter

Fig. 8 Generation of changed waveforms
Modified Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulation

When taking SPWM waveform, the pulse width does not alter with the variation of
modulation. The main uses of this method are improved fundamental characteris-
tics, less no devices and reduce losses (Fig. 8).
WAVEFORM OF SPWM
VOLTAGE OF PV ARRAY
CURRENT OF PV ARRAY
OUTPUT VOLTAGE
Parameters of PV Array
Temperature 25 °C
Irradiance 700 W/m2
Voc 31.2 V
Isc 6.85 A
Battery Voltage 40 V
Load parameters R = 80 Ω, L = 20 mH.
5 Conclusion
The implementation of the proposed standalone PV system is the simple method and
is used for medium power application. The DC–DC boost/buck converter topology
with perturb and observe control technique is a simple and accurate method to get
efficient output. By using conventional two level inverters which has limitations
such as switching failures, lack of reliability due to increased switching devices and
capacitor voltages balancing issues. To overcome these limitations making modi-
fications such as replacing a conventional two level inverter with multi level inverter.
The MPPT control is, in general, challenging, because the sunshine condition that
determines the amount of sun energy into the PV array may change all the time, and
the current, voltage characteristic of PV arrays is highly nonlinear [3].
References
1. A. Shukla, Modeling and simulation of solar PV module on MATLAB/Simulink. Int.

J. Innovative Res. Sci. Eng. Technol. 4(1) (2015)
2. T. Salmi, MATLAB/Simulink based modeling of solar photovoltaic cell. Int. J. Renew. Energy
Res. 2(2) (2012)
3. C. Liu, B. Wu, R. Cheung, Advanced algorithm for MPPT control of photovoltaic systems.
Canadian Solar Buildings Conference Montreal (2014)
Comparison of Renewable Energy
Generation in an Electrical Network
with Energy Storage System
N. Loganathan, A. Arvin Tony, T. Malini and S. Gobhinath
Abstract The optimum operation and amount of energy storage are operated by a
buyer who faces unstable electricity costs and seeks to decrease its energy prices.
The worth of storage is demarcated the consumer’s Internet profit obtained by
optimally operative the storage. Model projecting management based mostly
coordinated planning framework for different renewable energy generation then
battery energy storing arrangements is accessible. On the idea of the short forecast
of accessible renewable energy generation and cost info, a joint look-ahead opti-
mization is performed by completely the various power plants and storage system to
work out their internet energy booster towards the electrical network. In concur-
rence with moderate battery capability, the surplus unpredictable renewable power
generation may be charging the battery storage and contrariwise. This paper pre-
sents an outline; in addition, overall educations of analysis and development within
the field of various resolution strategies for energy storage systems and dynamic
programming strategies are found within the literature. This paper has reviewed a
number of the foremost common strategies together with various algorithms and
computational simulation strategies. This paper provides help for the upcoming
studies for those interested in the problem or proposing to do additional research in
this area.
Keywords Renewable energy systems Storage system
N. Loganathan (&) T. Malini S. Gobhinath

Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Sri Krishna College
of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
S. Gobhinath
A. Arvin Tony
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, KCG College
of Technology, Chennai, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_31
322 N. Loganathan et al.
1 Introduction
Electricity generation from predictable thermal generators is one of the greatest

significant suppliers of worldwide greenhouse gas emissions. Renewable energy
(e.g. solar, wind, etc.) offers a cleaner substitute for power production. However, it
is acknowledged that renewable energy sources display vital unpredictability and
uncertainty, which make it difficult to integrate renewable generation into power
systems. The procedure of multiple storage strategies in an electrical network with
vital generation from alternating renewable sources (like wind and solar). In each
period slot, the scheme operative dispatches the output of conservative generators
and energy storage devices to fulfil the inelastic load at different buses, subject to
power network limitations. The system operator expresses difficult consecutive
decision-making issues under uncertainty with an objective to minimize the
expected total cost of conservative generation.
2 Review of Literature
This paper gives overall circumstances of investigation than expansion in the arena
of renewable energy system in power system network based on over 25 published
articles. The following open literature presents the summary and application of each
storage operation in a power network. The related assumptions made, métiers and
faintness of each solution methods are highlighted.
García-González et al. [1] gives a study the joint optimization of a wind power
plant then a pumped-storage facility after the fact of opinion of a production cor-
poration in a market atmosphere. The optimization model is expressed by way of a
two-different stage stochastic programming problematic through two casual limits:
market amounts and wind power generation. In this proposed system demonstrated
that a joint short-range operation of a wind power plant then of an isolated
pumped-storage plant can be found by resolving the accessible optimization model.
The two-stage stochastic programming method has demonstrated to be an operative
technique to classical the material supervisory procedure that wind park worker’s
face in a spot-market framework below indecision. The wind farm proprietor has
been demonstrated as a risk-neutral manager.
Bitar et al. [2] in this proposed framework the primary issues of streamlining
contract contributions for a self-regulating wind control maker taking an interest in
ordinary day-ahead forward power markets for power. Utilizing a basic stochastic
model for wind control generation and a model for the power industry, the issue of
deciding ideal contract contributions for a WPP with co-found vitality stockpiling
can be comprehended utilizing raised programming. Defining and resolving the
issue of ideal contract estimating for a breeze control maker with assembled vitality
stockpiling are taking part in traditional power markets. In this framework, strategy
Comparison of Renewable Energy Generation … 323
to distinguish effective computational methods is aimed at attractive attention of the

convex contract estimating issue illustrated in this proposed framework.
Xie et al. [3] the transient conjecture of accessible wind production and cost data,
a joint look-ahead improvement is performed by the wind plant and storage system
to decide their net power infusion to the electric power utility. Related to direct
battery limit, the overabundance erratic wind production can be operated to control
the battery stockpiling and the other way around. Figuring the model prescient
control (MPC)-based composed planning as a quadratic programming issue, a few
numerically proficient calculations to process the ideal control technique for wind
production and BESS are proposed. The proposed method can build the joint
benefit of wind production and BESS though levelling the available remaining
energy infusion to the power utility.
Su and El Gamal [4] energy storing can help decrease the power inequality
because of the divergence between accessible renewable energy and demand.
Considering the multi-time-scale grid activity, detail the power inequality issue for
each timescale as an immeasurable horizon stochastic control issue and demonstrate
that an eager arrangement limits the normal size of the remaining force irregularity.
The decrease in power inequality can be accomplished with a moderately little
storage size. This framework considered the multi-time-scale activity of the net-
work and planned the power inequality issue for each timescale as an endless
horizon stochastic control issue.
Koutsopoulos et al. [5] the objective of this scheme is the ideal energy storage
control issue since the cross of the utility operative. The goal is to devise a power
storage control strategy that reduces long-term normal utility running price. The
model, approach and structure of the ideal arrangement can be reached out to
likewise represent an inexhaustible source that feeds the storing expedient.
A capacity control strategy is asymptotically ideal for enormous capacity limit and
performs very well limited capacity morals.
Qin et al. [6] assessing the exchange worth of capacity is a significant issue in
power system scheduling. Different investigations have testified various qualities
based on numerical arrangements of differences of a fundamental model. The
closed system highpoints the correct kind of gauging that is required and enables
enormous prospect issues to be illuminated. The ideal control standard can be
determined basically as value limits and the administrator needs just to contrast the
present costs and the edge an incentive to choose how to buy and to sell. The
control principle does not depend upon the state, for example, the sum of power in
the capacity, and ideal purchasing and selling tasks dependably result in the storing
ability be full or empty subsequently the process, separately. This proposed
framework to register the normal ideal benefit, the payout of the capacity, the ideal
storage sizing and estimation of the best achievable proportion against the oracle
ideal benefit expecting the cost pursues a mean returning procedure.
van de Ven et al. [7] proposed this work to incidentally store this economic
power in a battery and use it to fulfil demand when power costs are high, along
these lines enabling clients to misuse the price differences without moving their
interest to the low-cost stages. The ideal strategy is appeared to have a threshold
structure and determine this threshold in a couple of common cases. In this pro-
posed system, the controller of end-user energy storing is under cost changes. With
the assistance of determined the structure of the price limiting storage strategy,
which ends up being a straightforward edge-based approach. Individually described
the performance of these limits for some extraordinary cases, and appeared by
methods for a numerical report that power storage can prompt critical cost
investment funds.
Xu and Tong [8] formulate the activity issue as a dynamic program. Under the
supposition that customer utility (got from power utilization) is additively distin-
guishable after some time, towards the build up a beginning construction of the
ideal procedure strategy for a customer who faces irregular power costs and
stochastic demand. Consider the financial worth and ideal activity of power storage
at purchaser areas, through a dynamic programming preparation.
For a model with stochastic customer request and power costs, describe a sig-
nificant edge structure of the ideal task strategy. The estimation of capacity reflects
the normal net advantage gotten by the shopper scheduled the off coincidental that
she ideally works the capacity. The estimation of capacity is autonomous of the
buyer’s demand since it is ideal for them buyer to utilize the capacity just for
exchange.
Harsha and Dahleh [9] minimize the long-run normal expense of power utilized
and asset in storage, assuming any, while fulfilling all the demand. This model is
stockpiling with ramp constraints, adaptation losses, indulgence losses and an
investment price. Demonstrate the presence of an ideal storage supervision
approach under gentle suppositions and demonstrate that it has a double edge
structure. Under this policy, derive operational outcomes that specify the marginal
price from storage reductions with its size in which the optimum storage size is
calculated expeditiously. The optimum energy storage management and size
downside within the occurrence of renewable energy and dynamic valuation are
related to electricity from the utility. Formulate the matter as an infinite horizon cost
random dynamic program and procure varied structural results. Through elaborate
process experiments, determining that energy storage will give important price and
savings by cluster action renewable energy and decrease the employment of elec-
tricity from the utility.
Sioshansi et al. [10] this method to evaluate the capability worth of storage. This
proposed system customs a dynamic program towards typical the result of energy
scheme outages on the procedure besides state of responsibility of storage popular
sequent stages. To mix the optimized dispatch from the dynamic program with
calculate system loss of demand possibilities to calculate a chance distribution for
the state of charge of storage in every amount. This possibility distribution may be
used as a compulsory outage rate for storage in common place dependability—
based mostly capability worth estimation ways. This model and case study accept
that storage is plainly worked to maximize energy profits solely, while not
accounting for the likelihood of shortages and their result on sequent storage dis-
patch. The dynamic program might even be protracted to expressly model efficiency
possibilities and embody future value uncertainty in optimizing storage dispatch.
Kwon et al. [11] express the storing process problematic by way of a dynamic
program through constraints calculated after practical load, source as well as price
data. By way of the active program is computationally concentrated for significant
issues, to explore algorithms supported estimated dynamic programming and apply
them to a test information set. Though unreliably straight forward to state, the
problem of determinative energy combines from the utility, renewable supply and
storage the device is fairly advanced to answer. Applied six policies Markov
decision method, one-step lookahead algorithmic program, one step roll-out algo-
rithmic program, threshold-based approximation and naïve opportunistic algorith-
mic program and compared their performance victimization real data of energy
demand, renewable energy production and electricity costs.
Urgaonkar et al. [12] this proposed system thought-about the problem of
resourcefully by means of these devices decrease the time average electrical grid
bill in a data center. Victimization the technique of Lyapunov optimization,
developed an online management algorithmic program that may optimally activity
these devices to reduce the time price. This algorithmic program operates with none
information of the statistics of the work or electricity price processes, creating it
engaging within the presence of work and valuation uncertainties.
Huang et al. [13] developed a low-complexity formula named DR-ESM.
DR-ESM does not need any applied mathematics information of the system
dynamics, as well as the renewable energy and also the power costs. During this
system developed two actual light-weight energy management systems energy
storage management and DR-ESM aimed at demand serving and demand response
severally. Each scheme solely needs the user to solve a simple convex optimization
program for deciding and permitting us to expressly calculate the specified energy
storage size. This technique well tried that each scheme is able to realize near
optimal performance.
Lakshminarayana et al. [14] has dealt with a developed as a stochastic opti-
mization problematic through the target of curtailing the period the normal price of
energy exchange at intervals the utility. An algorithm to resolve the price mini-
mization problem exploitation the technique of Lyapunov optimization is devel-
oped, and results for the recital of the algorithmic rule are provided. This modelled
the set-up as a drawback to reduce the value of energy conversation among the
utility for a given storage capability at the micro grids. This proposed system is
extremely helpful for the facility grid expensive in terms of selecting the best
grouping of storage size and collaboration so as to fulfil a particular price criterion.
Since this work may be a primary stage towards exploring the trade-offs among
collaboration and storage.
Barthelmie et al. [15] comprehend the extent of the wind plant that short-term
prediction becomes economically feasible and developed a prototypical aimed at
wind energy. Prediction near-term wind generation output plays a crucial role in
participating higher levels of wind power into the power market and is more rec-
ognized as a vital tool by electricity market members. The bulk observes the
advantages related to prediction cover the associated prices and can assist wind
power to penetrate the power industry to higher levels. The prices concerned in
providing short-term predictions square measure for several players possible to be

moderate compared to the advantages.
Makarov et al. [16] dealt with an effect of desegregation wind power on the
regulation and demand following necessities of California Independent System
Operator (CAISO). Regulation and demands subsequent models were built sup-
ported hour-ahead and five-minute ahead demand and wind power forecasts. The
methodology is created on a mathematical model mimicking the particular
CAISO’s arrangement, period dispatch, and regulation processes and their time-
lines. Minute-to-minute differences and arithmetical interactions of the system
parameters concerned in these processes square measure delineate with spare details
to supply a strong and correct assessment of the extra capability, ramping and ramp
period necessities that the CAISO regulation.
Lakshminarayana et al. [17] give a framed as a stochastic optimization prob-
lematic through the impartial of curtailing the period normal price of energy
exchange, subject to sufficient the user loads, the network power stream and storage
restrictions. A direct current energy direction model is employed to formulate the
network power flow constraints. A minimum complexity online solution to resolve
this drawback is projected by supporting the Lyapunov optimization technique and
analytical limits on the presentation of algorithmic rule derived. The result will be
helpful for power utility designer to put out the best infrastructure in terms of
storage and transmission lines to fulfil specific price criteria. A lot of general case
with reactive power management associated an alternating current power flow
analysis are the focus of the future investigation.
Del Granado et al. [18] this proposed system developed a bottom-up approach,
that specialize in the worth of energy storage and renewable micropower production
in domestic homes. In the main specialize in the expectable inter-temporal differ-
ences of power request, wind velocity, and real time costs, and so accept that these
limitations, however deterministic, are time varied. The purposes of the model are
to reduce the overall energy consumption price, as realized from the utility,
throughout a determinate horizon.
Federgruen and Yang [19] have dealt with an optimal stationary policy,
underneath each the long-term discounted and medium price criteria, and charac-
terize its edifice. Presumptuous individual inventory level delivery is often
approximated as a traditional, developed associate economical solution methodol-
ogy identifying further structural properties. Commercially obtainable provider card
systems tend to regulate combined score because the total or a weighted average
various individual criterion. The price per unit ordered consists of two parts, one
that is incurred for each ordered unit and a second element incurred just for
effectively formed and delivered units.
Bose and Bitar [20] the proposed system contemplates the system operator’s
issue of minimizing the predictable price of generator dispatch after it has contact to
spatially distributed energy storage resources. This technique expression that the
expected good thing about storage derived underneath the optimum dispatch
strategy is cupulate and non- decreasing within the vector of energy storage mea-
surements. The characterization suggestions an easy methodology for the empirical
formulation of locational marginal standards from net demand statistic knowledge.

To get a particular characterization of the locational peripheral price of storage
away from the derivation and for an additional general category of price parameters
and network topologies.
Gast et al. [21] give a concern about the trade-off between the custom of the
reserves and the power loss. Power loss includes the power that’s either wasted,
owing to the inadequacy of the storage cycle and the inevitable predicting mistakes
or lost one the storage capability is unsatisfactory. The statistics of prediction errors
construct a second policy active offset policy through stochastic optimization. The
dynamic offset policy is scheduled a quantity of production adequate the making
discrepancy, offset by a dynamic price that depends on the predicted storage level.
This technique is often utilized in a multiple-stage optimization problem, primary
by using local storage to resolve the local imbalance.
Atzeni et al. [22] proposed a system to solve the utility optimization problematic
by way of a noncooperative willing and evaluate the being of optimum polices.
A distributed algorithmic rule to be run the user’s sensible metres, that offers the
best production and/or storage methods, whereas conserving the privacy of the
users and reduce the desired sign with the central unit. Developed the day-ahead
grid optimization issues, where by every active user on the demand side egotisti-
cally minimizes his accumulative financial expense for buying/producing his
energy wants, employing a game theoretical approach.
Pavithra and Dahleh [9] has formulated the problem as a stochastic dynamic
program that purposes to reduce the long-term normal price of electricity used then
asset in storing, uncertainty slightly, whereas filling all the load. This proposed
system storing through ramp limitations, alteration sufferers, overindulgence losses,
and an investment price. The best storage the management strategy has a simple
double threshold construction, and the marginal price of storage is reducing through
storage size and so the best size under the best management strategy canister be
calculated expeditiously.
Xu and Tong [8] have formulated the problem as a stochastic dynamic program
that purposes to reduce the long-term normal price of energy used then asset in
storage, doubt slightly, whereas filling all the load. This proposed system is storing
through ramp limitations, adaptation fatalities, dissipation sufferers and an invest-
ment price. The best storage management strategy has a modest double threshold
construction, and the marginal price of storage is reducing through storage size and so
the best size under optimum management strategy can be calculated expeditiously.
Zhu et al. [23] have proposed another structure whereby adjacent home
expressly shares power with one another to balance local energy gather and load in
microgrids. This proposed system established a unique power sharing method to
regulate homes that would share power and when to reduce system wide profi-
ciency losses. System mistreatment empirical suggestions are of harvested photo-
voltaic power and residential power utilization.
3 Conclusion
In this article, summary and significant issues of diverse research studies for energy
storage and renewable energy generation are presented. For a model with stochastic
consumer demand and electricity prices, we characterize an important beginning
construction of the optimum process policy. We describe the worth of storage for an
excellent additional general setting that comes with the inter-temporal possessions
in customer demand. The worth of storage replicates the predictable net profit
obtained by the buyer if optimally activates the storage. It is strong, from the
present literature, that around different solution methods for locating dynamic
programming-based approaches, a Lyapunov optimization-based online algorithm.
To exploit the procedure of many storage devices during a energy network with
vital generation from alternating renewable sources provided, useful information
and references for researchers will lead additional studies in this field.
References
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Stochastic joint optimization of wind generation and pumped-storage units in an electricity
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a smart grid perspective. Energy Syst. 5, 211–232 (2014)
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pool of suppliers. Oper. Res. 62(1), 141–159 (2015)
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Conference on Decision and Control (2014), pp. 15–17
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presence of renewable forecast uncertainties. IEEE Trans. Smart Grid 5(3), 1328–1339 (2014)
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renewable energy in smart microgrids, in ICCPS’13, (2013), pp. 219–228
Performance Analysis of Single-Phase
Shunt Active Filter using
Conventional PI Control Technique
Rameshkumar Kanagavel and V. Indragandhi
Abstract In this manuscript, a conventional PI controller is used in voltage control

loop of single-phase shunt active power filter (SAPF) for harmonic and reactive
power compensation. And this manuscript discusses current extraction method
based on PI control algorithms, SAPF design, and SAPF performance analysis
using PI control technique. This control technique is demonstrated through
MATLAB simulation and experimentation with FPGA controller-based prototype
model.

Keywords DC-link voltage control PI control Single-phase shunt active power

filter THD
1 Introduction
Most of the commercial, industrial, and domestic loads such as fluorescent lamps,
computers, uninterruptible power supplies, air conditioners, switched-mode power
supplies, and medical equipments draw harmonic current from utility mains and
cause poor power factor, poor efficiency, malfunctioning of medical facilities,
misoperation of protective devices, and overheating of power system equipments.
To prevent the issues listed above and to enhance the power quality, passive RLC
filters have been widely used because of its low cost, large capacity, simple, and
better efficiency, but they are having many drawbacks like huge in size, fixed
compensation, and resonance problems. In addition, the passive filters having
incapability to adjust to the system characteristic changes. So, in order to overcome
those problems, the most effective method of improving power quality, the use of
shunt Active power filter (SAPF), is preferred. The advantages include small size
and ability to compensate both reactive power and harmonic currents [1–5]. Sasaki
and Machida proposed the SAPF idea in 1971 [6]. The single-phase SAPF is widely
used in medium- and low-power installation due to its low cost. In this case,
R. Kanagavel (&) V. Indragandhi

School of Electrical Engineering, VIT University, Vellore, Tamilnadu, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_32
332 R. Kanagavel and V. Indragandhi
reference current is generated based on regulating the DC-link capacitor voltage by

using PI control algorithm directly without calculating reactive power required by
the load [7–9]. The extraction technique is simple and straightforward when
compared to other extraction techniques of SAPFs [6, 10]. For the proper operation
of single-phase SAPF, the DC-link voltage to be maintained constant at any supply
and load condition for the all-time. Even though the development of advanced
controller, the classical PI controller is still have received greater attention by the
engineers and researchers now days, due to its simple design, easy to implement,
robust nature for irrespective of the variations in system parameters [11–13].
This manuscript consists of four parts. Initial starting with an introduction, the
brief discussion about harmonic current extraction technique in Sect. 2. Discussion
on simulation and experimental outcomes is presented in Sect. 3. At last, the
conclusion is given.
2 Single-Phase SAPF System Model
Shunt active power filter acts as an alternative solution to improve the power quality
in electrical system. The SAPF operates by identifying the load harmonic current,
those generated by the NLL, and subsequently, the SAPF injects a compensating
current into the PCC to eliminate the current harmonics and compensate the reactive
power caused by the NLL. Before connecting SAPF to the PCC, the supply and
load current have same harmonics. When the active filter is switched on, source
current becomes free of harmonics and sine in nature.
The complete structure of SAPF system is illustrated in Fig. 1. The electrical
grid supplies electric power to the nonlinear load (NLL). NLL is made up of
full-bridge uncontrolled rectifier with a resistive and inductive (RL) load. The SAPF
circuit is composed of an H-bridge inverter having four controlled power switching
devices containing a DC-link capacitor (Cdc) and a coupling inductor (Lf).
The SAPF is designed based on the previous study [15].
2.1 Reference Current Extraction
The extraction algorithm of SAPF is shown in Fig. 2. Basically, the algorithm

consists of Vdc of voltage source inverter, source voltage, source current, and load
current. Initially, by comparing Vdc with its reference value (Vdc, ref) then the
voltage error is fed to a PI voltage controller.
The controller output is considered as reference supply current peak value (Isp, ref).
Subsequently, a unit amplitude of source voltage (Is, ref) is multiplied by a controller
output. Then, the NLL current is added with the supply current reference which
Performance Analysis of Single-Phase Shunt Active Filter … 333
Fig. 1 Configuration of single-phase SAPF system
Unit vector
Vs
Generation
Multiplier
Current
controller Gate
Vdc,ref Is Pulse
Voltage
Vdc Controller
Fig. 2 PI control algorithm
gives filter reference current. Finally, the filter reference current and VSI output
current signal are fed to current controller to generate gating signals for SAPF. The
gain values of the PI controller state the voltage response and damping factor, and
the minimum value of gains for the PI controller can be calculated using Eqs. 1 and
2 [14, 15].
kp 2ncx ð1Þ
ki cx ð2Þ
where kp represents proportional gain, ki represents integral Gains, C represents the

capacitance of DC-link capacitor, n represents damping factor (0.707), and x
represents angular frequency.
The modeling and optimization of SAPF system are performed with MATLAB
software. The MATLAB/Simulink model of single-phase SAPF is developed and
executed to compensate the reactive power and harmonic compensation.
A single-phase H-bridge inverter is considered as nonlinear load. Before com-
pensation, the THD for the source current is 28.47%. After connecting single-phase
SAPF to the point of common coupling (PCC), the harmonics are eliminated from
supply current and THD is reduced to 3.8%. The detailed specification of
single-phase SAPF is given in Table 1.
The performance of conventional PI controller is evaluated in terms of its
dynamic performance analysis for the two different conditions such as switch-on
response and transient response. During switch-on response conditions, the
single-phase SAPF is switched on at 0.05 s. The supply voltage (Vs), supply current
(Is), load current (IL), filter current (If), and Vdc for conventional PI are shown in
Fig. 3.
From the results, the Vdc under conventional PI controller shows that the per-
formance suffers from relatively long settling time of 670 ms. The single-phase
SAPF is switched on at 1.25 s during transient response. During transient response,
the load is changed from 28 ohm to 40 ohm. In conventional PI controller, longer
settling time of 600 ms and critical overshoot 4V of Vdc were obtained due to a
sudden variation of the load as shown in Fig. 4.
In order to validate the work, a prototype model (1.5 kW) is used with same load
configurations as in the simulation work with supply voltage of 100 V (141 Vpeak),
50 Hz which is developed by using single-phase autotransformer and the DC-link
Table 1 SAPF system specification

Parameters Symbol Value
Network
Supply voltage Vs 100 Vrms
Source resistance and inductance Rs and Ls 0.1 Ω and 1 mH
Supply frequency F 50 Hz
APF parameters
DC-link voltage Vdc 200 V
DC-link capacitance Cdc 800 µF
Filter resistance and inductance Rf and Lf 0.01 Ω and 5 mH
Average switching frequency Fsw 10 kHz
Load parameters
AC-side resistance Rc 0.01 Ω
AC-side inductance Lc 1 mH
DC-side resistance RL, dc 28 Ω
DC-side inductance LL, dc 160 mH
Fig. 3 Switch-on response
Fig. 4 Transient response

capacitor voltage which was set to 200 Vdc. FPGA controller is used to implement
all the algorithms such as PI algorithm for reference current extraction and current
control algorithm for generating proper gating signals to the VSI of SAPF. During
switch response, the DC-link voltage reaches its steady-state value of 200 V with
1250 ms as shown in Fig. 5. The source current THD is reduced from 24.9% to
3.9%. The transient response (increasing load) has been obtained and is shown in
Fig. 6. During transient condition, the DC-link voltage returns its reference value
within 1200 ms. In both conditions, the controller takes longer setting time to settle
the DC-link voltage.
Fig. 5 Switch-on response with Is = 5A/div, IL = 10A/div, Vdc = 100 V/div, and time 500 ms/
div
Fig. 6 Transient response, Vdc = 50 V/div, and time 100 ms/div

4 Conclusion
In this manuscript, a conventional PI controller-based single-phase SAPF has been

proposed and validated. The simulation and experimental results were investigated.
From the results, it has been found that the control technique compensates the
current harmonics and reactive power generated by the NLL. But, the conventional
PI controller takes longer settling time for both switch-on and transient conditions.
So, in future work, the optimized PI controller needs to be used for better dynamic
performance of SAPF.
References
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Electron. 9(2), 323–335 (2016)
Calculation of VFTO and VFTC
in the 550 kV GIS with Mitigation
Techniques
M. Naga Jyothi, C. V. K. Bhanu and CH. Ramya
Abstract The 550 kV gas-insulated substation is designed in the electromagnetic

transient program (EMTP-RV) which simulated the design when the disconnector
switch is operated. The operation of disconnector switch induces the VFTOs within
a few nanoseconds, and the currents associated with VFTOs produce the electro-
magnetic fields. To reduce the very fast transients in the system, the mitigation
techniques are to be implemented. In this paper, to reduce very fast transients in the
system, the ferrite rings are installed at the disconnector switch. And it also have the
impact on spark resistance and transformer entrance capacitance which will reduce
the overvoltages.

Keywords VFTO VFTC Spark resistance Ferrite rings
Transformer entrance capacitance EMTP
1 Introduction
A GIS is the high-voltage substation which consists of major structures of sulfur

hexafluoride (SF6) which is used as insulating medium, disconnector, and circuit
breakers for switching operations which results in VFTO [1]. The application of
GIS is widely increased from the past few years due to the merits of compact in
size, good environmental conditions, and good anti-contamination properties [2].
Due to advance technology in industries and the growth in population in recent
years, energy demand has been increasing. The main purpose to implement the GIS
M. Naga Jyothi CH. Ramya (&)

Department of EEE, VNR VJIET, Hyderabad, India
M. Naga Jyothi
C. V. K. Bhanu
GVPCE, Vizag, Andhra Pradesh, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_33
340 M. Naga Jyothi et al.
is for the environmental constraints and the reliability in the system. GIS requires
less space to construct, when comparing with air-insulated substation (AIS), less
maintenance, and pollution-free [3].
However, the GIS can also show the main problem on VFTO, which occurs due
to the switching operations or circuit breakers. These transients will have very short
rise time in the range of 1–100 ns and frequency in the range of 100 kHz to
50 MHz. The GIS have surge impedance of 75–95 Ω with the velocity propagation
of 288 m/µs. The surge impedance of GIS is followed by an equation [4].
Z ¼ 60 lnðb=aÞ X ð1Þ
where a and b are the outer diameter and inner diameter of a bus duct, respectively.
GIS has the major problem of VFTO and VFTC, and these transient surges occur
due to the opening or closing operation of disconnector and circuit breakers [5].
In this paper, a 550 kV GIS is modeled in the EMTP-RV software. Due to the
disconnector switching operation, the VFTO and VFTC are obtained within the few
nanoseconds. The ferrite rings are modeled with the shunt combination of inductor
of 0.02 mH and resistance of 70 Ω. It is used to suppress the over-voltages in the
system [6]. VFTCs are also generated due to the closing or opening operations of
disconnector. The electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) problems due to VFTC are
major risks for the source voltage of about 245 kV [7].
2 Modeling of 550 kV System
A 550 kV GIS power system consists of underground GIS and grounded GIS. The
two parts of the GIS are connected to the 550 kV cable. The power station has two
550 kV overhead transmission line which is connected to the power system with
the length 37.36 km for the each line. For the overhead transmission line, the surge
impedance (Z) is 350 Ω and the wave propagation (v) is 300 m/µs. For GIS bus
duct, the surge impedance is 80 Ω and the wave propagation is 231 m/µs. For
XLPE-800 cable, the surge impedance is 68.8 Ω and the wave propagation is
103.8 m/µs [2].
The power transformer is modeled with the lumped capacitance with grounding
of 5000 pF. When the opening operation of circuit breaker is modeled with the
series capacitance of 300 pF between the two contacts, the closing operation is
modeled with the shunt capacitance of 230 pF. Electromagnetic potential trans-
former is modeled with grounded shunt capacitance of 400 pF. For closing or
opening operation of disconnector, an ideal switch is in series with the series
resistance of 2.5 Ω and arc resistance which is modeled with the staircase resis-
tance. The equation of the dynamic arc resistance is given as
Calculation of VFTO and VFTC in the 550 kV … 341
Table 1 Tabular column for arc resistance

S. no. T e(−t/T) R0*e(−t/T)
1 1 0.367879441 3.68E+11
3 10 4.53999E−05 45,399,930
5 20 2.06115E−09 2061.154
7 30 9.35762E−14 0.093576
Table 2 Voltage–current characteristics of 420 kV MOA at the transformer side

I (A) 0.008 20.0 10,000.0
V (kV) 594.0 674.5 932.0
Table 3 Voltage–current characteristics of 444 kV MOA at the line side

I (A) 0.003 20,000.0
V (kV) 628.0 1161.0
Fig. 1 Equivalent wiring diagram of 500 kV GIS [1]

R ¼ r þ R0 eðt=TÞ
where r is series resistance of 2.5 Ω, R0 is having higher initial value of 1012 Ω, T is

the time constant of 1 ns, and t is the time which varies from 1 to 30 ns. Table 1
data is provided for the staircase resistance which is equivalent model for arc
resistance.
The surge arrester or metal-oxide arrestor (MOA) is modeled with the nonlinear
resistance. The voltage and current characteristics of surge arrester on the side of
transformer and on the side of line are given in Tables 2 and 3.
The equivalent wiring diagram of 550 kV GIS is as shown in Fig. 1.
In this paper, 550 kV GIS is modeled in EMTP, and the disconnector switch,
DS-50543, was operated in opening condition and modeled with the exponentially
decreased resistance or an arc resistance. For this study, consider the total simu-
lation time of 30 µs and the step time of 2 ns. Always, the total simulation time
must be greater than the step time. Pre-strikes and re-strikes occur in the system,
and the sparks are modeled with the small resistance of 2.5 Ω. From the simulation,
when the potential between the two contacts exceeds to the nominal value then the
arc will re-strike. Otherwise, the arc will be extinguished. These re-strikes and
extinguished arcs are simulated with the controlled switch in the EMTP-RV
software.
3.1 VFTO Due to the Opening Operation of DS-50543
The DS-50543 switch is in opening condition when the DS-50546 and CB-5054 are
already in the open operating mode. Due to the switching operation, the sudden
change in frequencies and amplitudes to voltage will reach the peak value of 2 p.u.
pffiffi
where, 1 p.u = 550 * p2ffiffi3 kV = 449.073 kV.
The simulated results are given in Table 4.
Table 4 VFTO for opening operation of disconnector DS-50543

Voltage at bus bar (kV 14S 15S 17S
569 614 605
Voltage at transformer (kV) TR1 TR3 TR4 TR6
626 728 661 901
Voltage at surge arrester (kV) 11UA 12UA 13UA
512 492 560
Table 5 VFTC for opening operation of disconnector DS-50543

Curent at bus bar (kV) 14S 15S 17S
4000 6750 2860
Current at transformer (kV) TR1 TR3 TR4 TR6
1140 983 607 2500
Current at surge arrester (kV) 11UA 12UA 13UA
2700 2710 412
3.2 VFTC Due to the Opening Operation of DS-50543
From Table 5, the very fast transient currents are shown during the opening
operation of disconnector DS-50543. The VFTCs are very small after the switching
operation which takes place in the system.
3.3 Impact of Trapped Charge
The opening operation of disconnector switch in GIS, the trapped charge will be
occurred on floating section. The trapped charge is high at disconnector location of
2.1 and 1.7 p.u at transformer location (TR6). The simulation results for consid-
ering the trapped charge of −1.0 and −0.5 p.u are given in Table 6.
4 Mitigation Techniques
4.1 Impact of Ferrite Rings
Ferrite rings are modeled with the shunt combination of inductor and resistor, and
the equivalent circuit is shown in Fig. 2 [8–11]. The impact of ferrite rings will
suppress the transient surges in the system (Table 7).
4.2 Impact of Spark Resistance
Exponentially decaying resistance is known as spark resistance, which affects the

damping overvoltages. The simulation results will show the spark resistance from
0.5 to 10 Ω [12]. The voltage is decreased from 638.5 to 551 kV at the location of
bus bar (14S) (Table 8).
Table 6 Simulation results for trapped charges

Trapped charge (p.u.) −1.0 −0.5 0
Voltage at bus bar (kV) 14S 640 570 569
17S 794 755 605
Voltage at transformer (kV) TR1 910 781 626
TR6 960 900 901
Voltage at surge arrester (kV)A 11UA 582 528 512
13UA 490 554 560
Voltage at disconnector (kV) DS-50543 1155 1113 1045

ferrite ring
Table 7 Suppression of Voltage at bus bar (kV) 14S 15S 17S

VFTO using ferrite rings
547 588 591
Voltage at transformer (kV) TR1 TR3 TR4 TR6
598 689 655 867
Voltage at surge arrester (kV) 11UA 12UA 13UA
475 460 538
Table 8 Simulation results Spark resistance 0.5 1 10

for spark resistance
Voltage at bus bar (kV) 14S 638.5 568.2 551
17S 677.6 592.7 588
Voltage at transformer (kV) TR1 626.5 626 623
TR6 1140.5 907 898
Voltage at surge arrester (kV) 11UA 492.5 530.2 472
13UA 574.2 534.4 506
Table 9 Simulation results Transformer entrance 5000 10,000 15,000

for transformer entrance capacitance (pF)
capacitance
Voltage at TR1 626 608.5 605
transformer (kV) TR3 728 714 713.1
TR6 901 900 898
4.3 Impact of Transformer Entrance Capacitance
The effect of transformer entrance capacitance will also lead to the suppression of
very fast transient overvoltages. The influence of transformer entrance capacitance
with the simulation results are given in Table 9.
5 Waveforms of VFTO and VFTC with the Operation

of Disconnector Switch at Various Locations
Figures 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 are the waveforms observed VFTO and VFTCs with
different disconnector switching operations at various locations.
Fig. 3 VFTO caused due to

disconnector switch
DS-50543 with the peak value
of 901 kV at TR6
Fig. 4 VFTC caused due to

disconnector switch
DS-50543 with the peak value
of 412A at 13UA
Fig. 5 Suppressed voltage of

547 kV at 14S by considering
ferrite rings

disconnector switch
DS-50543 with trapped
charge of −1.0 p.u., the peak
value of 960 kV at TR6

disconnector switch
DS-50543 with trapped
charge of −0.5 p.u., the peak
value of 900 kV at TR6
Fig. 8 VFTOs are

suppressed with spark
resistance of 10 Ω and the
peak value of 472 kV at
11UA
Fig. 9 VFTOs are

suppressed with transformer
entrance capacitance of
15,000 pF, the peak value of
713 kV at TR6
6 Conclusion
Due to the switching operation of disconnector or a circuit breaker, the very fast
transients are observed in the system which leads to affect the internal or external
parts of the substation, so that, to reduce the high transients in the system, the
mitigation techniques are implemented. From the study of 550 kV GIS, when
operating of disconnector switch, the high voltages are occurring at the transformer
(TR6) of 1.7 and 2.1 p.u without and with considering of trapped charge. With the
suppression techniques of ferrite rings, spark resistance, transformer entrance
capacitance, the great change in voltages improves the system efficiency.
References
1. V. Himasaila, M. Nagajyothi, T. Nireekshana, Review on analysis of very fast transient

overvoltage in gas insulated substation. Int. J. Sci. Res. Eng. Technol. (IJSRET) 6(7) (2017).
ISSN 2278–0882
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in a 1100 kV gas insulated substation. Elsevier J. Electr. Power System Res. 161 (2018)
Energy Efficiency and Conservation
Schemes Proposed for an Educational
Building in Oman
Ch. Ramya, Ch. Venkateswara Rao, Nurul Hasan Shaikh,

Mohammed Kashoob, Syed Aqeel Ashraf
and C. H. V. Suryanarayana
Abstract The energy is substantial input for the economic growth of any country. In
lieu of developing countries, increase in energy demand requires huge investments.
Consequently, energy cost reduction, efficiency improvement and energy conser-
vation utilization, management and audit are needed. In Sultanate of Oman, energy
demand has been rising rapidly due to contemporary growing economic and pop-
ulation. The non-renewable natural gas produces energy. This prompts the move
toward renewable energy sources and the implementation of Energy Efficiency and
Conservation (EE&C) schemes such as energy audit and conservation. It is an
analysis of the energy flow within a building that attempts to balance the energy
input with its use not affecting the energy output. It is used to classify the entire
energy stream. Energy management is used to attain and maintain an optimum
energy flow to reduce energy costs and prevent the misuse of energy.
Comprehensive EE&C measures are needed to conserve energy and for load
leveling. In this paper, energy audit, conservation and management studies are
conducted for Salalah College of Technology. The saving in the energy is achieved
by implementing EE&C schemes through load observation, identifying the unnec-
essary usage of power and weak links in energy usage.

Keywords Energy audit Power consumption Energy conservation

Energy efficiency Power factor correction
1 Introduction
In Oman, as shown in Fig. 1, the installed power capacity has been lagging behind
the consumed power except for a short period from 2013 to 2016 [1].
Ch.Ramya (&) Ch.Venkateswara Rao N. H. Shaikh M. Kashoob

S. A. Ashraf C. H. V. Suryanarayana
Swarnandra College of Engineering and Technology, Narsapuram, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_34
350 Ch. Ramya et al.
Fig. 1 Installed power

capacity versus electrical
power consumption for the
2002–2107 [1]
It can also be seen from Fig. 1 that the consumption of electrical power is rising
exponentially exclusively in residential, commercial and industrial premises.
Increasing the installed power capacity will require an exponential increase in the
investments in the sector of power which may be difficult. A different solution
would be to implement conservation schemes and energy efficiency.
In [2–5], different schemes for EE&C were proposed for Oman. In [6–8],
methodologies based on smart grid for energy saving were studied. Many papers
[3, 9–11] proposed and scrutinized the benefits of the migration to renewable
energy sources in Oman such as solar and wind.
In this paper, energy audit and conservation projects are carried out in Electrical
Engineering building at Salalah College of Technology (SCT). Economic and
efficient procedures of energy management have been surveyed subject to budget
limitation. These measures result in decrease in cost of energy by taking certain
precautions for safety environment. The scope and approach of the energy audit
study also include time and cost estimates for carrying out the energy study. The
selection of Salalah College of Technology has been considered because of (i) the
higher amount of electrical energy consumed in such institutes and (ii) the con-
straint on the savings budget for energy conservation procedures.
2 Existing Load Conditions
Institute Considered
SCT is a government technical institute in Salalah, Oman. In this college, there are
three departments, i.e., Engineering, Information Technology and Business. In
Energy Efficiency and Conservation Schemes … 351
Engineering department, there are five sections in that one of the sections is
Electrical & Electronics Engineering which is considered for energy conservation
measures for year 2018–2019. In the Electrical building, there are two floors with
five lines and 40 rooms.
2.1 Connected Load
SCT is considered a high-tension client, receives electricity from Dhofar Power

Company (DPC) in Salalah, under government tariffs [12] with five 11 kV/433 V,
1000 kVA substations with two feeders of three-phase four-wire. One feeder is
connected to the Electrical Engineering building. The energy consumption: 2500
units/day. The monthly power consumption will be 55,000 units. Load details,
power consumption per load and annual energy consumption data are presented in
Fig. 2.
Fig. 2 a Load details, b power consumption and c energy consumption per year
2.2 Electricity Tariff: Maximum Demand (kVA) Charges
The total monthly cost for the energy consumed is presented in Table 1.
3 Energy Audit
Following reasons for conducting energy conservation:

• The rise in energy cost input and natural gas price rise due to the expected future
tariff revisions by the authorities in every year.
• The ministry of manpower is considered the option for renewable energy bases
in the nigh imminent for financial reasons and also to avail to the government’s
incentives.
• To develop energy-efficient buildings, green energy buildings or smart homes.
A. Energy auditing period
For this institute’s energy conservation project, the EE&C team took six months for
conducting the detailed energy audit.
B. Energy Auditing procedures
The EE&C team sets the criteria for energy auditing as
• Crosschecking the machineries/equipment
• Analyzing the monthly electricity bills,
• Reading of load progress, loading design and demand control,
• Study of distribution schemes, cables,
• Checking of lighting,
• Air conditioning systems, etc.
The following areas through which energy conservation could be achieved:
• Electrical services and distribution system,
• Lighting,
• Air conditioning,
• Energy supervision scheme.
Table 1 Total tariff for monthly electricity consumption [12]

Tariff structure Electricity cost
0–3000 3000 10 = 30,000 Baisa
3001–5000 2000 15 = 30,000 Baisa
5001–7000 2000 20 = 40,000 Baisa
7001–10,000 3000 25 = 75,000 Baisa
>10,000 45,000 30 = 1350,000 Baisa
Total cost (1000 Baisa = 1 OMR) 1,525,000 Baisa (1525 OMR)
In this paper, the team completed (i) the annual energy savings, (ii) energy costs
and annual cost savings, (iii) initial cost, (iv) payback period, return on investment.
4 Electrical Energy Conservation
The following electrical energy conservation methods were done by the EE&C
team (see Fig. 3):
A. Incoming supply Parallel Cables
Two underground cables, 4 core, 415 V, 250 A, XLPE/SWA/PVC/CU 4 240 mm2
are running from the sub-station; one cable of length 120 m to air conditioning control
panel and another of 60 m to the departmental over-head bus bars.
The EE&C team recommended, as one of the energy conservation actions, to run
a cable in parallel.
Total length of both existing cables was 180 m. Total resistance of the cable,
3 0:0915 180
R¼ ¼ 0:0494 X ð1Þ
1000
The cable losses for a total load current of 400 A are calculated as
P ¼ I 2 R ¼ 4002 0:0494 ¼ 7:904 kW ð2Þ
Fig. 3 Energy conservation

methods and energy savings
an average time of 3200 h is considered for operation annually. Then, the energy
loss in the cables is calculated to be
E ¼ P t ¼ 7904 3200 ¼ 25292:8 kWh ð3Þ
Considering equal load sharing for parallel cables, the current in each cable is
(400/2) = 200 A. In each cable, power loss is 2002 0.0494 = 1.976 kW. Total
power loss for both cables is 2 1.976 = 3.952 kW, and total energy loss is
31,616 kWh. Saving in energy loss per year is 31,616 kWh (50% saving as
expected). Annual saving in energy cost due to parallel cables is at 10 Baisa/
kWh = 316.16 OMR. Cost of 4 240 mm2 cable per meter length = 25 OMR.
Expenditure on additional 180 m cable = 25 180 = 4500 OMR. Labor on run-
ning additional cable is 300 OMR, and hence, total expenditure on running addi-
tional cable is 4800 OMR. Payback period (4800/316.16) = 15.1 16 months.
The Return on investment (ROI) is 1/16 or 6.25% per month.
4.1 Power Factor Correction
The power factor of the institute varies between 0.89 and 0.93 usually since its
origination, which was well above the requirement of the DPC. So, average power
factor of 0.91 the load in kW was found to be 850 0.91 = 773.5 kW.
The EE&C team decided to improve the power factor to an average value of
0.98. The targeted locations for placing the capacitors are at the sub-station for base
load compensation and at the loads supply so that only when the load is connected,
the capacitors will be ON. The 100 kVAR capacitors available at the sub-station
were just sufficient to compensate the base load to a power factor of 0.91.
96 KVAR were mounted in order to improve the power factor of 0.98 (calculations
not shown).
For a load of 773.5 kW, the kVA demand at 0.98 power factor is (773.5/
0.98) = 789.29. Therefore, saving in kVA is (789.29 − 773.5) = 15.79. Annual
saving in cost due to kVA reduction is 15.79 3200 (10/1000) = 505.28 OMR.
Cost on additional capacitors is 400 OMR per 100 kVAR (100 OMR per 25 kVAR).
Payback period (400 12)/505.28) = 9.5 10 months. The ROI is 1/10 which is
about 10% per month.
4.2 Changing Air-Conditioned Environment
The electrical building under our investigation has 62, 2650 watts of two-ton-
capacity air conditioners. The general purpose air-conditioned rooms were oper-
ating at a temperature of 17 °C frequently regardless of the seasons.
Recent research [1–12] illustrates that computers can operate at 30 °C. When the
temperature is greater than 28 °C, an energy saving of 3% has been noticed per 1 °C
increase in temperature. Based on that, the controlled temperature only in the com-
puter rooms at 22 °C.
The energy consumption/air conditioner/hour to maintain a room temperature of
22 °C is initiated as (5 (3/100) 2650 62 3200) = 78,864 kWh with
conventional airflow. Annual saving in cost due to change in air-conditioned
environment is 78,864 (10/1000) = 788.64 OMR.
4.3 Voltage Control of Lighting
The energy conservation in lighting has resulted in a saving of about 15% according
to their records. The lighting installation consisted of 220 with four lamp sets, each
rated at 80 watts (Total power = 220 80 = 17.6 kW).
Connecting a voltage control scheme for the lighting, which made use of one
autotransformer for every lighting control zones, and finally connected to a central
control panel. The total power rating including control gear was found to be
17.6 kW + (220 2 watts) = 18.04 kW. The total energy consumed is
18.04 kW 3200 = 57,728 kWh.
The voltage regulator scheme has summary energy consumption in two ways:
firstly, following start-up, the supply voltage was condensed by 12.5%, and sec-
ondly, using a photocell to display the daylight level in the institute, the supply
voltage was reduced by up to a further 5%.
For 3200 h of annual operation, due to the voltage control system, a 30%
reduction in energy consumption (57,728 kWh (30/100) = 17,318.4 kWh) by
the lighting installation has been measured, resulting in an annual energy cost
saving of 17,318.4 (10/1000) = 173.184 OMR. The cost of the control system
and its installation was 450 OMR; so, the repayment period is worked out to be
31 months.
5 Conclusions
Energy conservation and efficiency schemes such as energy audit and management
have been conducted at the Electrical Engineering building of SCT. Solution to
optimize and reduce the energy consumption was proposed. Incoming parallel
supply cables, power factor improvement, changing of air conditioning environ-
ment and lighting voltage controlling systems were implemented at primary audit
energy conservation. Based on the above energy conservation, the average time was
10 h. The percentage saved energy, 17.18%. It is expected that with a secondary
energy audit implementing more energy conservation solution that the saved energy
percentage will significantly increase.
Future Scope:
In the future, a secondary energy audit that includes the succeeding activities,
phases and processes:
• Switching off of the lamps and equipment,
• Renewable sources,
• Introducing LEDs to replace existing lamps,
• Introducing DC loads,
• Optical fiber cables,
• Soft switching,
• Sensor operated equipment,
• Green energy concept,
• Ventilation considerations,
• Software implementation.
References
1. National center for Statistics and Information. [Online]. Available: https://data.gov.om

2. Project for Energy Conservation Master Plan in the Power Sector, February 2013
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barriers. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 15(8), 3780–3788 (2011)
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oman-case study. Saudi J. Eng. Technol. 1, 69–76 (2016). https://doi.org/10.21276/sjeat.
2016.1.3.3
5. T. Sweetnam, Residential energy use in oman: a scoping study (2014). [Online] Available:.
http://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/1425280/1/Oman%20Final%20Report%20v0%208_revised.pdf.
Accessed 12 Dec 2018
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of Oman, in IEEE PES Conference on Innovative Smart Grid Technologies—Middle East
(Jeddah, 2011), pp. 1–6
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to optimize performance in between United Arab Emirates and Oman on the GCC power grid,
in 13th IET International Conference on AC and DC Power Transmission (ACDC)
(Manchester, 2017), pp. 1–6
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of strategic plans and scenarios for the Smart Grid and their impact—a case study of muscat
interconnected system, in 28th International Renewable Energy Congress (IREC) (Amman,
2017), pp. 1–5
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Development of a cost model for assessment of wind and solar power in Oman, in IEEE
International Conference on Industrial Technology (ICIT) (Cape Town, 2013), pp. 700–704
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in 2016 Eighteenth International Middle East Power Systems Conference (MEPCON) (Cairo,
2016), pp. 33–39
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Electronics and Applications, vol. 2 (Taichung, 2010), pp. 634–638
12. Authority for Electricity Regulations, Oman, Permitted Tariffs (2018). [Online] Available:
https://www.aer.om/en/tariffs
Design and Analysis of PV-Based
DSTATCOM with LCL Filter
for Localized Distribution System
Pratap Ranjan Mohanty and C. V. Harshavardhan Reddy
Abstract In maximizing the power transmission from solar electricity to the grid, the
use of power converters is very essential. In the early days, the problems in terms of
power quality (PQ) have meant that both the voltage quality and current quality of the
PV system linked to the grid are becoming increasingly crucial, particularly as non-
linear equipment has been widely used. This paper presents a PV-based DSTATCOM
with LCL filter in power distribution network to reduce the power quality problem as a
harmonic distortion presents in network. Low-frequency-induced harmonics can be
reduced by an LCL filter and a satisfying grid-side current can be generated with a
relative low induction in comparison with the L filter. The new poles implemented by
LC part lead to resonance in the scheme, leading to stability problems. This paper
introduces a compensation technique using the SRF theory to enhance such issues so
that efficiency in the constructed LCL filter scheme can be enhanced. The use of the
active damping technique can rectify this issue. The proposed system is simulated in
MATLAB/SIMULINK to improve the performance of the system by harmonic dis-
tortion reduction.

Keywords Voltage source converter (VSC) LCL filter PV system Active

damping Distribution static compensator (DSTATCOM) Synchronous reference
frame (SRF)
1 Introduction
The quality of power is now becoming a prevalent issue for distribution system
operators (DSOs) and clients. Most important for the future network is maintaining
high quality and reliability of supply [1]. Electrical power system (EPS) leadership
and its reliability, effectiveness and energy quality are the primary goals of the
intelligent grid. The development of high-power semiconductor systems permits the
P. Ranjan Mohanty (&) C. V. Harshavardhan Reddy

Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering, Madanapalle Institute of Technology &
Science, Angallu, Madanapalle, Chittor, AP 517325, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_35
358 P. Ranjan Mohanty and C. V. Harshavardhan Reddy
control of transmission level energy flow. Static compensators with shunt-connected

energy are often used as a reactive power and/or harmonic present source. They can
be used for instantly controlling voltage, correcting power factor and controlling
reactive power [2].
STATCOM is a shunt device that can regulate the reactive power produced
using a converter. To extract the reference present from the distorted line current,
the time domain-based synchronous reference frame theory is used [3, 4]. An LCL
filter is essential for connecting converters to the network to minimize distortions
associated with the high frequency of switching. The most prevalent alternative is a
straightforward inductive filter. The structure of the filter is easy but it is not
sufficient to attenuate high-frequency signals. Due to this nonlinear harmonically
distortion, a number of issues arise in devices used in our field, such as: engine
overheating, increasing loss of several kinds, continuous equipment harm at worst
and elevated meter measurement error [5].
To solve this issue, the introduction of shunt capacitive components allows the
implementation of a greater order filter. LC and LCL filters at elevated frequencies
are very well attenuated, but resonance can be caused. In terms of DC voltage
control, harmonic present removal and reactive power compensation, the modified
SRF offers improved efficiency over the standard technique [6]. The converter
control scheme may involve extra passive damping circuits or active damping
algorithms. The use of large-scale, nonlinear devices (UPS, SMPS, rectifier, etc.)
causing a severe voltage fluctuation and voltage drop in a electricity system is the
most prevalent formal pollution on the lower voltage condition [7]. In this setup, it
is essential to know that the current compensating filter supply on the PCC requires
an active power line conditioner. The active power supplies are only required for
the reactive power of the load in an ideal situation and thus the average voltage of
the DC-link condenser is to remain constant [7–9].
The harmonics in the scheme cause several undesired problems, e.g., increasing
transformer heating, a small energy factor, resonant overvoltage, harmonic voltage
drop over the impedance of the network, a bad distribution plant usage and other
charges linked to the same PCC [4]. Traditional schemes are not so efficient in
reducing harmonics because their static action and no dynamic action or inter-
vention on the removal of harmonics are taken in real time [2–4, 6]. But, compared
to standard active and passive filters, the shunt active energy filter provides
promising outcomes. Compare various control approaches for harmonic elimination
in energy system network based on FFT assessment (a key tool for harmonic
reduction assessment). Basically, this research work demonstrates the management
strategy, i.e., synchronous frame reference method and PQ approach, which helps
to decrease harmonics by MATLAB Simulation and Modeling when using the
DSTATCOM PV System.
Design and Analysis of PV-Based DSTATCOM … 359
2 PV-Based DSTATCOM with LCL Filter
In the past decades, both on the consumer and on the grid side the use of power
electronics has grown up substantially. In front of the dc connection, the PV system is
linked to increase the electricity. The PV panel delivers the energy to the DC con-
nection as shown in Fig. 1. The figure describes the PV-connected DSTATCOM.
The presented PV system can continuously supply the power to the grid by supplying
the ripple current to the nonlinear load. Generally, grid-connected PV system may be
used as DSTATCOM for power quality improvement [10]. Basically, damping
methods are used to damp resonant peak of the LCL filter [11]. In this research work,
the active damping principle [12] is implemented to the PV-DSTATCOM-connected
grid with LCL filter for improvement/advantages. Designing active damping method
for LCL filter along with current controller is one of the key issues in the PV-based
DSTATCOM circuit.
This was the choice of DSTATCOM as a device for distribution networks
accessible with the most efficient, flexible alternate present transmission scheme. It
can be regulated dynamically to control voltage by either absorbing or injecting
reactivity into the distribution network compared to other FACTS instruments as a
static VAR compensator (SVC) [13]. It also has the ability to respond to subsequent
modifications in PV production with the help of a subsequent reaction.
DSTATCOM has a high-performing, mature scheme, with quick dynamic reaction
which provides voltage stability, voltage adjustment, harmonic control, correction
of power factor, suppression of flicker voltage and reactive electricity at a LV rate.
DSTATCOM technology is a bidirectional power electronic (converter) shunt
three-phase device that is attached near the load mainly for the production and
absorption of reaction energy. That is, when the DSTATCOM output voltage is
Fig. 1 Circuit topology of grid-connected PV-DSTATCOM

Fig. 2 Block diagram of proposed control algorithm
higher than the PCC (terminal voltage) voltage or in inductive compensation mode,
if the PCC voltage is higher than the DSTATCOM voltage, DSTATCOM will
function in the capacitive compensation mode. The progress of technology in the
growth of low switching loss IGBTs has led to an adjustment of the paradigm of the
basic frequency switching approach for DSTATCOM in the area of pulse width
modulation [14]. The PWM algorithm for controlling the PCC voltage was modeled
and simulated as shown in Fig. 2. Instantaneous energy theory is used to create a
PWM carrier-based algorithm that transforms voltage and energy into a syn-
chronous rotating frame with the help of park conversion [15]. The Id and Iq
components in the carrying algorithm can be independently controlled in such a
manner that the reactive power can be exchanged via the DC-bus voltage controller
and the PCC or terminal voltage controller. The PWM pulse signal of the carrier
algorithm is produced by the PCC’s terminal voltage measurement and control and
the secondary voltage from DSTATCOM. Those measurements and the propor-
tional–integral (PI) are used to produce the active and reactive elements for the
comparison of the d − q element of the grid present and to make the Vd and Vq parts
of the modulating signal (carrier signal) for the SPWM.
3 Control Design
Different feeder sectors and load buses can usually be used before the PCC. At best
therefore, the Thevenin equivalent acquired by examining the PCC network is the
source and feeder impedances. Let us indicate Rs and Ls, respectively, for the feeder
resistance and inductance. The PCC voltage represented as,
dis
Vt ¼ Vs Is Rs
dt
Because of the decline in discharge and replacement, we can shift the renewable
energy resources to shunt compensation, because we can resolve this issue again.
Instead of the standard L-filter, a high-order LCL filter was commonly used to
smooth the VSI output currents. With the general weight and size decrease of the
parts, the LCL filter achieves a greater attenuation along with cost savings.
CRs þ 1
f ðsÞ ¼
L1 CL2 s3 þ ðL1 þ L2 Þs þ ðL1 þ L2 Þs2 RC
To extract the reference present from the distorted line current, the time
domain-based Synchronous Reference Frame Theory is used. In both stable and
dynamic states, the SRF control approach works perfectly for controlling the active
energy line conditioner in real-time applications. The modified SRF technique
involves streamlined units of vector orientation generation, a DC-link voltage
regulator, and a fixed-rotating synchronous frame for extracting the reference
current.
Currently, LCL filter use has become a popular practice for soft power output
voltage shaft and reduced injection of switching frequency components of current at
grid-connected VSI applications. High-frequency attenuation LCL filter has
excellent efficiency. To fulfill the necessary attenuation, a lower complete induc-
tance can be implemented. Low DC-bus voltage and system expense also imply a
smaller inductance. This also means that the resonant frequency needs appropriate
damping. Passive damping is comparatively straightforward, but damping strength
increases as attenuation capacity decreases. For internal disturbance, active
damping is more robust than passive damping, particularly when a big quantity of
harmonics is present in the grid voltage, whereas the energy loss between these two
techniques is little different. We will discuss the procedure for the filter design and
propose a minimum condenser system. With some changes in the VSC retardation
and regulator design procedure, the present feedback on the condenser active
damping approach is accepted.
The resonance is traditionally damped by the use of passive damping
(PD) circuits with resistance. Increased losses due to damping resistance led to a
proposition of several topologies to reduce losses and sufficient damping while
attenuating the frequency element of switching. The design of a PD-scheme
becomes difficult in high-power apps where switching frequency is small, taking
into account adequate management of energy loss and corner frequency placements.
Overall, because of its simplicity and reliability, a PD technique is chosen for
resonance damping. An alternative method, known as active damping (AD), where
a VSI is controlled so that no additional resistive element is required for resonance
damping. The inverter uses the PWM switching system to produce high-order
harmonics on carrier frequencies and the sideband frequencies to be removed.
The MATLAB/SIMULINK platform will examine the efficiency of the constructed

grid-connected PV-DSTATCOM system simulation results with the LCL system.
In this paper, we discuss the harmonic reduction in different cases. Case-A dis-
cusses the DSTATCOM with LCL filter without damping method and Case-B
discusses DSTATCOM with LCL filter with damping method and Case-C dis-
cusses PV-based DSTATCOM with LCL filter with damping method.
Case-A: DSTATCOM with LCL Filter Without Damping Method
The highest frequency close to resonance has almost disappeared. The solution is
easy and reliable, but it reduces the system’s thermal loads and significantly reduces
the filter effectiveness. The active damping is able to solve this issue. The resistor
decreases the voltage across the condenser by a voltage commensurate with the
subsequent current. You can do this in the control loop, too. Through a virtual
resistor without loss, the filter will be actively dampened. This technique has the
disadvantage of requiring a further present sensor and may cause noise issues due to
the amplification of high-frequency signals.
Figures 3 and 4 show the current waveform and THD analysis of a DSTATCOM
with LCL filter without damping controlling. Here we can observe the total har-
monic distortion is 2.16%.
Case-B: DSTATCOM with LCL Filter with Damping Method
Resonant peak at resonant frequency is the key issue with the LCL filter and this
can be solved by correctly designing the damping system. For removal of the
resonant peak, we will address the active damping technique.
Figures 5 and 6 show the current waveform and THD analysis of a DSTATCOM
with LCL filter with damping controlling. Here we can observe the total harmonic
distortion is 0.52%.
20 ISa
ISb
ISc
Source Current (A)
10
-10
-20
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Time(s)
Fig. 3 Source current waveform

Fundamental (50Hz) = 9.898 , THD= 2.16%

Mag (% of Fundamental)
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Frequency (Hz)
Fig. 4 THD value of source current
20 ISa
ISb
Source Current (A)
ISc
10
-10
-20
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Time(s)

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Frequency (Hz)
Case-C: PV-Based DSTATCOM with LCL Filter

Figures 7 and 8 show the current waveform and THD analysis of a PV-based
DSTATCOM with LCL filter with damping controlling. Here we can observe the
total harmonic distortion is 0.11%.
20 ISa
ISb
Source Current (A)
ISc
10
-10
-20
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Time(s)

1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000
Frequency (Hz)
5 Conclusion
In this paper, the application of grid-connected PV-based DSTATCOM with LCL

system has been presented. The features and the design method for both passive and
active damping of the LCL-type filter have been provided on the injected grid
current regulator and voltage controls. The technique used for calculating the
compensatory reference current can have a significant effect on the control system
results. The sequence extract algorithm must be impermissible to harmonics, noise
and changes of grid frequency in order to prevent deteriorating system efficiency
because of the adverse sequence compensation loop. It has been shown that the
suggested active damping systems satisfy the demand that filter inductance varies
with excellent robustness without any further energy loss in the filter. The findings
indicate a nice control system efficiency and confirm that the design of the sug-
gested system is feasible and effective for all working conditions. For the control of
the DSTATCOM with the LCL filter, a newly enhanced active damping with a
decoupled dq-frame present controller is suggested to obtain an efficient load
compensation.
References
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Power Syst. (2014)
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controller for DSTATCOM. IJEEPS. 4 (2013)
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Tech. 3(3) (2013)
Optimal Scheme and Power Controlling
aspects in Shipboard System
Vijay Raviprabhakaran and Teja Sree Mummadi
Abstract This paper deals with controlling DC power in shipboard power. The
Shipboard power system (SPS) experiences disturbance due to variations in load.
A DC bus distribution system developed for the USA. Coast Guard’s 270-ft
Intermediate Endurance Harvester is simulated using MATLAB in this paper.
Whenever a fault occurs in load, the system power varies. In this article, the DC
power system is controlled automatically by detecting disturbances. The proposed
method includes self-governing fault detection and controlling DC power. The
shipboard power system consists of a challenge related to restoration. The reliability
and flexibility of the system are improved with effective integrated energy storage
devices (ESD) and solar power. A maiden attempt is made in the paper with a solar
panel for the cost-effective operation of the SPS. Also, the SPS with and without the
PV panel is tested for optimal operation. Furthermore, this shipboard management
system may be implemented in the Indian shipboard system for optimal power
management.

Keywords Optimal power management DC bus distribution system

Shipboard power system Energy storage system Solar power Fault detection
Energy storage device
1 Introduction
The ships used for both military and commercial purposes which work based on
electricity are enabled by integrated power systems (IPS), are to meet increasing
demand. In critical conditions, i.e., once there is a variation in load or IPS component
failure, these then provide real-time management for dynamic configuration to support
the system. Recently, there has been much advancement in controlling and managing
DC microgrid. These advancements have been implemented in applications such as
V. Raviprabhakaran (&) T. S. Mummadi

Department of Electrical Power Engineering, CVR College of Engineering,
Hyderabad 501510, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_36
368 V. Raviprabhakaran and T. S. Mummadi
traction, smart buildings, shipboard power systems and many more. The drastic
development in semiconductor devices and power electronic devices over the past two
eras made a way for advanced electrical networks, which are useful in automotive,
space and marine applications. These systems deliver high efficiency and reliability [1,
2]. Because of the progression in power electronics, DC distribution systems have
gained more attraction than AC. Though there are many advantages to the DC-based
integrated power system, it is difficult to maintain optimal performance without
interruption with a dynamic load. The protection schemes can detect faults and isolate
them, but they do not consider the optimization constraints or balance the power and
after fault isolation. To meet the increasing DC shipboard power demand, all the
electric ships are implementing the integrated power system [3]. They have to manage
the power for the dynamic profile to support the system critical operations when there
is a change in dynamic load or IPS failure. In the IPS architecture, all the loads are
supplied by a common electrical power bus, which enables the handling of the loads
and generation sources more optimal and efficiently. It is able to direct power to vital
loads on demand [4]. A new method is introduced which controls and optimally
reforms a DC power system while automatically detecting system disturbances.
A dynamic approach is proposed using time-scale separation [5]. The aim is to provide
coordination between system protections to validate that the system ruins constantly at
all stages of operation even after there is a disruption. To implement and certify the
approach, a DC-based, shipboard power system is employed. The reliability of
electrical power plays a major role in this modern world. As the demand for electrical
power is increased, there should be an alternative for restoration and recovery when an
outage or error on the method [6]. In this case, the power system is provided with
storage devices can deliver standby power or power throughout transition [7]. In this
paper, DC SPS is integrated with the energy storage system, which acts as a feedback
path. An energy storage device subsystem is very necessary for the shipboard power
system and for terrestrial electrical systems. This element helps in storing a large
amount of energy, which can be used as a backup. During any fault conditions, the
electrical system can be fed by ESDs. The outage of electrical equipment and other
parts or operational issue may occur if ESDs fail to provide energy during faults [8, 9].
The DC SPS is integrated with the energy storage system (ESS) wherever the
battery is used as an energy storage device in this article. By integrating the ESS
with the DC SPS, the system efficiency is improved. The ESS acts as a backup of
the system. ESS technologies are technologically viable nowadays. A few of them
are flywheels, the superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES), battery energy
storage system (BESS), the compressed air energy storage (CAES), supercapacitors
and pumped hydro storage (PHS). Either AC or DC system, for charging and
discharging purposes, the ESS requires power converters. Mostly used ESS is an
uninterruptible power supply (UPS). In this paper, the battery is used for the energy
storage devices. This article contrasts with the modeling of DC SPS with solar
resources for power generation. Solar panel technology requires a power converter
to boost the output power [10]. In this paper, a boost converter is used as a
converter for the solar panel. The buck-boost converter is integrated with ESS as a
power converter. The residual of this article is outlined as trails: Sect. 2 acquaints
Optimal Scheme and Power Controlling aspects in Shipboard System 369
with SPS configuration. Section 3 is about SPS power control. Modeling and
simulation circuit and results are shown in Sect. 4. Conclusions are presented in
Sect. 5.
2 Shipboard Power System
2.1 Shipboard Configuration
An electrical power distribution system for the ship must be able to provide power
generation and distribution, control and some basic power electronics operations.
Space and weight parameters limit the amount of discharge in the system for
restoration purposes. The resistive losses in SPS are nearly insignificant for the
tightly coupled distribution network. Recent developments of SPSs include inte-
grated circuits and which are trending nowadays. Due to the advantages of DC over
AC, the DC shipboard came into existence. Usually, there are two categories of the
distribution system that includes radial-type and ring-type distribution system.
Convectional SPSs are of radial-type distribution systems. The radial-type system
has a generating station at the center of the loads. The power flow is in only one
direction. In radial type, if any fault occurs, then it would result in loss of supply
toward many units up to the fault is situated and unfurnished. When there is a
variation in a generation, it seriously affects the load side which results in voltage
fluctuations. Due to this, reliability and stability decrease. But recently, to overcome
radial distribution problems, the zonal distribution system is implemented. The
researchers proposed a new technology that includes both radial distribution
architecture and zonal approach. Zonal method hires a starboard bus (SB) and a port
bus (PB), thus dividing the craft into numeral electric zones. The system charac-
teristic of electrically integrated SPS is very analogous to the island microgrid
except which is not automated. It will have a comparatively feeble power balance,
then the generator capacity is closely sized to the load demand [11]. In order to
maintain shipboard power system reliability, it has to be automated. It is also
proved that automation gives better results than manual control. In this process,
multiple power generation capabilities abode throughout the ship.
2.2 DC Shipboard Power System
The first DC shipboard was in the 1880s, but due to a lack of power electronic
devices, this system failed [12]. With recent advancements in power electronic
devices and storage technologies, the DC SPSs have gained attention. The main
motivations for the development of DC SPS are fuel economy, and other advan-
tages include
(i) Implementation of parallel connection or disconnection for DC power

sources will be simple.
(ii) Dispensation from reactive power flow.
(iii) Eliminating harmonic and imbalance problems.
(iv) Unlike variable frequency drives, AC SPS in DC shipboard power systems
(DCSPs) renewing energy might be effortlessly absorbed in further loads
through the DC bus.
(v) Due to the absence of a power factor in the DC distribution system, resistive
loss in cables is reduced.
There is no need for phase and voltage synchronization in DC SPS. As a result,
the generators are quickly brought online and connected to the DC system. The fuel
efficiency of the system operation can be improved by using DC networks by
achieving the integration of advanced high speed and high-efficiency diesel gen-
eration. Hence, DCSPSs keep gaining an increase in research interests. The model
of Onboard DC Grid has two arrangements. A prime is a multi-drive approach, and
the second one is a completely distributed system [13]. Another new approach
includes components include AC generators, inverter modules, AC motors, etc., but
AC switchboard is excluded [14]. Fuel-saving is nearly 20% with the integration of
variable speed diesel generator operating at the optimal speed [15–17].
3 Proposed DC Shipboard Power System Management
3.1 System Fault Monitoring
During steady-state operation systems, fault monitoring and protection are within
the limits of healthy operations. Whenever there is any disturbance or sudden
change in load, then power varies. The fluctuation in voltage/current has to be
detected and cleared immediately so as to sustain reliability. In this paper, the
modeled power system includes measuring devices to maintain continuously
monitor the voltage and current parameters. The measuring devices are installed at
the terminals of generator, loads and in DC bus. Current, voltage and power
thresholds (e.g., a certain percentage of steady-state values) are set in each of the
measuring devices to detect a disturbance at a specific location and give signals.
3.2 Coordinated Control
In this paper, for DC SPS for power generation, the diesel generators are used.
DC SPS follows the HVDC working principle, where the generated AC is con-
verted into DC through converters (i.e., rectifiers). The elementary block illustration
of the DCSPS is shown in Fig. 1.
DIESEL
GENER VSC
ATOR LOAD LOAD
CONVERTER
D
DIESEL C LOAD
GENER
VSC LOAD
ATOR
B CONVERTER
U
S
DIESEL
GENER VSC LOAD
ATOR LOAD
CONVERTER
BATTERY DC/DC
BANK
Fig. 1 Basic block diagram of DC SPS
The DC bus power is again converted into AC near loads via an inverter. The
battery is cast off as a backup, i.e., as an energy storage device. Power is supplied
by three generators with diesel generators prime movers. The basic principle behind
the DC ship power system and configuration is similar to the extension of multiple
DC-links. But for these drives, electrical power consumption is more than 80%, in
this regard; all DC-links are united in a common DC bus. This approach includes
components like AC generators and motors, inverter modules, etc., but the AC
switchboard is excluded. In AC SPS, to regulate the speed of the motor, a fre-
quency converter consisting of a rectifier and an inverter is used. The AC voltage is
first converted to DC in the rectifier and then inverted back to AC. DC/DC con-
verters are lighter than power transformers, but have a greater efficiency (>98%),
require less maintenance, and their price range is much lower. There are numerous
customs of constituting a DC ship power network. The generators are associated
with MV1 Switchboards, and the energy is transformed through transformers to the
converters. In the multi-drive configuration, all converters are placed in the main
switchboard. That simply means that the power cables from generators to the DC
bus carry AC current.
4.1 DC Shipboard Power System Without Solar Panel
The proposed method is implemented and modeled in MATLAB version 2016a

with Intel Quad-Core 7th Generation as revealed in Fig. 2. Two-level pulse-width-
modulated (PWM) voltage source converters are used to convert the AC (3 /,
440 V, 60 Hz) power produced by the three-phase generators which are again
stepping down using transformers. The DC bus reference voltage is set to 750 V.
As the feedback path, energy storage system is used with the battery of 650 V,
400 Ah and connected to the DC bus through a bi-directional DC/DC converter.
In MATLAB for DC/DC converter, the half-bridge converter is used. Pulse width
modulation has been supplied to it.
Two disturbances are created which occur commonly in the system to validate
the feasibility of the proposed approach. Two disturbances are generator loss and
load start. The three generators’ output power and battery power waveforms are
shown in Fig. 3. Whenever there is a fault in the generation, protecting the device,
i.e., a circuit breaker detaches the faulted part with the non-faulted path. At gen-
erator three, a fault is generated in 4 s gets isolated and does not generate power.
In MATLAB, to produce fault, the circuit breaker is set to trip at 4 s.
Whenever the disturbances occurred in generators and if power generation is
lost, then the battery supplies the power to the load. In Fig. 3, it is witnessed that the
third generator power is lost during 4 s due to generation fault, i.e., power does not
get supplies to the load. But in this concept, all the bus bars are tied together, a
reference value is set at 750 V, and ESS is set as feedback. Subsequently, every
time, there is any fault occurred in power generation, the load gets supplies through
the feedback path. Whenever there is a need for power, then the battery in the ESS
injects the voltage into the system through a converter. However, the battery injects
the power into the system, and then, the converter acts as a boost converter.
In Fig. 4, it is realized that the load is disconnected at 2–3 s, and thus during that
period, the excess generated power is wasted. Without ESS, this power gets wasted,
i.e., whenever there are disturbances at load, then the circuit breaker quarantines the
faulted path with the non-faulted path. At this instant, the power generated is not
supplied to load. Satisfactorily not to waste the excess power, the feedback path
absorbs the excess power. When extra power is generated, then the ESS device’s
battery absorbs it through DC/DC converter which acts as a buck converter and
absorbs the power. The battery waveform is observed in Fig. 7 that whenever it is
observing the excess power generated the battery power. The battery uses extra
power to charge itself. The battery is charged every time there is surplus power. The
power is balanced by injecting and absorbing. The DC voltage waveform from the
750 V capacitor is observed in Fig. 5.
Though there are some overshoots when disturbances occurred, it is compre-
hended that the DC bus voltage kept regulated at all points of the disturbance. The
power electronics converters quickly recover the voltage regulation as depicted.
Fig. 2 DC shipboard power system model

Fig. 3 Three generators output power along with the battery power output
4.2 Shipboard Power System with Solar Panels
Solar panels are used for power generation in place of generators. The method using
solar panels is modeled and implemented in MATLAB is exposed in Fig. 6.
By using solar panels, the battery and electric motors get charged, and then, the
usage of fossil fuels can be reduced. Solar panels directly convert sunlight to
electricity. These panels produce reliable electricity without using fossil fuels. The
generator 1 output power and battery waveforms are shown in Fig. 7. Only one
three-phase generator and two solar panels are used which generates 9 kW each.
The generator 1 produces nearly 13 kW of power. The battery is charged as backup
and support, and the same is connected with a DC/DC converter.
The solar panel output power is simulated in Fig. 8. The ship needs approxi-
mately 10 kW of power for a load. Each panel produces 8 kW of output power.
The output power of loads is nearly 10 kW. The three load output power is
observed in Fig. 9. Whenever there is any interruption in power supply, the battery
Fig. 4 The output power of three connected load
Fig. 5 DC voltage from capacitor
provides power to the loads. If there is any fault at load and if it is isolated, then the
generated power is absorbed by the battery.
The usage of solar panels in this system is because of their benefits. Solar panels
are very reliable and require less maintenance. These are static devices, so there are
no rotational losses. The solar panel system produces power in all types of weather
Fig. 6 DC SPS using the solar panel

Fig. 7 Generator 1 and battery waveform
Fig. 8 Solar panel output power waveform
conditions. They produce nearly 80% of their potential energy on moderately

gloomy days, and even in worst cases like extremely cloudy days, they produce
25% of their total potential.
Fig. 9 Load output power waveform
5 Conclusion
This paper proposes the controlling technique of DC power in the shipboard power
system. The proposed method is applied to DC shipboard using solar panels, and
outcomes are presented. The use of solar power reduces fuel cost and power
generation losses. Moreover, solar power is eco-friendly and cheaper energy
resources. The proposed energy storage system is capable of producing quality
results in terms of controlling DC power in the shipboard. The results indicate that
the system remains stable at every instance of time of disturbances, which are
introduced at specific intervals of time. Furthermore, the disturbances and faults at
generators for the Indian DC shipboard can be investigated.
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Global Optimization Algorithm to Solve
Economic Load Dispatch Problem
Considering Equality and Inequality
Constraints
Prakash Arumugam and Anand Rajendran
Abstract This paper proposes a novel technique to solve various problems related
to economic load dispatch. So far, lot of algorithms has been developed in order to
obtain the optimal solution for the various problems related to ED. They are
meta-heuristic in nature and exhibit their quality in terms of fuel cost reduction and
computational time. The technique proposed in this article generates feasible
solution than other algorithms. The efficacy of the proposed technique is proved by
selecting various IEEE test systems involving 3, 6, 15, 40 generators which are
analyzed and the results obtained are compared with recently reported algorithms.
The obtained result shows that the proposed approach is efficient in producing
lesser fuel cost and acts as an alternative algorithm to solve the ED problems in
practical power systems.

Keywords Economic dispatch (ED) Global optimization algorithm (GOA)

Meta-heuristic Valve-point loading (VPL)
1 Introduction
Power system planning (PSP) is a major task involved in determining a minimum

cost strategy for the purpose of supplying adequate load demand considering various
constraints. In lieu, a global technique has been developed which significantly
reduces the fuel cost. The input–output relation of generator is represented by a
Please note that the LNNS Editorial assumes that all authors have used the western naming
convention, with given names preceding surnames. This determines the structure of the names in
the running heads and the author index.
P. Arumugam (&)
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, QIS College of Engineering
and Technology, Ongole, AP, India
A. Rajendran
Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Bengaluru, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_37
382 P. Arumugam and A. Rajendran
single quadratic equation, whereas if the valve-point loading effect is included, the
objective function becomes highly non-convex and non-smoother in nature.
Representing the fuel cost function in a piecewise nonlinear form makes it to be
realistic in nature. The solution gets trapped with multiple local minima, which
causes difficulty for many algorithms. In addition, the inclusion of various con-
straints turns the problem even more complex and so obtaining the global optimum
solution is impossible. Among various objectives, the important objective of ED is
the reduction of fuel cost incurred for the power generation [1]. Based on the
mathematical methods, many approaches have been framed and implemented in the
past decades in the ED contest, for, e.g., gradient method, linear and nonlinear
programming, quadratic programming, newton method, dynamic programming, and
lagrangian relaxation techniques. Generally, the mathematical model requires the
derivative function of the specific ELD problem without considering VPL effects.
Many global optimizers have been developed at a later stage as an advancement of
the previously developed mathematical models in order to solve the complex
engineering problems. Some of them are differential evolution (DE) [2], modified
DE (MDE) [3], bacterial foraging (BF) [4], harmony search (HS) [5], firefly algo-
rithm (FA) [6], chaotic PSO (CPSO) [7], and chaotic ant swarm optimization
(CASO) [8]. The aforementioned algorithms attain the near-global optimum solution
which is not the exact solution of the optimization technique. Also, the stochastic
optimization techniques suffer from the following problems: slow convergence;
control parameters are sensitive; getting trapped in local minimum solution and
premature convergence. Apart from the negatives listed, few positives are as follows:
the improvement in the tabu search has a flexible memory for evaluating the local
minima. PSO might produce a quality solution with less computational time. DE is
better known for its faster convergence characteristics and its robustness. To over-
come the limitations of the aforesaid algorithms, an alternative solution was
developed which leads to the development of hybrid algorithms. The hybridization
of two different algorithms helps in finding the minimum function. Few hybrid
approaches developed in the past years are PSO-sequential quadratic programming
(PSO-SQP) [9], chaotic-DE-SQP (CDE-SQP) [10], GA/PS-SQP [11], seeker opti-
mization algorithm-SQP (SOA-SQP) [12], CPSO-SQP [13], bee colony
optimization-SQP (BCO-SQP) [14], power search algorithm (PSA) [15], EP-SQP
[16], QIPSO [17], MPSO [18], PSO [19], CPSO [20], VIKOR [21], PCFL [22],
MVO [23], and NPSO [24]. In this paper, a new technique is proposed that involves
the process of searching the global optimum solution in the entire search space in
such a way that the search process does not get stuck at the local minimum. All the
possible solvers are explored using this global optimization function. The time for
execution obtained with the help of this global function is little bit higher than the
other methods, since the minimum fuel cost is obtained only after the search criteria
passes through all the solvers. The effectiveness of the technique is tested on stan-
dard IEEE test systems involving 3, 6, 15, 40 generator systems, wherein the pro-
posed approach outperforms the other algorithms reported in the literature. The
paper is organized in the following structure. Section 2 describes the problem
statement of the ED problem considering VPL effects. In Sect. 3, the global
Global Optimization Algorithm to Solve Economic … 383
optimization technique is described. The implementation of the algorithm to solve

the standard IEEE test systems and its comparison with other algorithms are
explained in Sect. 4. Finally, the observations of this paper are recapitulated in
Sect. 5.
2 Problem Statement
The objective of the ELD problem is to minimize the fuel cost incurred at the power
plants and also meet the power system demand by satisfying the equality and
constraints. The simplified fuel cost function of the generator can be represented by
the quadratic equation
X
n
Minimize C ¼ C Pj ð1Þ
j¼1
and

C Pj ¼ aj þ bj Pj þ cj P2j ð2Þ
where aj, bj, and cj are the fuel cost coefficients of the generator.
As the unit slowly varies with the operating region, the input and the output data
are measured. As a result, the generator cost function is obtained with the help of
the data point taken from the “heat run” test. The rippling effect on the unit curve
occurs when the steam admission valve in a turbine begins to open. As a factor of
considering this effect, the valve-point effects must be included to the basic fuel cost
function, which is given by

C Pj ¼ aj þ bj Pj þ cj P2j þ jej ðsinðfj Pjmin Pj ð3Þ
where ej and fj represent the VPL effect coefficients. The inclusion of the VPL
effects causes a problem to all optimization methods as it rises the nonlinearity of
the search space. The VPL effect is represented in Fig. 1.
Constraints
Equality Constraint:
For obtaining the minimum fuel cost as per the Eq. (3), the equality constraint has
to be satisfied. It is given by
X
n
Pj ¼ PD þ PL ð4Þ
i¼1
3
Input - Mbtu/h
1 Quinary valve
Quaternary valve
Tertiary valve
Secondary valve
Primary valve fully open
Output - MW
Fig. 1 Input–Output characteristics of a thermal unit illustrating valve-point loading effect
where PD and PL are the total demand and power loss, respectively, in MW. PL is
calculated using the power loss coefficients and is expressed in the quadratic form as
X
n X
n X
n
PL ¼ Pi Bij Pj þ b0i Pi þ b00 ð5Þ
i¼1 j1 i¼1
where Bij, b0i , and b00 are the coefficients, given by the symmetric matrix n n,
length n and constant, respectively.
Inequality Constraint:
The power generated for each generator should lie between the upper and lower
limits which is given by
Pmin
j Pj Pmax
j ð6Þ
where Pmin
j and Pmax
j are the lower and upper power limit of the jth generator in
MW.
3 Proposed Technique
In the past decades, many optimization algorithms including hybrid techniques

have been developed for finding the minimal fuel cost for various ELD problems.
Each defined algorithm exhibits its own behavior based upon its characteristics.
All those have been applied to multiple engineering problems for finding the
optimal solution. But still, the determination of optimal fuel cost gets retarded due
to its trapping at local minima. To overcome this issue, a global technique has been
developed which helps in determining the lowest fuel cost for various ELD prob-
lems. The advantage of this algorithm is that it travels throughout the entire search
space so that global optimum solution can be obtained. Furthermore, the application
of this algorithm simple to large systems provides the promising result when
compared to other state-of-the-art algorithms.
Pseudocode for Global Optimization Algorithm (GOA)
1. Input the Objective function for the GOA

2. Let the sample size be N
3. Initialize the power demand, minimum power and
maximum power, power loss coefficients
4. Section 1
Initialize x0, lb
Initialize r, s, t
Define T1, T2, T3, F1, F2 and F3
Tc = T1 + T2 + T3
Problem = (createOptimproblem(‘fmincon’‘objective’,
@(x)GlobalOptim(x), x0, lb, ‘options’,
optimset(‘algorithm’, ‘sqp’))
gs = globalsearch;
[x, feval] = run(gs, problem)
5. Section 2
Function(c, ceq) = GlobOptim(x)
p(1) = {x(1) + x(2)*x(10) + x(3)*x(10)^2}
p(2) = {x(4) + x(5)*x(10) + x(6)*x(10)^2}
p(3) = {x(7) + x(8)*x(10) + x(9)*x(10)^2}
C = {p(1)-pmax1 p(2)-pmax2 p(3)-pmax3; -p(1)-pmin1
- p(2) + pmin2; -x(10)}
Ceq = sum(p)-pd-pl
6. End the loop
7. Return the minimum fuel cost.
To test the efficacy of the algorithm, the following benchmark systems of the ELD
problems have been considered.
System 1: 3-generator system with PD = 850 MW neglecting transmission loss
System 2: 6-generator system with PD = 1263 MW considering transmission loss
System 3: 15-generator system with PD = 2630 MW considering transmission loss

System 4: 40-generator system with PD = 10,500 MW neglecting transmission loss.
The implementation of the algorithm was carried out in MATLAB R2016a on a
personal computer with 4 GB RAM, corei3 processor using Windows 10 operating
system.
4.1 Three-Generator System with PD = 850 MW Neglecting

Transmission Losses
In this system, a 3-unit system with a demand of 850 MW is considered without

transmission loss. As the dimension of the system is low, the search space is low
and not very complex. Unlike GOA, the other algorithms failed to obtain the
optimal solution with several trial runs. Moreover, this algorithm although takes
higher computational time than the other methods, its primary objective is obtained
by executing all the possible solvers. The obtained results are depicted in Table 1.
The proposed global methodology yields the optimum fuel cost of 8198.06 $/h by
executing all the 72 possible local solvers with an execution time of 3.12 s. When
analyzed, the fuel cost gets reduced by 36.01 $/h with PSO-SQP [9], 36.04 $/h with
GA-PS-SQP [11] and QIPSO [17], 36.66 $/h with PSO [19] and Fig. 2 pictures the
comparison results between GOA and other reported optimization techniques for a
demand of 850 MW.
4.2 Six-Generator System with PD = 1263 MW

with Transmission Losses
In this section, the 6-generator system is considered with the demand of 1263 MW
with transmission loss. The generator characteristic for 6-unit system is presented in
Table 2. Table 3 epitomizes the result obtained for the 6-unit system with a load of
1263 MW considering the line losses. It is seen that the proposed methodology
Table 1 Comparison of the results obtained by GOA with other techniques/algorithms for
three-generator system
Algorithms Minimum fuel cost ($/h)
Global Optimization Algorithm (GOA) 8198.06
PSO-SQP [9] 8234.07
GA-PS-SQP [11] 8234.10
QIPSO [17] 8234.10
PSO [19] 8234.72
Fig. 2 Comparison of fuel costs in dollar per hour for three-generator case with PD = 850 MW
outperforms the other reported algorithms in terms of obtaining lesser fuel cost and
transmission line losses. The GOA proves to be more efficient than MPSO [18] by
1.1 MW reduction in fuel cost and 1.108 kg/h of loss, 1.41 MW reduction in fuel
cost and 1.333 kg/h of line loss than PSO [19], and 1.43 MW—1.397 kg/h of fuel
cost and line loss, respectively. When compared with CPSO method 1 [20]—CPSO
method 2 [20], the fuel cost gets reduced by 4 and 3 $/h, respectively. The line loss
gets reduced by 0.0003 kg/h when compared with CPSO method 1 [20] and
0.0002 kg/h when compared with CPSO method 2 [20]. On execution, it is
observed that a total 6 out of 8 solver runs converged with a positive local solver
and the time taken for the execution is 4.32 s, which is slightly higher than the other
reported algorithms. The graphical comparison of the results obtained for fuel cost,
line loss, and its comparison with other algorithms is shown in Figs. 3 and 4,
respectively.
4.3 Fifteen-Generator System with PD = 2360 MW

with Transmission Losses
A 15-generator system with the demand of 2630 MW with transmission loss is

considered for analysis. The characteristic of the 15-generator system is given in
Table 4. The simulation was carried out for 15 unit system and the results obtained
are presented in Table 5. From the results, it is evident that the proposed GOA
outperforms the other reported algorithms in terms of fuel cost and line losses. The
computational time required for obtaining the minimum fuel cost is found to be
9.36 s. On comparing with PSO [19], CPSO method 1 [20], and CPSO method 2
Table 2 Characteristics of six-generator system

Unit Pmin
i Pmax
i ai ($/ bi ($/ ci P0i URi DRi Prohibited
(MW) (MW) MW2) Mw) ($) (MW/h) (MW/h) zones (MW)
1 100 500 0.0070 7.0 240 440 80 120 [210 240] [350
380]
2 50 200 0.0095 10.0 200 170 50 90 [90 110] [140
160]
3 80 300 0.0090 8.5 220 200 65 100 [150 170] [210
240]
4 50 150 0.0090 11.0 200 150 50 90 [80 90] [110
120]
5 50 200 0.0080 10.5 220 190 50 90 [90 110] [140
150]
6 50 120 0.0075 12.0 190 110 50 90 [75 85] [100
105]
six-generator system
Algorithms Load supplied = 1263 MW
Total output (MW) Line loss (kg/h) Fuel cost ($/h)
Global Optimization 1274.6 11.625 15442.23
Algorithm (GOA)
MPSO [18] 1275.7 12.733 15,447
PSO [19] 1276.01 12.958 15,450
CPSO method 1 [20] 1276 12.9583 15,447
CPSO method 2 [20] 1276 12.9582 15,446
[20], the total fuel cost gets reduced by 26 $/h, 3 $/h and 2 $/h, respectively. The
total line loss gets reduced by 0.34 kg/h, 0.09 kg/h, and 0.0987 kg/h when com-
pared with PSO [19], CPSO method 1 [20], and CPSO method 2 [20]. The com-
putational time required for obtaining the minimum fuel cost is found to be 9.36 s.
Figure 4 depicts the comparison of fuel cost obtained by GOA and its comparison
with other optimization techniques.
4.4 Forty-Generator System with PD = 10500 MW Without

Transmission Losses
This section deals with 40-generator system considering valve-point loading effects
and neglecting transmission losses. The global optimization has been implemented
on the system chosen to extract the effectiveness of the larger system. The cost
Fig. 3 Comparison of fuel costs in dollar per hour for six-generator case with PD = 1263 MW
Fig. 4 Comparison of fuel costs in dollar per hour for fifteen-generator case with PD = 2630 MW
function data for the 40 units system are given in [9]. The proposed methodology
has been applied, and the obtained results show that the fuel cost obtained remains
superior when compared with the other reported algorithms. The minimum gen-
eration cost is found to be 121,411.623 $/h, which is comparatively less compared
to other algorithms. Table 6 depicts the individual power generation.
Table 4 Characteristics of fifteen-generator system

Unit Pmin
i Pmax
i ai bi ci P0i URi DRi Prohibited
(MW) (MW) ($/MW2 ($/Mw) ($) (MW/h) (MW/h) zones (MW)
1 150 455 0.000299 10.1 671 400 80 120
2 150 455 0.000183 10.2 574 300 80 120 [185 225]
[305 335]
[420 450]
3 20 130 0.001126 8.8 374 105 130 130
4 20 130 0.001126 8.8 374 100 130 130
5 150 470 0.000205 10.4 461 90 80 120 [180 200]
[305 335]
[390 420]
6 135 460 0.000301 10.1 630 400 80 120 [230 255]
[365 395]
[430 455]
7 135 465 0.000364 9.8 548 350 80 120
8 60 300 0.000338 11.2 227 95 65 100
9 25 162 0.000807 11.2 173 105 60 100
10 25 160 0.001203 10.7 175 110 60 100
11 20 80 0.003586 10.2 186 60 80 80
12 20 80 0.005513 9.9 230 40 80 80 [30 40] [55]
13 25 85 0.000371 13.1 225 30 80 80 [185 225]
[305 335]
[420 450]
14 15 55 0.001929 12.1 309 30 55 55
15 15 55 0.004447 12.4 323 20 55 55
fifteen-generator system
Algorithms Load supplied = 2630 MW
Total output (MW) Line loss (kg/h) Fuel cost ($/h)
Global optimization 2662.0316 32.0316 32,832
algorithm (GOA)
PSO [19] 2662.4306 32.4306 32,858
CPSO method 1 [20] 2662.1302 32.1302 32,835
CPSO method 2 [20] 2662.1303 32.1303 32,834
The results of the proposed scheme have been compared with PSO-SQP [9],
GA-PS-SQP [11], and NM-PS [25]. Moreover, the average time using global
optimization technique is found to be 34.23 s which is less when compared with
many techniques presented in Table 7. Figure 5 represents the fuel cost comparison
values obtained by GOA with other optimization techniques.
Table 6 Best solution obtained by GOA for the 40-unit system with PD = 10,500 MW
Generator Power (MW) Generator Power (MW)
P1 110.7998 P21 523.2796
P2 110.7996 P22 523.2796
P3 97.3999 P23 523.2794
P4 179.7331 P24 523.2795
P5 87.7999 P25 523.2795
P6 140 P26 523.2795
P7 259.5999 P27 10
P8 284.5999 P28 10
P9 284.5997 P29 10
P10 130 P30 87.8009
P11 94 P31 190
P12 94 P32 190
P13 214.7598 P33 190
P14 394.2796 P34 164.7998
P15 394.2496 P35 194.4138
P16 394.2794 P36 200
P17 489.2821 P37 110
P18 489.2821 P38 110
P19 511.2796 P39 110
P20 511.2796 P40 511.2802
Expected Power Generated 10,500
Total Power Generated (MW) 10,500
Deviation in the power generation 0
Total fuel cost ($/h) 121411.623
Computational time (s) 34.23
Table 7 Comparison results between GOA and other techniques for PD = 10,500 MW
Algorithms Minimum fuel cost ($/h) Mean time (s)
PSO-SQP [9] 122094.670 73.970
GA-PS-SQP [11] 121458.000 46.980
NM-PS [25] 121412.574 71.453
Global optimization algorithm (GOA) 121411.623 34.23
Fig. 5 Comparison of fuel costs in dollar per hour for 40-generator case with PD = 10500 MW
5 Conclusion
The improvement in the SQP with global search option is presented in this paper.
Four different standard IEEE test systems are chosen for proving the robustness and
efficacy of the algorithm. The results are epitomized from Tables 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and
7. The results show that the GOA has the best quality solutions in terms of reduced
fuel cost and transmission losses for adopted systems. The computational time
alone is a major concern and it is possibly due to the wide search of all the possible
solvers in the search space. The proposed technique can be implemented for the
large-scale power systems in the future.
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Implementation of Conventional
Controllers in HVDC Links
for Improvement of the Power
System Stability
G. Ranga Purushotham, S. Satyanarayana and Ch. Saibabu
Abstract In recent years, the trend has been toward simpler models like DC
system for stability programs. A DC link is highly controllable; this unique char-
acteristic of the DC line is used to increase the value of the transient stability of the
AC systems. Hence, it is proposed to incorporate the DC link with conventional
controllers like proportional and proportional integral controllers to maintain the
system transient stability by controlling the power flow through DC link. DC links
can be represented as algebraic equations, and the interface between AC and DC
systems is treated in a manner similar to that described for power flow analysis as in
conventional power flow analysis. It is assumed that reactive power in injected at
the AC terminals of the converters, the power flows are simulated by Newton–
Raphson method, and the stability analysis is carried out by point-by-point method.

Keywords HVDC links Proportional controller Proportional integral

controller Transient stability NR method Point-by-point method
Power world simulator
1 Introduction
Some of the early efforts to incorporate HVDC system models into stability pro-
grams used detailed representation which accounted for the dynamics of the line
and the converter controls. In recent years, the trend has been toward simpler
models. Such models are adequate for general-purpose stability studies of systems
G. Ranga Purushotham (&)

Guru Nanak Institutions Technical Campus, Ibrahimpatnam, India
S. Satyanarayana
Raghu Institute of Technology, Visakhapatnam, India
Ch. Saibabu
JNTUK, Kakinada, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_38
396 G. Ranga Purushotham et al.
in which the DC link is connected to strong parts of the AC systems. However, for
weak AC system application, requiring complex DC system controls, and for
multiterminal DC systems, detailed models are required [1].
Therefore, the preference is to have flexible modeling with a wide range of
control. The required degree of control depends on the purpose of the study and the
particular DC systems.
In transient stability studies, the generators are modeled as the classical model—
two-axis model and one-axis model. The classical model is the simplest, and the
synchronous machine is represented by a voltage source of constant magnitude in
series with the direct-axis transient reactance.
In this presentation, it is proposed to discuss the impact of dynamic system
modeling of HVDC systems for the power system stability. The HVDC line
modeled for a power system network is used for the transient stability analysis.
In this presentation, the stability of the 9-bus power system network under
transient fault conditions is proposed to be analyzed for the following cases:
(a) When there are no HVDC lines in the power system network, i.e., the power
system network is purely an AC network.
(b) When HVDC lines with proper control methods are incorporated.
For remote DC links, which do not have significant impact on the results of the
stability analysis, very simple models are usually adopted. However, for nearby
faults, one has to consider physical constraints on tap-changing ratios, reactive
limits, etc., to be realistic. The DC links may be represented as constant active and
appear as algebraic equations, and the interface between AC and DC systems is
treated in a manner similar to that of power flow analysis in conventional power
flow analysis (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1 IEEE 9-bus system

Implementation of Conventional Controllers in HVDC Links … 397
2 Transient Stability of Network with AC Transmission

Lines
2.1 Generator Data
S. no Particulars Generator 1 Generator 2 Generator 3

1. Rated MVA 247.5 192.0 128.0
2. KV 16.5 18.0 13.8
3. PF 1.0 0.85 0.85
4. Type Hydro Steam Steam
5. Speed (rev/min) 180 3600 3600
6. Xd 0.146 0.8958 1.3125
7. Xd′ 0.0608 0.1198 0.1813
8. Xq 0.0969 0.8645 1.2578
9. Xq′ 0.0969 0.1969 0.25
10. Xl (leakage) 0.0336 0.0521 0.0742
11. Stored energy at rated speed 2364 MW–S 640 MW-S 301 MW –S
2.2 Load Data
The data of the three loads present in the 9-bus power system network considered in
this project is as shown [2].
S. no. Load MW MVAR

1. 1 125 50
2. 2 100 35
3. 3 90 30
2.3 Power Flow Calculations

Power flows of the 9-bus system under fault condition:
For the 9-bus with the power flows as described, it is assumed that a three-phase
balance fault has occurred on the line between buses 4 and 6, and the fault is located
near to the bus 6.
2.4 Transient Stability of the 9-Bus System
Output power of generator 1
Po1 ¼ E12 Y1 cos h11 þ E1 E2 Y12 cosðh12 d1 þ d2 Þ þ

þ E1 En Y1n cosðh1n d1 þ dn Þ ð1Þ
¼K RE1 Ek Y12k cosðh1k d1 þ dk Þ
Po2 ¼ E2 E1 Y21 cosðh21 d2 þ d1 Þ þ E22 Y22 cos h22 þ

þ E2 En Y2n cosðh2n d2 þ dn Þ ð2Þ
X
¼ E2 EK Y2k cosðh2k d2 þ dk Þ
Po3 ¼ E3 E1 Y31 cosðh31 d3 þ d1 Þ þ E3 E2 Y32 cosðh32 d3 d2 Þ þ E32 Y33 cosh33 þ
þ E3 En Y3n cosðh2n d2 þ dn Þ
n ¼ RE3 EK Y3k cosðh3k d3 þ dk Þ
ð3Þ
From the general equations, described by Eqs. (1), (2), and (3), the output power
at generators 1, 2, and 3 are given as below:
Output of generator 1
Po1 ¼ E12 Y11 cos h11 þ E1 E2 Y12 cosðh12 d1 þ d2 Þ

ð4Þ
þ E1 E3 Y13 cosðh13 d1 þ d3 Þ
Po2 ¼ E2 E1 Y21 cosðh21 d2 þ d1 Þ þ E22 Y22 cosðh22 Þ

ð5Þ
þ E2 E3 Y23 cosðh23 d2 þ d3 Þ
Po3 ¼ E3 E1 Y31 cosðh31 d3 þ d1 Þ þ E3 E2 Y32 cosðh32 d3 þ d2 Þ

ð6Þ
þ E32 Y33 cosðh33 Þ gene
2.5 Generator Model
The inertia constants of the machines from the data given are calculated by the
following formula
GH
M¼ ð7Þ
180 f
where
M = inertia constant in per unit.
G = station rating in per-unit apparent power.
H = kinetic energy at rated speed in megajoules per MVA of rating.
f = frequency in hertz (it is assumed as 50 Hz).
The inertia constants of the three machines are given in the following equations:
2:4759:57
M1 ¼ ¼ 2:63175103 P:U ð8Þ
18050
1:92 3:922
M2 ¼ ¼ 8:367 104 P:U ð9Þ
180 50
1:28 2:766
M3 ¼ ¼ 3:934 104 P:U ð10Þ
180 50
The time interval Δt for point-by-point calculations will be taken as 0.1 s. Then
Dt2 ð0:1Þ2
¼ ¼ 3:799 ð11Þ
M1 2:632 103
Dt2 ð0:1Þ2
¼ ¼ 11:9517 ð11Þ
M2 8:367 103
Dt2 ð0:1Þ2
¼ ¼ 11:9517 ð12Þ
M2 8:367 103
Dt2 ð0:1Þ2
¼ ¼ 25:42 ð13Þ
M3 3:934 104
The results of the computations of swing curves, namely the angular positions of
the three machines as functions of time, are given in Fig. 2.
Fig. 2 Stability curves for

the system with AC lines
3 Modeling of HVDC Transmission Line in Stability

Studies
Specification of DC Line between buses 4 and 5 [3].
Rectifier parameters:
No. of bridges 2
Base voltage (KV) 345.0
XF ration 0.5578
XF tap 1.5
XF min. tap 0.51
XF max. tap 1.5
XF tap step 0.000625
Commutating XF resistance 0.000
Minimum firing angle 15.0
Firing angle 48
Inverter parameters:
No. of bridges 2
Base voltage (KV) 345.0
XF ration 0.5578
XF tap 1.5
XF min. tap 0.51
XF max. tap 1.5
XF tap step 0.000625
Minimum firing angle 15.0
Firing angle 15.6
4 Power System Stability with Controllable DC

Transmission Line
Two stabilizing controls, a proportional controller (P controller) and a proportional

integral controller (PI controller), are designed to stabilize the power system. The
controls used are to alter power flow setting in the DC line [4].
4.1 Proportional Controller (P–Controller)
The proportional controller is a device that produces an output signal, u(t), which is
proportional to the input signal, e(t)
uð t Þ / e ð t Þ
ð14Þ
uð t Þ ¼ K p e ð t Þ
where
Kp = proportional constant or proportional gain.
So, the transfer function of the proportional controller is given by
U ðsÞ
GcðSÞ ¼ ¼ Kp ð15Þ
E ðsÞ
4.2 Proportional Integral Controller
It is a device that produces an output signal, u(t) [5], consisting of two terms—one
proportional to the input signal, e(t), and the other proportional to the integral for
the input signal, e(t)
i.e.,
Z
uð t Þ / e ð t Þ þ eðtÞdt ð16Þ
Z
uðtÞ ¼ Kp eðtÞ þ Ki eðtÞdt: ð17Þ
where
Kp = proportional constant or proportional gain.
Ki = integral constant or integral gain.
The transfer function of proportional integral controller is given by
U ðsÞ Ki
GcðSÞ ¼ ¼ Kp þ ð18Þ
E ðsÞ S
Augmenting System Stability Using a Proportional Control.
The power system stability of the 9-bus power system network with presence of the
HVDC transmission line between buses 4 and 5 is augmented by using a propor-
tional control. Based on the error signal defined, the power flow in the DC trans-
mission line is given as
Kþ1
Pdi ¼ Pkdi Kp ek ð19Þ
where
Pdi = active power flow at the inverter terminals.
K = time step.
e = error signal.
Kp = proportionality constant (Fig. 3).

the system with HVDC lines
and P controller

the system with HVDC lines
and PI controller
From the figure (x-axis as time and y-axis as rotor angle), we can observe that all
the generators are in synchronism and swing together. From this, we can conclude
that the system is maintained in stable state even though there is a transient fault on
the system between the lines 4 and 6.
Augmenting System stability Using Proportional Integral Control.
The power system stability of the 9-bus power system network with presence of the
HVDC transmission line between buses 4 and 5 is augmented by using a propor-
tional integral control. Based on the error signal defined, the power flow in the DC
transmission line is given as
Z
Pdi ¼ Pkdi Kp ek Ki eðtÞdt ð20Þ
The system stability with presence of proportional control is calculated by the

point-by-point method and the results of generator angles with respective to the
time computed (Fig. 4).
From the figure (x-axis as time and y-axis as rotor angle), we can observe that all
the generators swing together. Hence, we can conclude that the system is main-
tained in stable state even though there is a transient fault on the system between the
lines 4 and 6. On comparing proportional integral control with the proportional
control, the system stability obtained by the proportional integral control is con-
sidered better than the proportional control.
5 Conclusion
By defining an error signal as power mismatches at generator buses, the generator 1

is made to accelerate. The system stability is augmented by the proportional control
and proportional integral control separately, and the plots of generator angles are
plotted. The system stability is considerably improved by including a feedback
proportional controller and further enhanced by a feedback proportional integral

controller, which adapt the HVDC line settings during transient. On comparison
between the controllers, the proportional integral controller performs better
dynamically than the proportional controller.
References
1. B. Scott, J. Jardim, O. Alsaç, DC power flow revisited. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. 24(3) (2009)
2. H. Rahman, B.H. Khan, Possibility of power tapping from composite, AC–DC power
transmission lines. IEEE Trans. Power Deliv. 23(3) (2008)
3. J. Arillaga, High Voltage Direct Current Transmission, 2nd edn. IEEE Power and Energy
Series 29 (1998)
4. C. Lu, J. Si, X. Wu, P. Li, Approximate dynamic programming coordinated control in
multi-infeed H V D C power system. IEEE Trans. Neural Netw. (2006)
5. G.M. Huang, V.K. Swamy, H V D C controls for P.S stability. IEEE Trans. Power Syst. (2002)
Low Voltage Ride Through (LVRT)
Capability Enhancement of Axial Flux
Induction Generator-Based Wind
Energy Conversion System
V. Ramesh Babu and A. Ganapathi
Abstract With the remarkable increase in wind energy installed capacity, the wind
energy conversion systems are also needed to be treated as conventional energy
resources. These wind farms are required to be connected to grid as per grid codes
during and as well as after the occurrence of short fault. In this paper, the different
techniques have been proposed to enhance the low voltage ride through (LVRT)
capability to axial flux induction generator (AFIG)-based wind energy conversion
system (WECS). A mathematical model is developed, and simulation studies have
been carried out in the environment of MATLAB/Simulink to study the effec-
tiveness of the techniques. Also, the proposed system is compared with doubly fed
induction generator-based WECS.

Keywords Axial flux induction generator Low voltage ride through Doubly fed

induction generator Superconducting magnetic energy storage Wind energy
conversion system
1 Introduction
The stability and security are the vital considerations for assessing the performance
of any energy supply utility. The frequency of the power outages can be minimized
by providing a well-organized control and protection mechanisms. Being a con-
siderable contributor for power generation to meet the power demand, the renew-
able energy resources need to contribute to the grid stability. The wind farms are
required to be tied to grid as per grid codes to satisfy the reliability considerations
during and after a short-term fault. In the recent past, the DFIG-based wind energy
system is being the most popularly used. To enhance the continuity and reliability
of the wind systems, the low voltage ride through (LVRT) capability needs to be
increased which provides the protection instead of tripping off the WECS from the
circuit. Many ways are proposed to enhance the LVRT capability of the wind
V. Ramesh Babu A. Ganapathi (&)

EEE Department, VNRVJIET, Hyderabad, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_39
406 V. Ramesh Babu and A. Ganapathi
systems in the literature like the crowbar method to suppress the overvoltage and
overcurrent during the fault condition, but it requires the large reactive power from
the supply [3–5]. Some of the methods are related to controlling the converter
circuits from the grid side and stator side [6–8], and it has disadvantages like
voltage drops. The super-capacitors or energy storage devices are used to eliminate
problems of low voltages during faults occurs [12]. The axial flux induction gen-
erator (AFIG) is a special type of machine which has both the characteristics and
advantages of the induction machines and the axial flux machines. The axial flux is
the flux which acts along the axis of the rotor. The advantages of the AFIG
compared to the DFIG are as follows.
1. Higher power density.
2. Large surface area compared to size of the machines.
3. More efficient topology in the electromagnetic sense.
4. Windings are fully active.
5. Efficient cooling because the windings are directly in contact with the exterior
aluminum outside casing.
In axial flux machine, reactive power exchange with the grid is not determined,
but it can be determined by the behavior of the generator characteristics of the
grid-side power electronic converter. The axial flux machine is generally discon-
nected from the grid to control the power factor of axial flux machine and the
grid-side converter independently. This paper is proposed for the new method of
enhancing LVRT capability of AFIG with SMES for the power quality issues’
compensation. It is useful for the generation of desired output voltage with SMES
on stator side. The SMES is useful for the compensation of the overvoltage and
overcurrent during the low voltage fault condition. The properties of the AFIG in
normal condition and at low voltage fault are obtained, and a control strategy of the
VSC-SMES will be given. The paper consists of the detailed modeling of the AFIG,
modeling of SMES and the controlling of the SMES circuit. And the model is
analyzed with the MATLAB/Simulink tool by the analysis of the simulation results.
2 Mathematical Model of AFIG
Having high pole number, the axial flux machines are well alternatives for
low-speed applications. The axial flux induction generator is connected to the
circuit through the converter topology proposed. The stator is directly connected to
the grid. When fault occurs, the stator voltage decreases and stator current
increases. This low voltage and overcurrent at stator can be minimized with a series
connection of SMES at stator side. The equations which define the electromagnetic
and mechanical performance do not depend on the direction of flux in the air
gap. The dynamic model of an AFIG is got from basic three-phase machine
Low Voltage Ride Through (LVRT) Capability Enhancement … 407

induction generator
equations which got transformed to the d–q frame. Figure 1 demonstrates the
equivalent circuit of induction generator.
did
ud1 ¼ Rs id1 þ Ld1 xLq2 iq2 ð1Þ
dt
diq
uq2 ¼ Rs iq2 þ Lq2 þ xLd1 id1 þ xWsM ð2Þ
dt
where Ld1, Lq2, Rs and wsM are the stator inductances of d and q axes, stator
resistance and the stator flux linkages, respectively. Equation (3) relates the elec-
tromagnetic torque with the electrical parameters in AFIG.

Te ¼ 1:5p Ld1 id iq Lq2 id iq þ iq WsM ð3Þ
Back-EMF voltage can be derived as follows:

urdq¼ jðLm =Ls Þxs Ws2dq jðLm =Ls Þxr Ws0dq Ws2dq ert ejxs t ð4Þ
where ws0dq and ws2dq are the stator flux at normal state and fault state of stator flux.
The back-EMF voltage is generated by SMES in order to overcome overvoltages
during fault condition.
3 MATLAB Model of AFIG with SMES
The MATLAB model of the proposed system is as shown in Fig. 2 in which the
SMES output voltage can be controlled through the gate switching of the converter
circuit.
The model for proposed topology is as shown in Fig. 2 having the grid-side
converter (GSC) and the stator-side converter with the VSC-connected SMES
circuit. The VSC-SMES for the active and reactive power transfer is shown in
Fig. 3. The superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) is used for the power
exchange with fast response and independent. Superconducting magnetic energy
storage (SMES) systems are capable of storing bulk amount of electrical power in
superconducting coils in the form of a steady magnetic field. And these systems are
Fig. 2 MATLAB model of AFIG with SMES
Fig. 3 Circuit of VSC-SMES
having higher efficiencies (>90%) and the fast response (<100 ms). Under normal
conditions, the SMES will be in the standby mode, and it introduces the impedance
to the AFIG. The rotor voltage and the rotor converter voltage are different (Fig. 4).
ur ¼ urc ð5Þ
During the low voltage fault, the SMES output voltage needs to suppress the
stator back EMF caused by the rotor. When the fault occurs, the stator current
becomes zero and the back EMF is induced in the rotor by stator flux. This emf is
given by the equation:
Fig. 4 Circuit diagram of the

series SMES
Lm dids
udr ¼ ð6Þ
dt

diqs
uqr ¼ Lm ð7Þ
dt
The Laplace transform of the stator current at the time of fault is as follows,
2
ðLs þ Rs Þuds þ x1 Ls uqs Ls s þ Rs s þ x21 Ls Lm idr Rs x1 Lm iqr
ids ¼ 2 2 ð8Þ
Ls s þ 2Ls Rs s þ R2S þ x21 L2s L2s s2 þ 2Ls Rs s þ x21 L2s þ R2s
2
ðLs þ Rs Þuqs x1 Ls uds Ls s þ Rs s þ x21 Ls Lm iqr þ Rs x1 Lm idr
iqs ¼ ð9Þ
L2s s2 þ 2Ls Rs s þ R2S þ x21 L2s L2s s2 þ 2Ls Rs s þ x21 L2s þ R2s
Rewriting the above equations after making Rs s; Rs xs Lm terms negligible, we get

0 1

1 @ Ls s þ Rs A Lm
ids ¼ uds idr ð10Þ
L2s s2 þ 2 s þ x
R 2 Ls
Ls 1
0 1

1 @ Ls x1 A Lm
iqs ¼ 2
uds iqr ð11Þ
Ls s2 þ 2 s þ x2
R Ls
Ls 1
Here, the LVRT capability can be controlled by the reference voltage u*r which
provides the relative excitation voltage for the enhancement of the LVRT capa-
bility. The rotor-side converter can be controlled to control the u*r reference. This
can be seen from Fig. 6.
3.1 Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage Control
3.1.1 Voltage Source Converter Control
The voltage source converter is used in the SMES circuit through which we can
provide the control by the gate signaling which represented in direct axis frame as
follows
did
L ¼ Rid þ xLiq þ usd uDC Sd ð12Þ
dt
diq
L ¼ Riq xLid þ usq uDC Sq ð13Þ
dt
duDC 3
c ¼ iq sq þ id sd ichopper ð14Þ
dt 2
The block diagram of current controller is illustrated in Fig. 5. The closed-loop

transfer function is
1
Wci ðsÞ ¼ ð15Þ
Tf2 s2 þ 2eTf s þ 1
For sudden response in a current inner loop, let be 0.0002 s.
3.1.2 DC–DC Chopper Control
The DC–DC converter will be operated in the two modes: magnetizing mode and
discharge magnetic mode. The chopper can be represented by the following
mathematical model.
dimag
Lsc ¼ Rsc imag þ ðD1 þ D2 1ÞuDC ð16Þ
dt
duDC
C ¼ imag ðD1 þ D2 1Þ þ iDC ð17Þ
dt
Fig. 5 Current controller

block diagram
where imag is the magnet current, and D is the duty ratio of each switch. If the
switch one is on, the D1 value becomes 1. In case of the fault, the chopper con-
trolling should provide the steady state of the DC voltage whereas in normal
operation the stability depends on the magnet current. The speed control of the
AFIG machine is depending on the output active power control and electromagnetic
torque control. For this, the maximum power/energy should be tracked from the
wind energy system. Equation below gives the reference active power for the RSC
control (P*s = Ps)
1
Ps ¼ ðPmax Pms Þ Pcus ð18Þ
1s
where Pms is wind turbine mechanical loss, and Pcus is the stator copper loss. After
doing identity transformation,
AðPs Þ^ 2 þ BPs þ C ¼ 0 ð19Þ

Rs 1 Rs
A¼ ; B ¼ 1; k x3
x w Pms þ Qs ð20Þ
3Us2 s1 3Us2
The reactive power reference s* should be such that to achieve the minimum
power loss of AFIG and is expressed as

3Xs Rr Us2
Qs ¼ ð21Þ
Rs Xm þ Rr R2s þ Rr Xs2
2
When the fault is occurring, the id and iq are taken as zero to prevent the
converter energy, and then, the capacitor DC voltage can be controlled to not
absorb the energy and to minimize damping the voltage will not increase sharply.
This shows the RSC control during normal and voltage drop conditions (Fig. 6).
Fig. 6 PI controller block diagram of the GSC

3.1.3 GSC Control
The block diagram of control of the grid-side converter is represented in Fig. 8. The
figure clarifies that the DC voltage is the input to the controller which in turn gets
controlled through the PI controller as shown
The GSC control systems have two parts. Outer voltage loop and a current loop
here, the load current iload is the feed forward term for the load disturbance com-
pensation. The decoupling of the system with current state feedback
w1 Lg igd ; w1 Lg igq
4 Simulation Analysis
The proposed model is designed and verified in the MATLAB/Simulink for the
analysis of the output results during the fault is applied, and the behavior of the
circuit with SMES-based wind system with AFIG machine is analyzed. The sim-
ulation parameters are given in Table 1. The simulation is performed with and
without the SMES circuit, and the results are compared for both.
The transient fault to the circuit is applied at the time of 0.7 s to 300 ms. During
this time of fault, the grid voltage is becoming zero as shown in Fig. 7. The stator
current with and without SMES is given in Fig. 8. When there is fault occurring, the
fault current producing will be very large in case of without SMES, whereas with
SMES condition, this fault can be limited because of the LVRT capability of the
wind energy systems. Figure 9 shows the magnet current waveform with SMES.
The speed and torque waveforms are shown in Figs. 10 and 11.
Table 1 AFIG parameters Capacity 15 MW

Frequency 60 Hz
Stator voltage 575 V
Stator resistance 1.102 mX
Rotor resistance 1.497 mX
Stator leakage inductance 0.0649 mX
Stator magnetizing inductance 2.1346 mX
Stator self-inductance 2.1995 mX
Rotor leakage inductance 0.0649 mX
Rotor magnetizing inductance 2.1346 mX
Rotor self-inductance 2.1995 mX
Stator–rotor mutual inductance 2.1346 mX
Fig. 7 Voltage at the grid
Fig. 8 Stator current of a converter with and without SMES
Fig. 9 SMES magnetizing current

Fig. 10 Electromagnetic torque with and without SMES
Fig. 11 Speed of the machine with and without SMES

5 Conclusion
The SMES has been implemented for low voltage ride through (LVRT) capability
enhancement for axial flux induction generator (AFIG)-based wind energy con-
version system (WECS). The model has been analyzed in the environment of
MATLAB/Simulink. The torque and speed of the AFIG have been studied under
different conditions. A comparison is made between the systems with and without
SMES. It is evident from output waveforms that the proposed method results for
reduced fault current, and the DC voltage gets affected minimum even when the
grid supply is zero.
References
1. Y.-W. Shen, D.-P. Ke, W. Qiao, Y.-Z. Sun, D.S. Kirschen, C. Wei, Transient reconfiguration
and coordinated control for power converters to enhance the LVRT of a DFIG wind turbine
with an energy storage device. IEEE Trans. Energy Convers. 30(4), 1679–1690 (2015)
2. J. Liu, H. Zhang, B. Yang, Y. Min, Fault ride through under unbalanced voltage sag of wind
energy conversion system using superconducting magnetic energy storage, in Proceedings of
the 2nd IEEE International Future Energy Electronics Conference, Taipei, Taiwan (2015)
3. J. Niiranen, Voltage dip ride through of a doubly-fed generator equipped with an active
crowbar, in Proceedings of the Nordic Wind Power Conference NWPC (2004)
4. L.-L. Sun, P. Yang, Y. Wang, Simulation research for LVRT of DFIG based on rotor active
crowbar protection, in Proceedings of the International Conference on Sustainable Power
Generation and Supply, SUPERGEN 2012, Hangzhou, China, pp. 1–7 (2012)
5. P. Su, K.-S. Zhang, Simulation research for LVRT of DFIG with active IGBT Crowbar.
Power Syst. Prot. Control 38(23), 164–171 (2010)
6. J. Hu, H. Wang, Y. He, L. Xu, Improved rotor current control of wind turbine driven doubly
fed induction generators during network unbalance, in Proceedings of the 1st International
Conference on Sustainable Power Generation and Supply, SUPERGEN ’09, Nanjing, China,
pp. 1–7 (2009)
7. T.K.A. Brekken, N. Mohan, Control of a doubly fed induction wind generator under
unbalanced grid voltage conditions. IEEE Trans. Energy Convers. 22(1), 129–135 (2007)
8. A.G. Abo-Khalil, D.-C. Lee, J.-I. Jang, Control of back-to-back PWM converters for DFIG
wind turbine systems under unbalanced grid voltage, in Proceedings of the 2007 IEEE
International Symposium on Industrial Electronics, ISIE 2007, Vigo, Spain, pp. 2637–2642
(2007)
9. C. Abbey, G. Joos, Supercapacitor energy storage for wind energy applications. IEEE Trans.
Ind. Appl. 43(3), 763–776 (2007)
10. B.S. Borowy, Z.M. Salameh, Dynamic response of a stand-alone wind energy conversion
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(1997)
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The Application of Genetic Algorithm
with Multi-parent Crossover to Optimal
Power Flow Problem
T. Srihari, Madhu Boppa, S. Anil Kumar and Harish Pulluri
Abstract Optimal power flow problem (OPF) with continuous, non-smooth

function solved with various optimization methods in the literature. OPF can be
solved easily by using evolutionary algorithms such as genetic algorithm. Genetic
algorithms are widely used in practice. In the current work, IEEE 30-bus system
with several objective functions is solved using genetic algorithm with a new
multi-parent crossover (GA-MPC) and this was identified to be better than the other
algorithms reported in the paper.
Keywords Genetic algorithm Multi-parent crossover Optimal power flow

Sum of voltage deviation
1 Introduction
For an interconnected system, determining active and reactive powers of each

power plant is a way to minimize the operating cost. This implies that by changing
the generators’ active and reactive power minimum fuel cost can be maintained and
is called optimal power flow (OPF) [1]. The OPF can be solved by using various
specialized computer software. Many techniques such as gradient method (GM) [2],
T. Srihari
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Guru Nanak Institution
Technical Campus, Hyderabad, TS, India
M. Boppa
Electrical & Electronics Engineering Department, ACE Engineering College,
Hyderabad, TS, India
S. Anil Kumar
Electrical & Electronics Engineering Department, St. Mary’s Group of Institutions,
Hyderabad, TS, India
H. Pulluri (&)
Electrical & Electronics Engineering Department, Geethanjali College of Engineering
and Technology, Hyderabad, TS, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_40
418 T. Srihari et al.
genetic algorithm (GA) [3], differential evolution (DE) [4], colliding bodies opti-
mization (CBO) [5], league championship algorithm (LCA) [6], and
black-hole-based Optimization (BHBO) [7] were formulated to solve OPF.
The current research aim is to enhance the performance of genetic algorithm
(GA) by introducing a new crossover with a randomized operator to replace
mutation. The given multi-parent crossover utilizes three parents to create three new
offsprings, two of which help exploitation, while the third offspring is for promoting
exploration. Genetic algorithm is an evolutionary algorithm developed in 1960 by
John Holland [8]. It is based on random selection from a population of individuals
and natural genetics. Till now, GA and several variants of GA are developed and
applied to solve the ED problem [9, 10]. Similarly, in this work a new multi-parent
crossover-based genetic algorithm with diversity operator is introduced to solve the
OPF problem. The obtained results are proved that the GA-MPC is an effective
algorithm to solve the optimization problems. The rest of the paper is articulated as
below, Sect. 2 explains the mathematical formulation. Section 3 explains the pro-
posed genetic algorithm with new multi-parent crossover. Section 4 explains the
simulation results and discussion. Conclusion is given in Sect. 5.
2 Mathematical Formulation
The idea of OPF is to optimize a function by adjusting some of control variables to

meet the various constraints, which is expressed below [4]
minf ðx; uÞ ð1Þ

(
gðx; uÞ ¼ 0
Subjected to ð2Þ
hðx; uÞ 0
where f is a fitness function; x gives dependent variable matrix, u gives independent

variables matrix. The fitness function and constraints, which are used in the current
work is given below [4]:
2.1 Fitness Function
(a) Minimization of total fuel cost (TFC):

The TFC of each generator is defined as given below [4]
The Application of Genetic Algorithm with Multi-parent … 419
X
NG
minf ¼ am þ bm Pgm þ Cm P2gm ð3Þ
m¼1
where f gives TFC of the thermal generators; am ; bm ; cm indicates cost coefficients

m-th generating unit.
(b) Sum of Voltage Deviation (SVD)
In a power system, it is important to maintain the voltages of all load buses
within their limits. Therefore, voltage profile improvement is considered.
X
f ¼ jVk Vref j ð4Þ
k2loadbus
Vk and Vref represent reference and k-th load bus voltage, respectively.
(c) Minimization of Active Power Loss (APL)
In this case, minimization of APL is considered as an objective function and is
given below;
X
nl
f ¼ Gn Vk2 þ Vm2 2Vk Vm cos hkm ð5Þ
n¼1
Vm denotes m-th bus voltage; hkm indicates angle between k-th and m-th buses.
2.2 Constraints
In the present work, various constraints are included that are given below [4]:
X
PGk PDk Vk Vm ðGkm cos hkm þ Bkm sin hkm Þ ¼ 0
m2k
X ð6Þ
QGk QDk Vk Vm ðGkm sin hkm Bkm cos hkm Þ ¼ 0
m2k
8 min
< PGk PGk PGk
max
>
min
VGk VGk VGk
max
k ¼ 1; 2; . . .; NG ð7Þ
>
: min
QGk QGk QGk
max
tkmin tk tkmax k ¼ 1; 2; . . .; NT ð8Þ

ck Qck Qck
Qmin k ¼ 1; 2; . . .; NC ð9Þ
max
min
VLk VLk VLk
max
k ¼ 1; 2; . . .; LB ð10Þ
Slk Smax
lk k ¼ 1; 2; . . .; nl ð11Þ
3 Genetic Algorithm with Multi-Parent Crossover

(GA-MPC)
From the last three decades, different GAs have been developed to find solution for
various optimization problems. But the efficiency of these algorithms relies on
complexity of the problem. However, in few situations, GA algorithms are not
performed well in comparison with other algorithms [11]. Therefore, recently the
performance of GA is enhanced by replacing the normal crossover with new
multi-parent crossover and diversity operator [12]. The new crossover utilizes three
parent chromosomes to generate three new child chromosomes, in this out of three,
two for exploitation, while the third one is for enhancing exploration. The diversity
operator may help to avoid local optima. The procedure for GA-MPC takes place
by means of three genetic operators, which are expressed below
3.1 Parent Selection
In this selection process, the parent chromosomes are used to generate new child
chromosomes. Here, roulette wheel-based selection has been used to pick the
chromosomes based on their fitness value relative to the fitness value of other
population [12].
3.2 Proposed Three-Parent Crossover
Crossover operator is the heart of genetic algorithm. The crossover used in the
current work is based on random crossover and the procedure steps are given below
[12];
1. Select the three chromosomes by using roulette wheel selection.
2. If one of the selected individual is same with another, then it is replaced with a
random chromosome from the selection pool.
3. Rank the above-selected chromosomes based on their fitness value.
4. A random number ‘a’ is generated between 0 and 1.

5. New offsprings are generated by using below equations
O1 ¼ x1 þ aðx2 x3 Þ
O2 ¼ x2 þ aðx3 x1 Þ ð12Þ
3.3 The Diversity Operator
In order to enhance the diversity in the population, diversity operator developed in

[12] used here. The new diversity operator consists of selecting a random individual
from the selection pool that will be the new chromosome.
3.4 The Complete Procedure for Proposed GA-MPC

Algorithm
Step 1: Define GA parameters and generate initial population as given below.
Xi ¼ ½PGi;2 ; . . .; PGi;NG ; VGi;1 ; . . .; VGi;NG ; ti;1 ; . . .; ti;NT ; bCi;1 ; . . .; bCi;NC ð13Þ
The whole search space for GA-MPC with N chromosomes is given below:
2 3
X1
6 . 7.
6 . 7
6 7
X ¼ 6 Xi 7
6 . 7
4 . 5
.
2 PX 3
PG1;2 ; . . .; PG1;NG ; VG1;1 ; . . .; VG1;NG ; t1;1 ; . . .; t1;NT ; bC1;1 ; . . .; bC1;NC
6 .. 7
6. 7
6 7
¼66 P Gi;2 ; . . .; PGi;NG ; VGi;1 ; . . .; V Gi;NG ; t i;1 ; . . .; t i;NT ; b Ci;1 ; . . .; b Ci;NC
7 ð14Þ
7
6. 7
4 .. 5
PGP;2 ; . . .; PGP;NG ; VGP;1 ; . . .; VGP;NG ; tP;1 ; . . .; tP;NT ; bCP;1 ; . . .; bCP;NC
Step 2: Calculate the fitness of each chromosome using below equation [4].
2
jF j ¼ f þ wP PG1 Plim
G1
þ wV VL V lim 2 þ wQ QG Qlim 2 þ wS Sl Slim 2
L G l
ð15Þ
where, f indicates TFC objective, wP ; wv ; wQ ; ws denotes penalty coefficient of

respective state variable.
Step 3: Arrange all the chromosomes in descending order. Apply the roulette
wheel selection and fill the selection pool.
Step 4: Select the three consecutive chromosomes and apply new multi-parent
crossover by using (12) to generate new chromosomes.
Step 5: For each oij , generate a random number u 2 ½0 1. If u 2 ½0 1\q then
oij ¼ xij :
Step 6: if any variable is violated its limits, set it to corresponding boundary
value.
Step 7: If maximum generations are reached, then stop the procedure, take the
optimal value from the last generation is a best solution, or else, go to step 2.
The performance of the proposed GA-MPC method is tested on IEEE 30-bus

system with the aim of minimizing TFC, APL, and sum of voltage deviation. The
bus data, line data, cost coefficients, generator voltage, min and max values of load
bus voltages are referred from [4]. The current code is implemented in MATLAB
2010a and is worked on the computer with 2.2 GHz and i3 core processor. The
number of generations and population is considered 200 and 50 respectively and the
minimum and maximum values of the crossover probability (Pc) are considered as
0.1 and 0.9, respectively.
4.1 3-Unit System
The IEEE 30-bus system has been solved with GA-MPC algorithm. With the
selected parameters, the best, mean, and worst values, for all the objective func-
tions, over 30 trials are delineated in Tables 1 and 2, from which it is inferred that
GA-MPC algorithm gives better statistical values over other techniques. The best
combination of control variables evaluated using GA-MPC for minimum TFC,
SVD, and APL is shown in Table 2. The lower and higher load bus voltages
attained from all the objectives shown in Fig. 1 confirm the compliance of voltage
inequality constraints at all load buses. Figure 2 indicates the percentage of TFC
savings of the GA-MPC in comparison with other methods shown in the same
figure, which clearly indicates that, the GA-MPC technique provides highest cost
Table 1 Statistical analysis of all the objective function models

Different models Best ($/h) Mean ($/h) Worst ($/h) SD
Model 1 799.0767 800.0874 805.2372 8.2731
Model 2 0.0924 0.9411 0.0967 0.0015
Model 3 2.9044 3.1026 3.8173 0.7962
Table 2 Comparison of Different models Method TFC ($/h)

objective function models
attained using GA-MPC with Model 1 GA-MPC 799.0767
the other methods FIDE [4] 799.0943
DSA [4] 799.0943
CBO [5] 799.1294
LCA [6] 799.1974
DE [5] 799.2891
SA [5] 799.45
EGA [5] 799.56
AGA POP [5] 799.8441
BHBO [7] 799.9217
GEADHDE [5] 800.1579
TMM [4] 801.0119
GM [4] 804.853
Model 2 Method (P.U.)
GA-MPC 0.0924
CBO [5] 0.0932
TLBO [5] 0.0945
BBO [5] 0.0951
DSA [4] 0.0977
Model 3 Method APL (MW)
GA-MPC 2.9044
CBO [5] 2.9369
ABC [5] 3.1078
EGA [5] 3.2008
MDE [5] 3.2400
BHBO [7] 0.1262
ABC [5] 0.1379
The bold values address the results obtained by the proposed
algorithms in the present article
savings. The SVD values attained using GA-MPC for objectives, M1 and M2 are
1.7796 and 0.0924, from which it can be observed that the SVD value obtained
for M2 is lesser by 94.8% as compared to M1, hence, voltage profile is improved.
Fig. 1 Minimum and maximum voltages in different models
Fig. 2 % of TFC Savings attained in different methods
Only M1 that is the minimization of TFC is considered, the convergence charac-

teristics achieved using GA-MPC is depicted in Fig. 3, from where it is seen that
GA-MPC quickly brings down to the optimal objective value. All the abovemen-
tioned results reveal that, the GA-MPC is efficient to solve OPF problems
(Table 3).
Fig. 3 Convergence 820

characteristics attained in M1
GA-MPC
815
Total Fuel Cost ($/h)

810
805
800
X: 200
Y: 799.1
795
0 50 100 150 200
Number of Generations
Table 3 Best combination of Control variables Model 1 Model 2 Model 3

control variables obtained in
different models Pg1 (MW) 177.0560 176.333 51.3358
Pg2 (MW) 48.8267 48.4464 79.9686
Pg5 (MW) 21.3035 21.4459 50.0000
Pg8 (MW) 20.9196 23.1456 35.0000
Pg11 (MW) 11.9253 12.0315 30.0000
Pg13 (MW) 12.0000 12.0068 40.0000
Vg1 (p.u.) 1.1000 1.0372 1.0995
Vg2 (p.u.) 1.0878 1.0268 1.09883
Vg5 (p.u.) 1.0615 1.0168 1.0884
Vg8 (p.u.) 1.0693 1.0104 1.0892
Vg11 (p.u.) 1.1000 0.9931 1.1000
Vg13 (p.u.) 1.1000 0.9910 1.1000
t6-9 (p.u.) 1.0395 1.0083 1.0907
t6-10 (p.u.) 0.9174 0.9000 0.9000
t4-12 (p.u.) 0.9930 0.9438 1.0001
t28-27 (p.u.) 0.9705 0.9708 0.9694
bsh10 (p.u.) 0.0490 0.0499 0.0461
bsh12 (p.u.) 0.0500 0.0023 0.0090
bsh15 (p.u.) 0.0494 0.0499 0.0223
bsh17 (p.u.) 0.0500 0.0001 0.0500
bsh20 (p.u.) 0.0500 0.0500 0.0455
bsh21 (p.u.) 0.0499 0.0500 0.0140
(continued)
Table 3 (continued) Control variables Model 1 Model 2 Model 3

bsh23 (p.u.) 0.0353 0.0499 0.0460
bsh24 (p.u.) 0.0499 0.0499 0.0450
bsh29 (p.u.) 0.0231 0.0264 0.0162
TFC ($/h) 799.0767 804.3416 967.1280
SVD (p.u.) 1.7796 0.0924 1.9198
APL (MW) 8.6312 10.0093 2.9044
The bold values address the results obtained by the proposed
algorithms in the present article
5 Conclusion
In the current work, a new genetic algorithm with multi-parent crossover is suc-
cessful implemented to solve single-objective OPF problems. With the introduction
of multi-parent crossover and diversity factor concepts, the present method attained
the optimal solutions. The performance of the developed GA-MPC is tested on
IEEE 30-bus by considering different objective functions. The obtained results
identified that the GA-MPC algorithm is better as compared to other methods
reported in the paper.
References
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Trans. Power App. Syst. 104, 1147–1153 (1985)
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solution methodology for multi-objective optimal power flow. Appl. Soft Comput. 54, 229–
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Genetic Algorithm with Multi-Parent
Crossover Solution for Economic
Dispatch with Valve Point Loading
Effects
Harish Pulluri, M. Vyshnavi, Patange Shraddha, B. Sai Priya,

T. Sri Hari and Preeti
Abstract During recent times, different researchers have presented various tech-
niques for different optimization problems. In current literature on genetic algo-
rithms (GAs), a genetic algorithm with multi-parent crossover (GA-MPC) has been
found to be more efficient than other hybridized or modified GAs. In this paper, a
GA with a new multi-parent crossover has been proposed to get solution economic
dispatch (ED). The current algorithm is verified on 3-unit and 5-unit generator
systems by considering minimization of fuel cost. The obtained results are proved
the effectiveness of the GA-MPC over the other methods mentioned in the paper.

Keywords Genetic algorithm Economic dispatch New multi-parent crossover
Valve point effect
1 Introduction
Recently, as the demand for power is increasing day by day, economic dispatch
(ED) method plays a major role in optimal operation in modern energy system. The
basic idea behind ED lies in the determination of real power outputs of the gen-
erators for the short-term load in the system at the most economical price [1].
H. Pulluri M. Vyshnavi P. Shraddha B. Sai Priya

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Geethnajali College of Engineering
and Technology, Hyderabad, TS, India
T. Sri Hari
Department of Electrical & Electronics Engineering, Guru Nanak Institution Technical
Campus, Hyderabad, TS, India
Preeti (&)
Electrical & Electronics Engineering Department, Shri Vishwakarma Skill University,
Palwal, Haryana, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_41
430 H. Pulluri et al.
ED is a nonlinear optimization problem. Therefore, several classical algorithms

are employed to solve the above-said problem, namely quadratic programing [2],
linear programing (LP) [3], and non-linear programing (LP) [4]. All the mentioned
methods are outstanding characteristics for convex ED problems. However, these
methods are difficult to get a better solution in solving nonconvex ED. So, to
overcome the above-said drawbacks and to find an near optimal solution heuristic
methods, such as differential evolution [5], particle swarm optimization (PSO) [6],
simulated annealing (SA) [7], pattern search [8], diffusion particle optimization [9],
harmony search (HS) [10], teaching learning-based optimization (TLBO) [11],
colliding bodies optimization [12], social spider algorithm (SSA) [13], krill herd
(KH) [14], and exchange market algorithm (EMA) [15], are developed to solve ED
problems.
Genetic algorithm is an evolutionary algorithm developed in 1960 by John
Holland [16]. It is based on random selection from a population of individuals and
natural genetics. Till now, GA and several variants of GA are developed and
successfully applied to solve the ED problem [17, 18]. Similarly, in this paper a
new multi-parent crossover-based genetic algorithm with diversity operator is
proposed to solve the ED problem. The obtained results are proved that the
GA-MPC is an effective algorithm to solve the optimization problems. The
remaining article is structured as below, Sect. 2 explains about mathematical for-
mulation. Section 3 gives about proposed genetic algorithm with new multi-parent
crossover. Section 4 explains about simulation results and discussion. Conclusion
of the article is given in Sect. 5.
2 Mathematical Formulation
The idea of ED is to minimize a fitness function by varying some of control

variables to meet the various constraints, which is expressed below
min f ðx; uÞ ð1Þ

(
gðx; uÞ ¼ 0
Subjected to ð2Þ
hðx; uÞ 0
where f is a fitness function, x gives dependent variable matrix, and u gives

independent variables matrix. The fitness function and constraints which are used in
the current work are given below [10].
Genetic Algorithm with Multi-Parent Crossover Solution … 431
2.1 Fitness Function
(a) Minimization of total fuel cost (TFC):

The TFC of each generator is defined as the combination of a quadratic TFC with
valve point loading effect that is given below [10]
X
NG

min f ¼ am þ bm Pgm þ Cm P2gm þ dm sin em Pmin
gm Pgm ð3Þ
m¼1
where f gives TFC of the thermal generators; am ; bm ; cm ; dm and em indicate cost

coefficients mth generating unit. Pmin
gm represents lower active power limit of the mth
generator.
2.2 Constraints
During the minimization of TFC, various constraints considered that are expressed
as below [10]:
(a) Equality constraints: The equality constraints gðx; uÞ are given active power
balance and is given as follows
X
Ng
PGm ¼ PD þ Ploss ð4Þ
k¼1
where PD indicates total active power demand.

(b) Inequality constraints: The inequality constraints hðx; uÞ are expressed
between their defined limits given as follows:
gk Pgk Pgk
Pmin k ¼ 1; 2; . . .; Ng ð5Þ
max
Power loss produces in dispatch lines of the system, which is calculated using
B-matrix formula that is expressed as [10]
NG X
X NG XNG
Ploss ¼ PG;m :Bmn :PG;n þ m¼1
B0m :PG;m þ B00 ð6Þ
m¼1 n¼1
3 Genetic Algorithm with Multi-Parent Crossover

(GA-MPC)
From the last three decades, different GAs have been developed to find solution for
various mathematical and optimization problems. But the efficacy of the algorithms
depends on complexity of the problem. However, in few situations, the GA algo-
rithms not performed well in comparison with other evolutionary algorithms [19].
Therefore, recently the performance of GA is enhanced by replacing the normal
crossover with new multi-parent crossover and diversity operator [20]. The new
crossover utilizes three-parent chromosomes to generate three new child chromo-
somes, in this out of three, two are help exploitation, while the third one is for
enhancing exploration. The diversity operator may help to avoid local optima. The
procedure for GA-MPC takes place by means of three genetic operators, which are
expressed below.
3.1 Parent Selection
In this selection process, the parent chromosomes are used to generate new child
chromosomes. There are different types of selection processes available in the
literature. In the present work, roulette wheel-based selection has been used, and it
picks the individuals based on their fitness value relative to the fitness value of other
population [20].
3.2 Proposed Three-Parent Crossover
Crossover operator is the heart of genetic algorithm. The crossover used in the
current work is based on random crossover and the procedure steps are given below
[20];
1. Select the three chromosomes by using roulette wheel selection.
2. If one of the selected individual is same with another, then it is replaced with a
random chromosome from the selection pool.
3. Rank the above selected chromosomes with respective their fitness value.
4. A random number ‘a’ is generated; it follows Gaussian distribution with mean µ
and standard deviation r.
5. New offsprings are generated by using below equations
O2 ¼ x2 þ aðx3 x1 Þ ð7Þ
O3 ¼ x3 þ aðx1 x2 Þ:
3.3 The Diversity Operator
To improve the diversity in the population, diversity operator developed in [20]

used in the present work. The new diversity operator consists of selecting a random
individual from the selection pool that will be the new chromosome.
3.4 The Complete Procedure for Proposed GA-MPC

Algorithm
Step 1: Define GA parameters and generate initial population as expressed below.
Xk ¼ ½ Xk;1 Xk;2 . . . Xk;m . . . Xk;Ng ð8Þ
The whole search space for GA-MPC with N chromosomes is given below:
2 3 2 3
X1 Pg1;1 Pg1;2 Pg1;m Pg1;Ng
6 7 6
X2 Pg2;1 Pg2;2 Pg2;m Pg2;Ng 7
6 7 6 7
6 7 6
.. .. .. .. .. .. .. 7
6 7 6. . . . . . . 7
X¼6 7¼6 7 ð9Þ
6 Xk 7 6 Pgk;1 Pgk;2 Pgk;m Pgk;Ng 7
6 . 7 6 7
4 . 5 6 4 .. .. .. .. .. .. 7
5
. . . . . . .
XNK PgNK;1 PgNK;2 PgNK;m PgNK;Ng
Step 2: Calculate the fitness each chromosome using below equation [10].
2
jF j ¼ f þ wP jPG1 Plim
G1 j ð10Þ
where, f indicates TFC objective, wP denotes penalty coefficient of slack bus active
power.
Step 3: Arrange all the chromosomes in descending order. Apply the roulette
wheel selection and fill the selection pool.
Step 4: Select the three consecutive chromosomes and apply new multi-parent
crossover by using (7) to generate new chromosomes.
Step 5: For each oij , generate a random number u 2 ½0 1. If u 2 ½0 1\q then
oij ¼ xij .
Step 6: If any variable is violated its limits, set it to corresponding boundary
value.
Step 7: If maximum generations are reached, then stop the procedure, take the
optimal value from the last generation is a best solution, or else, go to step 2.
The functioning of the proposed GA-MPC method is tested with two test systems,
namely 3- and 5-unit systems with an objective is to minimization total fuel cost by
considering transmission losses. The proposed code has been written on MATLAB
2010a, and run in a computer with 2.2 GHz, i3 core processor. The number of
chromosomes and generations is considered as 40 and 200, respectively. The lower
and higher values of crossover probability (Pc) is 0.1 and 0.9, respectively.
4.1 3-Unit System
Initially, the current approach is applied on 3-unit system with a load of 210 MW.
The lower and higher values of active powers, cost coefficients of the generators
B-coefficients for evaluation of transmission losses are taken from [10]. The best
combination of generator powers achieved with GA-MPC method is compared with
genetic algorithm (GA) [17], GA with active power optimization (GA-APO) [17],
Newton’s approach [17], and the respective results are mentioned in Table 1. It is
identified that the TFC achieved with the proposed method is optimal in compar-
ison with other given methods mentioned above. It means, the GA-MPC is 6.877 $/
h better when compared to the GA-NSO with the optimal value in the literature.
The convergence graph achieved with GA-MPC method is depicted in Fig. 1, and it
is identified that GA-MPC is reached optimal solution in early stage only.
Table 1 Comparison of optimal real power output attained in 3-unit system with the other
methods
Methods/unit GA [17] GA-APO [17] NA [17] GA-MPC
1 53.2604 61.6467 50.0000 76.0196
2 88.9645 95.1632 86.0678 90.8411
3 74.7693 60.5402 79.7119 50.0033
APL 6.9939 7.3460 5.7797 6.8641
TPD 216.9942 217.3501 215.7797 216.864
TFC 3252.46 3341.77 3205.99 3199.1123
Fig. 1 Variation of TFC with 3340

iteration number for 3-unit
system 3320
GA-MPC
3300

3280
3260
3240
3220
X: 200
Y: 3199
3200
3180
0 50 100 150 200
Total Number of Generations
4.2 5-Unit System
To identify the effectiveness of the proposed GA-MPC in medium systems

5-generator systems is selected. The current test system has 5 generators and a load
of 259 MW. The optimal cost obtained with different techniques such as GA [17],
GA-APO [17], NA [17], PSO [10], modified subgradient harmony search
(MSG-HS) [10] for current system has been reported in Table 2. From Table 2, it is
identified that the GA-MPC is capable to provide the least cost in comparison with
Fig. 2 Variation of TFC with 900

iteration number for 5-unit
system 890
GA-MPC
880
Total Fuel Cost (S/h)
870
860
850
840 X: 200
Y: 834.1
830
0 50 100 150 200
Number of Generations
Table 2 Comparison of real power outputs attained GA-MPC with the other methods for 5-unit
system
Methods/ GA [17] GA-APO NA [17] PSO [10] MSG-HP GA-MPC
unit [17] [10]
1 172.765 172.765 181.129 197.4696 199.9623 199.5997
2 26.6212 26.6212 46.7567 20.0000 20.0000 20.000
3 24.8322 24.8322 19.1526 21.3421 20.8157 20.9786
4 23.4152 23.4152 10.1879 11.6762 15.5504 15.4929
5 19.1885 19.1885 10.7719 17.7744 12.5069 12.4840
APL 7.8250 7.8250 8.9977 9.2623 9.5654 9.560
TPD 266.8217 266.8217 267.9977 268.2623 268.5653 268.56
TFC 926.5530 926.5530 905.5437 836.4568 834.363 834.1302
Table 3 Statistical analysis for 3- and 5-unit systems

Different units Best ($/h) Medium ($/h) Worst ($/h) SD
3-Unit system 3199.1123 3208.8232 325.9612 17.501
5-Unit system 834.1302 835.8090 866.8288 7.3015
all the other methods. The variation of TFC with iteration number with GA-MPC
method is depicted in Fig. 1, and it is understood that the change in TFC remains
same after 53 iteration with proposed algorithm. The best, medium, worst costs, and
standard deviation with GA-MPC for 25 independent trails are delineated in
Table 3. From this table, it is identified that the GA-MPC provided good statistical
values. Moreover, the optimal TFC achieved in 20 independent trials for current
Fig. 3 Deviation of optimal 870

cost of 6-unit system for
GA-MPC
1200 MW with 20 trials 865
860
855
850
845
840
835
830
0 5 10 15 20
Number of Indenpendent Trials
system is depicted in Fig. 3, and it is confirmed that GA-MPC gave optimal or near
optimal value for 19 trials. From the above results, it is understood that GA-MPC is
efficient to find the solution for economic dispatch problems (Fig. 2).
5 Conclusion
In the current research work, a new genetic algorithm with multi-parent crossover
has been implemented to find the solution of ED with valve point. With the
introduction of multi-parent crossover and diversity factor, the current algorithm is
effectively obtained the optimal solutions. The efficiency GA-MPC is verified on 3-
and 5-generator systems by considering the minimization of TFC. The achieved
results are proved that GA-MPC is better in comparison with the evolutionary
methods mentioned in the literature.
References
1. X. Xai, A.M. Elaiw, Optimal dynamic economic dispatch of generation: a review. Electr.
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Teaching Distance Relay Protection
and Circuit Breaker Co-ordination
of an IEEE 9 Bus System Using
MATLAB/SIMULINK
Cholleti Sriram and Muppalla N. R. Kishore
Abstract In this paper, co-ordination of impedance (Z) relay is set with faults are at
different locations of IEEE 9 bus system. Multiple relays with circuit breakers are
connected at different buses far from each other and the tripping of these relays is
observed with respect to the distance of fault occurrence from the bus. Resistance
(R) versus reactance (X) graphs are shown with zone detection before and after fault
occurrence, also with fault detection using impedance at the bus. A comparative
analysis is carried out with different fault locations on IEEE 9 bus system in
MATLAB/Simulink GUI environment generating graphs plotted with respect to
time.
Keywords MATLAB (matrix laboratory) Distance protection Circuit breaker

Co-ordination Relay R-X characteristics
1 Introduction
Day-by-day power demand is increasing, the distribution system is also increasing

with increase in number of loads and sources which are connected to the inter-
connected grid system. Because of these increment of load, occurrence of faults also
increasing on both transmission as well as distribution lines. These faults make
tremendous effect on equipment as well as on customers and economy in general.
By using conventional relay [1], circuit breakers like overcurrent relays or inverse
time overcurrent relays are used to eliminate the fault from the system. These
traditional relays sense the breakers to trip off the power supply to the nearest fault
occurring on bus and also the breaker connected very far from the fault. This
discontinuous supply from the source to the loads may reduce the production and
C. Sriram (&)
Department of EEE, Guru Nanak Institute of Technology, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
M. N. R. Kishore
Department of EEE, Vignan’s Nirula Institute of Technology & Science for Women, Guntur,
Andhra Pradesh, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_42
440 C. Sriram and M. N. R. Kishore
effect the consumer end products and not economical. The relays need to be
working in co-ordination [2] with respect to the distance of fault from the distance
relay and trips the circuit breaker which is near to the fault but not the breaker
which is far away from the location of fault. To achieve this relay co-ordination,
impedance relays are used where the tripping is done with respect to the impedance
measured at the particular bus.
The outline of the paper is: Sect. 1.1 elaborates about the operation of a distance
relay, Sect. 2 discusses the modeling of an IEEE 9 bus system, Sect. 3 discusses the
modeling of the distance relay, Sect. 4 discusses the results and discussions and
Sect. 5 gives conclusion of the paper.
1.1 Distance Relay
A simple mho function [3] along with a two-bus test system can be seen in Fig. 1.
All the vectors in the given figure are operated by current I in the transmission line
with variation in R, X and Z values. The R value is considered to be real value and
the X is considered to be imaginary value. The impedance plot is the plotted with
respect to the voltage measured and current measured at the transmission line. The
value of the impedance is calculated by comparing the angle between polarizing
quantity and conducting quantity which is said to be V and IZ.
The impedance value or the R-X plot [3] varies with change in diameter when a
transient state is occurred on the transmission like fault at any end of the line. As the
relation between current and impedance is given as V = IZ, current and impedance
are inversely proportional to each other. During normal operating conditions, the
value of Z is high as voltage V is very much greater than the current I in medium
voltage transmission lines. During fault condition, the value of V drops to a low
Fig. 1 Mho relay function

Teaching Distance Relay Protection and Circuit Breaker … 441
value and the value of I increases making the impedance Z value to drop [4, 5]. The
circuit breakers connected on the transmission lines are tripped with change in the
impedance value with respect to faults on the line, source side or load side. To see
the impedance relay co-ordination of different circuit breakers an IEEE 9 bus
system is considered with faults applied at different locations and denote the trip-
ping operation of the breakers with respect to the distance of fault from the relay.
2 Modeling of an IEEE 9 Bus System
An IEEE 9 bus system [6] consists of three conventional sources at buses 1, 2 and
3. Three loads are connected at bus 5, 6 and 8. The transmission line is operating at
230 kV which is medium transmission line voltage. The total system is ring main
system where three sources and loads are interconnected to each other sharing the
power from all the three sources. Single line diagram of an IEEE 9 bus system can
be seen in Fig. 2. Each source generates powers at different voltage [6] and different
capacity which are interconnected to each other with step-up transformers. All the
transformer secondaries are maintained at 230 kV. Below is the power table for the
IEEE 9 bus system (Table 1).
The total active power generated by the three sources is 313.831 MW and
generated reactive power is 143.78 MVAR. The total power consumption by the
load is 315 MW and 115 MVAR.
Fig. 2 IEEE 9 bus system

Table 1 Load flow report

Bus No. Bus (kV) Gen (MW) Gen (MVAR) Load (MW) Load (MVAR)
1 16.5 73.831 9.738 0 0
2 18 155 92.091 0 0
3 13.8 85 41.951 0 0
4 230 0 0 0 0
5 230 0 0 125 50
6 230 0 0 90 30
7 230 0 0 0 0
8 230 0 0 100 35
9 230 0 0 0 0
3 Modeling of an Impedance Relay
Impedance of any system is considered with two values: R, resistance and X,

reactance which is given as
Z ¼ R þ jX ð1Þ
Here, j is the imaginary axis as the reactance is measured for reactive power
measured consumed by inductance of the line. As mentioned in previous Sect. 1,
the relation between Voltage V, current I and impedance is given as
V ¼I Z ð2Þ
The impedance can be calculated as
V
Z¼ ð3Þ
I
However, the values of voltage and current are not integers but are in complex
sinusoidal format. A Fourier transformation is used to calculate the magnitude and
angle of voltage and current individually for each phase |Va| and ∟Va for phase A.
Now the complex sinusoidal signal is converted to polar format where the
magnitudes are divided and angles are subtracted.
jV j
jZ j ¼ ð4Þ
jI j
∟Z = ∟V - ∟I ð5Þ
For our consideration, a three-phase to ground fault is applied for intense current
change in all the lines. The modeling of IEEE 9 bus system with two circuit
breakers with fault at bus 4 in MATLAB/Simulink environment is shown in Fig. 3.
Fig. 3 Impedance relay modeling for each individual phase

Table 2 Settings of relay placed at bus 7

S. No. Zones of protection % Of transmission line Impedance in Ohms
1 Zone 1 80% of bus 7–8 25.71
2 Zone 2 100% of bus 7–8 + 20% of bus 8–9 49.03
3 Zone 3 100% of bus 7–8 + 100% bus 8–9 116.60
Table 3 Settings of relay placed at bus 4

S. No. Zones of protection % Of transmission line Impedance in Ohms
1 Zone 1 80% of bus 4–5 30.30
2 Zone 2 100% of bus 4–5 + 20% of bus 5–7 61.45
3 Zone 3 100% of bus 4–5 + 100% bus 5–7 155.78
Two circuit breakers CB1 and CB2 are connected at bus 4 and bus 7 to ensure
protection of the system. A three-phase to ground fault is occurred at bus 4 at 0.3 s
and cleared at 0.5 s.
The value of impedance is fed to relay block from which a logic ‘1’ (high) or ‘0’
(low) is generated. A counter is connected to count the number of restricting of the
circuit breaker and is compared to zero. The signal generated is either 1 or 0 which
changes with change in the voltage and current values of the phase. To make the
circuit breaker remains in closed position the value generated by the counter is
transposed using NOT gate and generated a logic ‘1.’ When the counter trips during
fault condition, the NOT gate generates a logic ‘0’ turning the circuit breaker OFF.
The modeling of impedance relay for each individual phase is shown in below
figure.
The circuit breakers are operated using impedance relays where the impedance is
measured by taking voltage and current of each line individually. The impedance is
calculated with respect to time and change in the value is observed during normal
and fault conditions. The circuit breakers are tripped with respect to the change in
the impedance values at the measured buses 4 and 7. Tables 2 and 3 show the
setting of an impedance relay placed at bus 7.
The simulation of the test system in Fig. 2 is run for 0.7 s with three-phase to
ground fault occurred from 0.3 to 0.5 s. The simulation is run for two different
cases
(1) Fault occurred at bus 7 and
(2) Fault occurred at bus 4.
In both the cases, the position of circuit breakers is not changed and all
parameters of the model are maintained same. It is to be observed that the circuit
breaker near to the fault is tripped OFF rather the other breaker far from the fault is
not tripped as there is no much change in the impedance of the line. Below are the
graphs plotted for case 1 and case 2.
Figure 6b is the R-X plot of three zones at bus 4 when a fault is occurred
between bus 7 and bus 8. The impedance is not entering into the relay character-
istics. Therefore, the relay will not operate and the corresponding CB2 is tripping as
shown in Fig. 5, and it says the relay and CB are coordinated. But the relay placed
at bus 7 is tripped as shown in Fig. 6a.
Figure 7b is the R-X plot of three zones at bus 7 when a fault is occurred
between bus 4 and bus 5. The impedance is not entering into the relay character-
istics. Therefore, the relay will not operate and the corresponding CB1 is tripping as
shown in Fig. 4, and it says the relay and CB are coordinated. But the relay placed
at bus 4 is tripped as shown in Fig. 7a.
Fig. 4 Circuit breaker 1 and 2 tripping signals of three-phase during fault at bus 7
Fig. 5 Circuit breaker 1 and 2 tripping signals of three-phase during fault at bus 4
Fig. 6 R-X characteristics at a bus 7 b bus 4
Fig. 7 R-X characteristics at a bus 4 b bus 7
5 Conclusion
With the above results, it can be seen that the circuit breaker which is connected
close to the fault is permanently tripped OFF but the breaker connected far from the
fault is not tripped. The impedances at the buses 4 and 7 different when the fault
location is changed and the relay operated only when the impedance drops below
the threshold value. A comparative R-X plots are also shown with change in
impedance curve during normal condition and fault condition.
References
1. D. Tziouvaras, Relay performance during major system disturbances (2006), http://www.

selinc.com
2. S.B. Wilkinson, C.A. Mathews, Dynamic characteristics of Mho Distance Relays (GE
Publication GER-3742), General Electric Power Management
3. G.E. Alexander, J.G. Andrichak, Ground Distance Relaying: Problems and Principles
(General Electric Publication GER-3793), General Electric Company
4. U.K. Jethwa, R.K. Bansal, N. Date, R. Vaishnav, Comprehensive load-shedding system. IEEE
Trans. Ind. Appl. 46(2) (2010)
5. M. Begovic, D. Novosel, M. Milisavljevic, Trends in power system protection and control.
Decis. Support Syst. 30(3), 269–278 (2001)
6. R.G. Farmer, Power system dynamics and stability, in The Electric Power Handbook (CRC
Press LLC, 2001)
Necessity of Power System State
Estimation: A Generalized Linear State
Estimation Solution with Application
of PMU Measurements
M. Ravindra, R. Srinivasa Rao, V. Srinivasa Rao, N. Praneeth

and Vasimalla Ashok
Abstract This paper presents a review on major blackouts occurred in power grid
across the world and importance for the need of state estimation (SE) solution. This
work introduces the applications of phasor measurement units (PMU) to reduce the
occurrence of blackouts in power system. The blackouts in power system can occur
due to overload, light load conditions, heavy storms or due to line outages. The
cascade failure due to line outages, i.e., measured as N-1 outages can lead to power
system blackout. The necessity of power system state estimation (PSSE) solution
for protection in view of blackouts is discussed in this paper. A Generalized Linear
State Estimation (GLSE) method is proposed to obtain robust and accurate states of
power system network. A matrix integrating phasor and conventional measure-
ments are formulated to obtain accurate states. IEEE transmission bus network such
as 14-bus network is considered as test case for proposed GLSE programming in
Please note that the LNCS Editorial assumes that all authors have used the western naming
convention, with given names preceding surnames. This determines the structure of the names in
the running heads and the author index.
M. Ravindra
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Aditya College
of Engineering, Suram Palem, Kakinada, India
R. Srinivasa Rao
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, University College
of Engineering, JNTUK, Kakinada, India
N. Praneeth (&)
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering,
Gurunanak Institutions, Hyderabad, India
V. Ashok
Anubose Institute of Technology, Khammam, India
V. Srinivasa Rao
Aditya Engineering College (A), ADB Road, Surampalem, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_43
450 M. Ravindra et al.
MATLAB. The accurate states are computed and compared with standard weighted
least squares (WLS) method to show its effectiveness.

Keywords Blackouts Linear state estimation Phasor measurement unit

(PMU) State estimation Weighted least squares (WLS)
1 Introduction
A long period of power loss or power failure in a region greater than 2–3 days is
called blackout. Mainly, the blackout may occur due to outage of transmission
power line, sudden shutdown of power generation, overloading conditions, low
withdrawing power, etc. If the power generated does not meet the load demand or
power supplied is greater than power demand, It can lead to power system blackout.
Real-time control of power system with security assessment is required to avoid
blackouts [1]. Introduction of synchrophasor technology in power system with
allocation of phasor measurement units (PMU) can synchronize data available at
different network places with help of global position system (GPS) servers con-
nected to the satellites [2, 3]. As data availability is dynamic through PMUs, the
power system can be brought into balanced condition through real-time control
such that the generation and load demand can be balanced equally. The dynamic
information or data at all the buses is required for protection of power system. The
synchrophasor technology incorporated in PMU devices helps to obtain the data of
phasors that link with time [3]. The data available at all the buses can make system
complete observable. When we compare the PMU data with SCADA, PMU takes
10–60 samples per second, whereas supervisory control and data acquisition
(SCADA) systems through remote terminal units (RTU) take 1-sample every 2–4 s
[3]. PMU helps to monitor wide-area networks, whereas SCADA helps to monitor
local monitoring and control. Time can be synchronized through PMU devices
whereas through SCADA, RTU units it cannot. PMU measures both magnitude and
phase angle, whereas SCADA can measure only magnitude. From the above dif-
ferences, it can be concluded that PMU devices are more advanced compared to
RTU devices in SCADA systems. The problem with PMU devices is the average
cost per PMU for allocating, installing and assigning is $40,000 to $180,000.
Allocation of PMU devices at every bus in power networks is infeasible. In order to
obtain complete information of bus networks, the PMU devices should be placed
optimally at certain buses that make network complete observable. With allocation
of PMU devices at optimal places, we know the information or states of only few
buses where PMUs devices are placed. In order to obtain all states of the buses in
the network, it is essential to perform SE. The obtained SE values (calculated) at all
the bus networks are compared with true measured values to obtain bad data in case
of any contingency occurred in network can be identified through this. The single
line outages or multiple line outages and cascade outages (N − 1) can be detected
through SE process.
Necessity of Power System State Estimation: A Generalized … 451
2 Review on Blackouts
In India, severe blackout occurred on July 30 and 31, 2012, in northern grid and
northeastern grid, which affected more than 700 million people in nine states of
northern part including capital of India. The main reason behind the blackouts is
major grid disturbances due to high load and changes in monsoon. During the
incident, the load demand required in one region is high and in other region is very
low than generated supply. For balance condition, load demand should be equal to
load supplied, i.e., the power required at the load end should be equal to generated
power [4].
On November 1, 2014, a national wide power blackout took place in Bangladesh.
Unexpected outage in HVDC station and control failure of spinning reserve led to
this blackout [5].
On November 10, 2009, major parts of Brazil and whole Paraguay with nearly
67 million people are affected. Heavy rains along with strong winds destroyed three
transformers on a HV—transmission line creating a short circuit [6].
On August 20, 2005, Indonesia is affected with blackout due to lack of gener-
ation capacity. Almost half of the country is affected due to power failure. The
transmission lines in the middle of Cilegon and Saguling in West Java failed
leading shutdown of two generator units affecting 120 million people nearly half of
country’s population [10]. This followed the country to attempt deal with growing
energy crisis [7].
On September 28, 2003, Italy, during storm conditions, the power line which
supplied electricity from Switzerland to Italy has been destroyed by uprooted trees
which led to power cut as long as 18 h [8].
On August 14–15, 2003, the worst blackout is occurred in Northeast USA. The
blackout occurred due to sudden shutdown of power line after it came in contact
with overgrown trees. A faulty alarm of the generator failed to give signal to the
operators which resulted in shutdown of other three lines. This affected nearly 50
million people in southeastern Canada and eight-northeastern states in the USA[9].
Due to poor and insufficient transmission, equipment led to collapse of northern
grid on January 2, 2001, which effected approximately 230 million north Indians
causing an estimation loss of 500bn INR. This occurred due to sudden power surge
in transmission network [10].
On March 11, 1999, due to lightning struck on electricity substation in Sao Paulo
created a sequence reaction that resulted in shutting down Itaipu hydropower plant.
Approximately, 97 million people left in dark across south and southeastern Brazil
[10].
On March 13, 1989, entire Quebec and Canada underwent a blackout for 12 h.
A solar geomagnetic storm is responsible for collapse of transmission system. The
geomagnetic storm caused a variation in earth’s magnetic field, thus tripping power
grid [11].
On July 13–14, 1977, lightning bolt created power outage in New York city. The
nuclear power plant is rendered offline due to tripping, while a second lightning
strike caused two more 345 kV transmission lines to shut down. Subsequent power
surges, malfunctioning safety equipment and human error left nine million people
into dark [12].
On November 9, 1965, a blackout occurred in power system due to improper
setting of safety relay at Sir Adam back station near to Niagara Fall resulted in
tripping of 230 kV transmission line [13].
In the view of blackouts occurred till now, we can observe that due to lack
dynamic information and failure of operators to control the system are the main
causes of power failure for longer period of time, i.e., blackouts. This can be
minimized by providing dynamic information to the control centers. Dynamic
information of the states of the network can be attained by allocating of PMUs at
different parts of the network through which accurate states of the network can be
estimated.
3 Application of Synchrophasors in Power System
Synchrophasors are measured by PMU devices that are connected to GPS servers to
establish real-time monitoring and controlling actions in electric grid. It measures
electrical signals on power grid using time synchronization. PMU measurements at
different locations can be synchronized through GPS systems as shown in Fig. 1.
3.1 Synchrophasor Application Across World Wide
With the development of synchrophasor technology, recent application for PMU

deployment expansion in country has two significant goals: supporting smart
security techniques in substations and improving state measurement accuracy based
on latest standards for PMUs.
Fig. 1 PMU devices connected to GPS server

Northern region—14, Western region—16, Eastern region—12, Southern

region—12, Northeastern region—8. PMUs measure immeasurable measurements
such as phase angles of the buses located at different system networks. Total 62
no of PMUs are allocated in India by 2012 [14, 15]. The information regarding
PMU deployment in various regions in India is shown in Fig. 2. The obtained
phasor data delivers dynamic information on power systems, which can help
operators to pledge corrective actions to develop power system reliability with
application of SE.
Worldwide several networks from Russia, Europe, North America and Brazil are
in progress using/developing the novel PMU applications to connect the possible
benefits of this emergent technology in operating very large-scale power networks
[16].
In the USA, department of energy and industry partners invested a total amount
of more than $357 million to implement synchrophasor technology which can
provide grid operators with record wide-area vision to measure the performance of
transmission network and get better reliability [16, 17].
Fig. 2 Deployment of PMUs in India [14, 15]

In overall, there are 1700 PMUs deployed on NAG, 1380 PMUs deployed with
funding of ARRA, in addition 150PMUs allocated with private funding utilities or
project participants [17]. The allocation of PMUs in power grid of USA is shown in
Fig. 3.
In 2009, 166 PMUs deployed in North America, allocated in few areas inside the
grid. Figure By 2015, the ARRA projects had deployed 1380 more PMUs and 226
PDCs that present operators the vision of transmission networks that supply around
88% of total USA load and cover roughly two-thirds of continental USA [17].
Another valuable application of synchrophasor measurement data is detection of
apparatus letdown, utmost of which is not identified by SCADA system. System
stability estimation is conceded utilizing synchrophasor data particularly capturing
information of an interconnected system like low-frequency oscillations due to
generation control problem or other reasons.
Apart from above nations, other countries like South Africa, Brazil, USSR,
WECC whose service territory extends from Canada to Mexico and some European
countries have deployed/planning to deploy a large no. of PMUs in their system.
As on 2013 in china, around 2400 PMU devices had been allocated in power
network grids, covering the entire 500-kV substations in country and important
power networks covering total 220/110-kV substations [18]. Moreover, in addition,
30 WAMS control area stations in service give dynamic information of power
system behavior. The majority of PMU devices were installed after 2006. More
than 80% of these PMUs were deployed in past ten years [18].
Fig. 3 Deployment of PMUs in the USA [16, 17]

This indicates very fast growth in PMU installation after the 2008 initiate of
CSG projects. Moreover, the CSG has deployed 342 PMUs, including 211 allo-
cated in substations and 162 in power networks. The allocation of PMUs in power
grid of China is shown in Fig. 4.
3.2 Need of State Estimation Solution with PMU

Measurements
The state of AC power system is expressed by voltage magnitudes and phase angles
at buses. It is impossible to measure all voltage phasors in power system with a
limited number of measurement units. However, they can be calculated by SE using
partial real-time measurements acquired from the system. The PSSE depends on
available measurements in power system, the estimation criterion and the mea-
surement unit or topology errors. By executing PSSE, not only all voltage phasors
could be calculated but also the bad measurements could be detected. When
compared with conventional and asynchronous measurement units, PMU which is
based on the GPS technique provides power engineers with synchronous and more
accurate measurements which are capable of improving SE in robustness and
accuracy. The integration of PMU measurements in SE can make the estimation
solution more accurate, improve network observability and enhance ability to detect
bad data.
Fig. 4 Deployment of PMUs in China [18]

The traditional and commonly used approach in PSSE is weighted least squares
(WLS). The solution of the traditional PSSE is not accurate enough since the
measurements are all conventional measurements based on the asynchronous
measurement units.
In [19], Abur presented a multi-area SE utilizing PMU measurements. In this
method, system is attempted to be divided into several zones based on boundary
sensitive buses. The SE runs in each zone separately. In this method, the mea-
surement vector is composed of both the conventional measurements and PMU
measurements. The only drawback of this method is it takes more time for
convergence.
In [20], the author proposed a hybrid state estimation (HSE) in which the
measurement vector should be a combination of the TSE solution and all the PMU
measurements available in power system. Since PMU measurements are accurate
enough and readily used, voltage phasor at the neighboring bus of a PMU bus could
be expressed by a linear equation based on Ohm’s law. So, the SE equation is still a
linear equation. The disadvantage in process is the HSE is recommended only for
on-line bus sensitivity analysis.
In [21], multistage state estimation (MSE) technique is presented to integrate
PMU measurements without disturbing existing SCADA system. This procedure
requires more number of PMUs which is against the economic criteria.
In [22], three different techniques are investigated to include PMU measure-
ments into SE problem.
From the review of SE methods in literature survey, we observe that an efficient
SE with optimal PMU measurements is required to provide,
• Accurate states of the system in less time
• Complete observability of power system
• Reliable measurements for power system
• Observability in case of contingencies or PMU loss
• Avoid block outs by providing accurate DSE.
To obtain accurate SE, in this paper, we propose GLSE solution technique with
PMU measurements.
4 Problem Formulation
4.1 GLSE with PMU Measurements
The SE problem involving measurements such as power injections and power flows
is nonlinear, whereas formulation of the measurement function with PMU mea-
surements is linear which includes voltage and phase angles. The measured matrix
(Z) and function matrix (H) are formulated to obtain states are as follows
2 3 2 3
VR I 0
6 Vim WLS 7 6 0 I 7
6 7 6 7
6 VR 7 6 H12 7
6 7 ¼ 6 H11 7 VR þe ð1Þ
6 Vim 7 6 H21 H22 7
6 PMU 7 6 7 Vim X
4 I 5 4 Gij Bij 5
R
Iim PMU Z Bij Gij H
where I is identity matrix of dimension n n, the zero elements of the sparse matrix
are replaced by 1 to form H11 and H22 . While H12 and H21 are represented by null
matrix. Currents in transmission network are related to voltages by series admit-
tance Yij ¼ Gij þ jB. Transmission lines are represented by an equivalent p-model.
Mathematically, real and imaginary parts of injected currents can be formulated as
X
n
IR ¼ ViR Gii Vim Bii þ ðVjR Gij Vjim Bij Þ
j¼1;j6¼1
ð2Þ
X
n
Iim ¼ ViR Bii þ Vim Gii þ ðVjR Bij Vjim Gij Þ
j¼1;j6¼1
The solution of linear model is computed directly as
X ¼ ð½HT ½R1 ½HÞ1 ½HT ½R1 ½Z ð3Þ
Here, R is diagonal co-variance matrix.
4.2 GLSE Procedure
The proposed GLSE can be computed without iterations with proper design of
matrices as shown in Eq. (1).
%Psudo code%
Steps to obtain Linear State Estimation
1. start
2. Formation of Y bus matrix with IEEE bus network data
3. The true states of IEEE network are obtained through Newton Raphson load flow
analysis.
4. Design of matrices such as Measured Matix (Z) and Function matrix (H) with
PMU measurements and conventional measurements as shown in equation(1)
5. Final GLSE is obtained by computing the equation (3)
6. Compute the accurate states of the network.
7. end
5 Results and Analysis
The GLSE along with BILP is programmed in MATLAB, and it is run on Intel(R)
Core(TM), an i3 processor at 2.20 GHz with 4 GB of RAM. The PMU locations
considered for 14-bus network are computed through binary integer linear pro-
gramming (BILP) in [23]. The single line diagram of 14-bus network is considered
as shown in Fig. 5. The locations obtained through this measurement are buses—
(2, 6, 7 and 9). The total locations obtained to place PMUs are four for 14-bus
network which is less than one third of the total buses in network.
The true values obtained through N − R method and traditional WLS states are
considered to compare with proposed GLSE. Figures 6 and 7 show comparison of
the p.u voltage and phase angles of proposed GLSE method with other true
(N − R method) and WLS methods. From the figure, we can observe that the
voltage and phase angle obtained by GLSE are closer to true values which shows
the accuracy of the results provided by proposed GLSE method.
12 13 14
11 10
9
6
C
7
8
C
G
1 5 4
2
3
G C
Fig. 5 Single line diagram of 14-bus network

1.08
GLSE with PMU
WLSE without PMU
1.06 True values (N-R method)
Voltage Magnitude in P.U
1.04
1.02
0.98
0.96
0.94
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Bus Number
Fig. 6 Comparison of voltage magnitude of 14-bus network with and without PMU
0
True values (N-R method)
Phase angle in degrees
WLSE Method
GLSE with PMU
-5
-10
-15
-20
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
Bus Number
Fig. 7 Comparison of phase angle of 14-bus network with and without PMU
6 Conclusion
The review on power system blackouts occurred across the global network is
presented in this paper. Application of synchrophasor technology in power system
and the need of state estimation with PMU measurements are demonstrated. The
proposed Generalized Linear State Estimation (GLSE) in this paper is robust
technique that obtained accurate results. The results obtained through proposed
technique are closer to true values. IEEE 14-bus system is considered for test case,
and the results obtained through MATLAB programming are validated by com-
paring with standard weighted least squares (WLS) method. Results show the
effectiveness of proposed GLSE method.
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(2016)
Sensorless Operation of PMBLDC
Motor Drive Using Neural Network
Controller
Poonam M. Yadav and S. Y. Gadgune
Abstract In this paper, a position sensorless permanent magnet brushless direct

current (PMBLDC) motor drive is presented. For acknowledgment of sensorless
activity, zero intersection of back emf is recognized. So as to produce the correct
terminating beats for substitution of inverter circuit and to expel the clamor from the
back-emf signals, low pass channels are utilized. The total drive framework is
displayed in the MATLAB/Simulink programming. The sensorless drive is tested
for various operating conditions.

Keywords BLDC motor Back-EMF detection Sensorless operation Speed

Estimator Hall-effect sensors
1 Introduction
A brushless DC (BLDC) engine is a pivoting self-synchronous framework whose

stator is same as that of an enlistment engine, and the rotor has surface set up
perpetual magnet. In BLDC engine, winding is situated on stator curl that is sta-
tionary, and perpetual magnets are set on rotor that is turning. In DC engine, the
present extremity is modified by commutator and brushes; however, in brushless
DC motor there are not any brushes and commutator. The present polarity reversal
is managed through switches (MOSFET, IGBT) in synchronization with rotor role.
So, sensored BLDC motor uses role sensors to experience the particular rotor role
or the position may be detected without sensors [1].
Brushless DC automobiles are maximum famous over widespread DC motor due
to its high performance, silent operation, compact length, reliability, and coffee
upkeep. But the velocity manage of these cars is not a simple project; the
P. M. Yadav S. Y. Gadgune
Dr. Babasaheb Ambedkar Technological University, Lonare, India
P. M. Yadav (&) S. Y. Gadgune
Electrical Engineering, Padmabhooshan Vasantraodada Patil Institute of Technology,
Budhgaon, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_44
464 P. M. Yadav and S. Y. Gadgune
improvements in microcontroller, power electronics, and electric drives over the last
decade have made reliable and rate powerful decision for adjustable velocity
application. The BLDC vehicles are used in domestic appliances, replacing the
traditional motor packages;, everyplace there is a quick developing market for
BLDC automobiles for decades to return because all and sundry wishes dependable
and price effective answer.
There is demand for low running fee, high overall performance, decreased
acoustic noise, and a whole lot of comfort alternatives. Those traditional tech-
nologies cannot offer price powerful answer. One of the methods to get higher
performance is by deciding on the right corridor sensor which might significantly
have an effect on reliability and overall performance of the many important
packages as well as robotics, clinical device, heating, ventilation, and air condi-
tioning gadget enthusiasts. These packages all name for a fantastically green and
quiet motor. BLDC cars are electronically commutated cars, also referred to as
synchronous cars due to the fact stator flux and rotor flux both rotate at equal
frequency which might be powered by way of a DC deliver through an inverter [2].
2 Methodology for Back-Emf Detection
Sensing of returned emf during the closing situation for figuring out the rotor
position to execute the sensorless operation of BLDC motor is a not unusual
technique. In this paper, also equal basic approach is employed. Keep in mind a
three-segment famous person-related PMBLDC motor force. The motor is fed via a
three-segment inverter. The switching pulses for the inverter circuit are generated
based totally at the rotor position [3–12]. At any time, c language only of the three
levels are engaging in and the 0.33 one remains floating.
The voltage of phase A
dia
Van ¼ Ria þ L þ ean ð1Þ
dt
where
L the phase inductance,
R the stator resistance,
ia the phase current of A.
Similarly for phase B and C
dib
Vbn ¼ Rib þ L þ ebn ð2Þ
dt
dic
Vcn ¼ Ric þ L þ ecn ð3Þ
dt
Sensorless Operation of PMBLDC Motor Drive Using Neural … 465
The line voltage Vab can be obtain by subtracting Eq. 2 from 1 as,
dðia ib Þ
Vab ¼ Van Vbn ¼ Rðia ib Þ þ L þ ean ebn ð4Þ
dt
Similarly for Vab and Vca
dðib ic Þ
Vbc ¼ Vbn Vc ¼ Rðib ic Þ þ L þ ebn ecn ð5Þ
dt
dðic ia Þ
Vcn ¼ Vcn Va ¼ Rðic ia Þ þ L þ ecn ean ð6Þ
dt
Equations 4, 5, and 6 can be written as,
dð i a i b Þ
ean ebn ¼ Vab Rðia ib Þ L ð7Þ
dt
dð i b i c Þ
ebn ecn ¼ Vbc Rðib ic Þ L ð8Þ
dt
dðic ia Þ
ecn ean ¼ Vca Rðic ia Þ L ð9Þ
dt
From Eq. 7, zero crossing of phase B is regularly recognized. Further Eqs. 8 and
9 identifies zero crossing of phase C and A, respectively.
As soon as the motor is started out, it shifted to sensorless operation by way of
making use of accurate commutation instants calculated through zero crossing
factor of lower back emf. The sensorless commutation instants are behind schedule
by means of 30 electrical degrees from the zero crossing immediate of again emf in
an effort to excite, the segment windings throughout that portion of returned emf.3.
3 Neural Network (ANN) Controller
ANNs are numerical frameworks, including the many weighted interconnected task
parts (neurons). A processing detail is an equation generally referred to as a switch
function. This detail of processing receives warnings from separate neurons,
combines and transforms them, and generates numerical results. As is well estab-
lished, the processing element approximately corresponds to the real neurons.
X
N
x¼ A i Wi þ h ð10Þ
i¼1
Equation 10 displays artificial neuron single. ANNs’ structure includes three

main segment neurons, the association that provides information and yield course,
and association loads that demonstrate the performance of those associations. The
partner ANN’s plan (structure) is regularly drawn up, and weight estimates
expected to improve yield accuracy are resolved using one of several numerical
calculations. The ANNs disentangle a connection between the information factors
and determined factors by deciding the loads utilizing past models. At the end of the
day, ANNs are “prepared.” When these connections are resolved, partner ANN
might be worked with new information and estimations might be made.
A system’s presentation is estimated on the grounds of the pointed sign and
blunder. The blunder edge is obtained by the system yield examination and, in
addition, the point yield. In such a strategy, a back-spread equation is used to guide
the loads to lower the blunder edge. The system is generally ready by continuing
this handling. The point of preparation is to achieve an optimal arrangement based
on estimates of execution. ANNs have a wide range of uses, considering all stuff,
problems. They are efficiently used by a few sectors [13–16].
Figure 1 displays the BLDC motor speed control block diagram. It shows that once
the DC input voltage is provided to the inverter, three phase output will be generated
and the BLDC engine will be supplied. Inside the motor will be developed back emf.
This will be used to create regulated door beat from the replacement circuit for such
tasks. The speed can be identified at this stage and it tends. This can discovered
mistake signal and adjusted then the yield of the controller is given to include voltage.
Drive parameters might be estimated utilizing reproduction diagram.
Fig. 1 PMBLDC motor speed control by using back-emf zero crossing detection method
The less drive of the sensor relies on the place of the back electro magnetic force
(BEMF) initiated by the growth of a durable magnet rotor before the winding of the
stator. This approach also needs a trapezoidal sign to be used in order to have a zero
BEMF intersection. For a set, setup of the BEMF amplitude is relative to the rotor
velocity of the motor (number of stator winding turns, mechanical rotor charac-
teristics, and rotor magnet characteristics). The less strategic sensor uses BEMF’s
zero intersection to synchronize phase replacements. To recognize BEMF, the
particular 120° six-advance drive is utilized. “120° six stage drive” powers zero
current twice in each stage during a six-stage period. This permits BEMF zero
intersection to be identified and read. Back emf,
NlrB ¼ x ð11Þ
where
N number of windings per stage
l length of the rotor
r inner range of the rotor
B rotor attractive field
x angular velocity.
Since the controller should coordinate the rotor turn, the controller needs a few
methods for deciding the rotor’s direction/position (with respect to the stator loops.)
Some plans use hall-effect sensors or a rotating encoder to straightforwardly gauge
the rotor’s position. Others measure the back emf in the undriven curls to derive the
rotor position, dispensing with the requirement for isolated hall.
Effect sensors and thus less controllers are frequently referred to as sensors.
Controllers that sense rotor stance based on back emf have additional problems in
beginning motion because after the rotor is stationary, no back emf is produced.
This can be ordinarily cultivated by beginning turn from a self-assertive stage, and
after that jumping to the best possible stage in the event that it is observed to not be
right. This may make the engine run quickly in reverse, adding significantly greater
unpredictability to the startup grouping. Different sensors less controllers are fit for
estimating winding immersion brought about by the situation of the magnets to
derive the rotor position. This may cause the motor to run briefly backward, adding
even more complexity to the startup sequence. Other sensors less controllers are
capable of measuring winding saturation caused by the position of the magnets to
infer the rotor position.
5 Simulation Circuit Diagram
Figure 2 demonstrates the simulation for PMBLDC motor drive speed control by
using back-emf detection method. It is additionally called as sensorless control of
BLDC engine. In this strategy, the door heartbeats are produced by utilizing
back-emf location technique to control exchanging of inverter switches. By this
technique, we can expel hall-effect sensors and decrease the size of motor.
Artificial neural system controller is utilized to ascertain the mistake and send to
inverter.
Figure 2 shows reproduction circuit chart of the proposed framework. The simu-
lation should be possible by utilizing MATLAB Simulink. Simulink, created by
MathWorks, is a business apparatus for displaying, reproducing, and investigating
multi area dynamic frameworks. Its fundamental interface is a graphical square
diagramming gadget and a customizable plan of square libraries. It offers tight
uniting with the rest of the MATLAB condition and can either drive MATLAB or
be scripted from it. Simulink is commonly used in control theory and mechanized
sign taking care of multi zone reenactment and plan. The accompanying figure
indicates reproduction consequences of, stator back emf, stator current, and elec-
tromagnetic torque (Figs. 3, 4, 5 and 6).
Fig. 2 Simulation for PMBLDC motor drive speed control using back-emf detection method
Fig. 3 Back emf (volts) versus time (seconds)
Fig. 4 Stator current (Amp)

Fig. 5 Rotor speed (rpm)
Fig. 6 Electromagnetic torque
7 Conclusion
A new sensorless drive scheme by detecting ZCP of BEMF difference is analyzed.

Optimal performance of the motor drive system is improved by using this scheme.
From the recreation results, it is inferred that the ideal yield of the machine can
acquire by this strategy as on account of ordinary sensorless method. The non-
partisan voltage is not required in the proposed strategy; just the three engine
terminal voltages should be detected. Here, I utilized artificial neural network

controller. By utilizing this, the engine rpm is encouraged to the ANN and the
controlled info voltage is produced naturally as indicated by the yield.
References
1. B. Singh, S. Singh, Territory of art on permanent magnet brushless DC motor drives, India.
J. Power Electron. 9(1), 1–17 (2009). JPE 9-1-1
2. Y.K. Chauhan, B. Kumar, Circuitous back EMF detection based sensorless operation of
PMBLDC motor drive, in International Conference on Power Electronics Intelligent control
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permanent magnet DC motors. in, Sensorless control for Electrical Drives and Predictive
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brushless DC motors using sensorless techniques and application trends. Sensors 10, 6901–
6947 (2010)
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permanent magnet brushless DC motor drive, in, International Conference on Electrical
Machines and Systems (Incheon, South Korea, 2010), PP. 978–983
8. Shubham Sundeep, Bhim Singh, Hearty position sensorless technique for PMBLDC motor.
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Explor. Appl. 3(4), 1615–1619 (2013)
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permanent-magnet motor using flux linkage increment. IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron. 63(7),
4052–4060 (2016)
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self-sensing controls for surface permanent-magnet machines using high-frequency signal
injection. IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. 48(3), 977–986 (2012)
13. T. Govindaraj, R. Rasila, Development of fuzzy logic controller for DC – DC Buck
Converters. Int J. Eng. Techsci. 2(2), 192–198 (2010)
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interior permanent magnet brushless DC engines, in IEEE International Electric Machines
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Int. Conf. Displaying, Simul. Choose. Mach., Converters Syst. (Montreal, QC, Canada, 2002)
Comparative Performance Analysis
of Active- and Resistive-Type SFCL
in Reducing the Fault Current
G. Ganesh, Ravilla Madhusudan, L. Vamsi Narasimha

and B. Sambasiva Rao
Abstract Nowadays, an efficient alternative to expensive enhancement of pro-

tective equipment is superconducting fault current limiters (SFCLs), which provide
economic remedies to intercept the existing protective devices in the power system
from being severely affected by excessive currents. In this paper, resistive- and
active-type SFCLs are applied separately to reduce the fault current. The active
SFCL is a combination of a transformer which is lossless (superconducting) and a
voltage-controlled PWM converter. The converter equivalent impedance is con-
trolled for current suppression, whereas the resistive-type SFCL will compare the
fault current with the reference value and introduces some resistance based on the
increase in temperature. Both resistive- and active-type SFCLs are designed in
MATLAB and added into a test system of 100 MVA, 33 kV. The results presented
show that active SFCL reduces more fault current in comparison with the resistive
SFCL in the considered network.
Keywords Superconducting fault current limiters Pulse-width modulation

Fault current limiter RSFCL ASFCL
1 Introduction
The fault levels of power system protection equipment are exceeding the handling
limit of installed devices because of the increase in generation and consumption of
electricity. The security, stability, and reliability of the network get decreased if it is
overlooked in the mask of increasing the generation [1–10].
Multiple solutions are suggested to decrease the effect of increasing fault current
issues. The most straightforward way would be upgrading all the conductors,
switchgear, and protection devices in existing power systems to raise their fault
current ratings and interrupting speed [1, 2]. However, the process of replacing
G. Ganesh (&) R. Madhusudan L. Vamsi Narasimha B. Sambasiva Rao

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Sir C R Reddy College of Engineering,
Eluru, Andhra Pradesh, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_45
474 G. Ganesh et al.
equipment is expensive, complicated, and time-consuming. Moreover, many of the,

in effect, switchgear and protection equipment need several cycles to interrupt the
fault current. Unfortunately, faults will not wait, and within this period damage the
system. So, the research for effective suppression of abnormal current with in less
time has taken its gear up [3].
1.1 The fault current limiter (FCL) solution
Because of the urgency of the fault current limitation and issues with the other
techniques, fault current limiters (FCLs) have become the preferred option to costly
system upgrades. The advantages of FCLs are that they generally do not affect power
system operation during normal conditions, respond, and act very fast to mitigate the
destructive and other undesirable effects caused by fault currents [2, 11].
Out of many types of fault current limiters developed, superconducting fault
current limiter (SFCL) is the most inventive fault-current-limiting device. The per-
formance of SFCL to improve reliability of system with in effect devices was studied
in this paper by using resistive-type and active-type SFCL. Both resistive-and
active-type SFCLs are designed in MATLAB and introduced into test system of
100 MVA, 33 kV supplying a resistive load. The performance characteristics of
resistive- and active-type SFCLs are checked under different fault conditions, and the
results are presented.
2 Theoretical Analysis
2.1 Construction and Operation of Active SFCL
Figure 1 shows active SFCL, which consists of a lossless (superconducting)

transformer and a voltage-type PWM converter. Ls1 and Ls2 are the self-
inductances, and Ms is the mutual inductance. Z1 is the impedance of the entire
circuit, and Z2 is the impedance of the load. Ld and Cd act as filters of harmonics in
output. As the AC voltage side of the converter circuit is controlled, it is viewed as
a regulated voltage source [1, 2].
Under no-fault conditions, the current (I2) induced will be made zero, so the active
SFCL has nothing to do on the network. After the identification of fault, the current
produced will be periodically adjusted in phase angle and amplitude to control the
primary voltage of lossless transformer in series with the main circuit. In this way, the
fault current is decreased to a significant value. The two voltage equations obtained are
cs ¼ Ib1 ðZ1 þ Z2 Þ þ jxLS1 Ib1 jxMS Ib2

U ð1Þ
Comparative Performance Analysis of Active- and Resistive- Type … 475
Fig. 1 Single-phase voltage compensation-type active SFCL. a Connection diagram and b circuit
equivalent of transformer
Fig. 2 Simulink model of active-type SFCL
cp ¼ jxMs Ib1 jxLs2 Ib2

U ð2Þ
By the control of I2, the voltage Up will be made equal to zero. Therefore,
impedance SFCL is zero (ZSFCL = Up/I1). During abnormal operation (Z2 faulted),
the line current will increase to I1f, and the voltage of primary circuit increase to Upf
[3, 5] (Fig. 2).

cs þ jxMs Ib2
U
Ic
1f ¼ ð3Þ
ðZ1 þ jxLs1 Þ
cs ðjxLs1 Þ Ib2 Z1 ðjxMs Þ

U
d
U1f ¼ jxLs1 Ic b
1f jxMs I2 ¼ ð4Þ
ðZ1 þ jxLs1 Þ
The ZSFCL (current-limiting impedance) is given by:
d
U1f jxMs Ib2 ðZ1 þ jxLs1 Þ
ZSFCL ¼ ¼ jxLs1 ð5Þ
Ic
1f
cs þ jxMs Iba
ðU
With I2 in normal state, impedance of SFCL is
Z2 ðjxLs1 Þ
ZSFCL1 ¼ ð6Þ
ðZ1 þ Z2 þ jxLs1 Þ
Suppressing I2 to none, the
ZSFCL2 ¼ jxLs1 ð7Þ
2.2 Structure and Principle of Resistive SFCL
Under the typical operating condition, SFCL does not influence the network due to
zero resistance. During faulted condition, the current rises above the typical value of
superconductors, forcing the device to go into resistive state. This kind of nonlinear
characteristic of SFCL is used to bring down fault current. In this paper, quench and
recovery characteristics are designed based on the resistance of SFCL which is
expressed by
8
> 0; ðt0 [ tÞ
>
> h i12
< ðtt
Tsc Þ
0
RSFCL ¼ Rm 1 e ; ðt0 t\t1 Þ ð8Þ

>
> a1 ð t t 1 Þ þ b1 ; ðt1 t\t2 Þ
>
:
a2 ð t t 2 Þ þ b2 ; ðt2 tÞ
Rm is the highest value of resistance offered by SFCL, and Tsc is the transition
time of the SFCL. Also, t0 time is the start time of to suppress. Finally, t1 and t2 are
the retrieval times, respectively. Extinguishing and regaining characteristics of the
SFCL modeled in MATLAB using the above mathematical equation are shown in
Fig. 3 Operating characteristics of resistive SFCL
Fig. 4 Simulink model of resistive-type SFCL
Fig. 4. In standard condition, resistance of SFCL is zero, which is shown in Fig. 3.

When time is one second, the resistance offered increases to value required for
quenching of current and then the resistance of SFCL reduces to zero [8–10].
For a test circuit with the source of 100 MVA, 33 kV, the resistive transmission
line of 10 km with a balanced resistive load is modeled in MATLAB environment
(Fig. 5).
For the above test circuit, when different faults are applied at t = 0.2 s, the
results are shown in the following figures. It is observed that the fault current in the
faulted phase, when an L-G fault is applied, has risen to 2700 A, which is very
much higher than the standard current without fault. Similarly, for other faults like
L-L, L-L-G, and L-L-L, the fault current magnitudes are 2400 A, 2700 A, and
2800 A, respectively. The variation of the currents for all the above faults is shown
in Figs. 6, 7, 8, and 9.
Fig. 5 Simulink model of the test circuit
3.1 Current Wave Forms for Various Faults
In order to limit the high fault current, we now insert the resistive SFCL into the test
circuit. The resistive SFCL increases the resistance when the fault occurs, and it is
observed that fault currents for different faults are 1700 A, 1500 A, 1800 A, and
1700 A which indicates a reduction of around 37% in the magnitude of fault current
without SFCL. The variation of the currents for all the above faults with resistive
SFCL is shown in Figs. 10, 11, 12, and 13.
Now, in the place of resistive SFCL, we introduce active SFCL into the test
network. We can reduce the fault current magnitudes for different faults to 1300 A,
1100 A, 1200 A, and 1300 A, respectively, for all the faults without SFCL. This
indicates a reduction of around 62% in the magnitude of fault current without
SFCL. The variation of the currents for all the above faults with active SFCL is
shown in Figs. 14, 15, 16, and 17 (Fig. 18 and Table 1).
Fig. 6 Current waveform for L-G fault
Fig. 7 Current waveform for L-L fault
Fig. 8 Current waveform for L-L-G fault

Fig. 9 Current waveform for L-L-L fault
Fig. 10 Current waveform of L-G fault
Fig. 11 Current waveform of L-L fault

Fig. 12 Current waveform of L-L-G fault
Fig. 13 Current waveform of L-L-L fault
Fig. 14 Current waveform of L-G fault

Fig. 15 Current waveform of L-L fault
Fig. 16 Current waveform of L-L-G fault
Fig. 17 Current waveform of L-L-L fault

Fig. 18 Current values of

various faults
Table 1 Current values of various faults

Type of fault Without SFCL (Amps) With resistive With active SFCL (Amps)
SFCL (Amps)
L-G 2700 1700 1300
L-L 2400 1500 1100
L-L-G 2700 1800 1200
L-L-L 2800 1700 1300
4 Conclusion
The suppression characteristics of resistive- and active-type SFCLs are studied

under different fault conditions in a balanced three-phase power system with only
resistive load and resistive lines. The resistive SFCL increases the resistance when
the fault occurs, and a reduction of around 37% in the magnitude of fault current for
different faults without SFCL is observed. By placing the active SFCL, a reduction
of around 62% in the magnitude of fault current without SFCL can be observed.
From the observations, it is concluded that active SFCL is more effective (i.e.,
almost double) in suppressing excessive current magnitude than resistive SFCL for
a particular system with a resistive load which is not a practical case. For further
studies, these two types of SFCLs can be applied in a real-time system with RL
load, and their performance could be analyzed. Within the scope of this paper, the
active-type SFCL is superior to the resistive-type SFCL.
References
1. A. Nageswara Rao, P. Rama Krishna, The fault level reduction in distribution system using an
active type SFCL. Int. J. Eng. Comput. Sci. 5(8), 17392–17396 (2016). ISSN: 2319-7242
2. L. Chen, C. Deng, F. Guo, Y. Tang, J. Shi, L. Ren, Reducing the fault current and overvoltage
in a distribution system with distributed generation units through an active type SFCL. IEEE
Trans. Appl. Supercond. 24(3), 1051–8223 (2014)
3. L. Chen, Y. Tang, J. Shi, Z. Sun, Simulations and experimental analyses of the active
superconducting fault current limiter. Phys. C 459(1/2), 27–32 (2007)
4. L. Chen, Y. Tang, J. Shi, Z. Li, L. Ren, S. Cheng, Control strategy for three-phase four-wire
PWM converter of integrated voltage compensation type active SFCL. Phys. C 470(3), 231–
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(2013). ISSN: 2278-0181
8. U.M. Mohana, S.T. Suganthi, Performance analysis of superconducting fault current limiter
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present and future power systems. A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
(April 2013)
Squirrel Search Optimizer for Solving
Economic Load Dispatch Problem
V. P. Sakthivel, M. Suman and P. D. Sathya
Abstract Economic load dispatch (ELD) is one of the most imperative problems to
be solved for the economic operation of a power system. In this context, a new
meta-heuristic swarm intelligence algorithm named squirrel swarm optimizer
(SSO) for solving the ELD problems is proposed. SSO mimics the foraging
behavior of squirrels which is based on the dynamic jumping and gliding strategies.
The proposed SSO approach is implemented for two-test power systems encom-
passing 6 and 15 units systems and compared with genetic algorithm (GA), particle
swarm optimization (PSO), artificial immune system (AIS), chaotic PSO (CPSO),
bacterial foraging algorithm (BFA), biogeography based optimization (BBO),
firefly algorithm (FA), glowworm swarm optimization (GSO), and exchange
market algorithm (EMA). Results reveal the supremacy of the proposed SSO
approach in terms of solution quality and convergence speed.
Keywords Economic dispatch Prohibited operating zone Squirrel search

optimizer Ramp rate limits
1 Introduction
ELD is one of the most important concerns to be solved for a power system to
operate smoothly and economically. It is a process of sharing the total load on a
power system between different generating plants in order to achieve the greatest
operating economy. Conventional techniques such as linear programming algo-
rithms [1], quadratic programming algorithms [2], nonlinear programming algo-
rithms [3], dynamic programming algorithms [4, 5], and Lagrangian relaxation
V. P. Sakthivel (&)
Department of EEE, Government College of Engineering, Dharmapuri 636704, India
M. Suman
Department of EEE, FEAT, Annamalai University, Chidambaram 608002, India
P. D. Sathya
Department of ECE, FEAT, Annamalai University, Chidambaram 608002, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_46
486 V. P. Sakthivel et al.
algorithms [6, 7] have been implemented to ELD issues. The classical

calculus-based methods cannot perform satisfactorily to solve ELD problems due to
highly nonlinear features of the problem and a large number of constraints. For
instance, recent meta-heuristic algorithms, PSO [8–12], adaptive PSO [13], chaotic
PSO [14, 15], differential evolution (DE) [16], evolutionary programming
(EP) [17], GA [18, 19], real-coded GA [20], BFA [21], BBO [22], gravity search
algorithm (GSA) [23], pattern search technique (PSM) [24], AIS [25], artificial bee
colony (ABC) [26, 27], FA [28], and GSO [29] are promising alternatives to
solving complicated ELD issues. An opposition-based learning idea is employed to
enrich GSA’s performance [30]. Liao provided GA algorithm based on niche
immune isolation to solve dynamic ELD (DELD) problem [31]. Modified chaotic
DE (MCDE) is suggested to solve the DELD issue of a large-scale integrated power
system [32]. Chaotic map update mechanism and metropolis rule are used in the
MCDE to improve normal DE features. Modified shuffled frog jumping algorithm
is implemented to solve the ELD problem [33]. Iteration-based PSO algorithm is
introduced to solve the ELD issue [34].
Lately, different hybridization techniques such as GA-SQP [35], PSO-SQP [36,
37], hybrid EP-PSO-SQP [38], hybrid DE (HDE) [39, 40], hybrid DE-PSO [41],
hybrid shuffled differential evolution (SDE) [42], hybrid differential harmony
search [43], and modified shuffled frog leaping algorithm (MSFLA) with genetic
algorithm [33] are developed to provide better solutions for ELD problems.
Ghorbani and Babaei [44] presented a new heuristic algorithm for solving ELD
problems, by employing EMA. A novel modified PSO (MPSO), which includes the
advantages of BF and PSO, was proposed for constrained dynamic ELD problem
[45]. Bacterial foraging PSO-DE (BPSO-DE) algorithm [46] was developed by
integrating BFO, PSO, and DE for solving static and dynamic ELD problems of
different test systems.
Squirrel search optimizer (SSO) is a recently developed powerful swarm intel-
ligence algorithm proposed by Jain et al. [47] to solve constrained optimization
problem. The proposed SSO approach is based on the foraging activities of squirrel
individuals. Each squirrel individual modifies its position using four processes,
namely (1) distributing the population, (2) dynamic foraging behavior, (3) seasonal
adapting intelligence, and (4) random repositioning of individuals at the end of
winter season. The dynamic foraging and seasonal adapting mechanisms balance
the exploration and exploitation searches of the algorithm which make SSO a
powerful technique.
In this paper, a new swarm intelligence algorithm, SSO, is developed for solving
the ELD problems. The SSO technique is applied on two different test cases (6-unit
and 15-unit systems) with varying degree of complexity for verifying its perfor-
mance with other methods such as GA, PSO, AIS, CPSO, BFA, BBO, FA, GSO,
and EMA.
The rest of this paper is organized as follows: The problem formulation is
presented in Sect. 2. Section 3 describes the brief overview of the proposed SSO
approach and the pseudo-code of the proposed method applied to ELD problem.
Squirrel Search Optimizer for Solving Economic … 487
The simulation results and comparisons are discussed in Sect. 4. The conclusion is
summarized in Sect. 5.
2 Formulation of ELD with Generator Constraints
The goal of the ELD problem is to find an optimal power generation schedule while
minimizing fuel costs and also satisfying the operating constraints of different
power systems.
2.1 Objective Function
The problem with ELD is formulated as follows:
X
ng
Minimize F ¼ Fi ðPi Þ ð1Þ
i¼1
The generator’s total fuel cost is defined by:
Fi ðPi Þ ¼ ai P2i þ bi Pi þ Ci
where
Fi total fuel cost of the generators
ai ; bi ; ci cost coefficients of generator i.
2.2 System Constraints
2.2.1 Power Balance Constraints
The generators’ complete power output must be equal to the sum of power
requirements and complete transmission losses and is provided by:
X
ng
Pi ¼ PD þ PL
i¼1
The transmission losses are expressed as

ng X
X ng X
ng
PL ¼ Pi Bij Pj þ B0i Pi þ B00
i¼1 j¼1 i¼1
where PD power demand

PL transmission losses
Bij line loss coefficients.
2.2.2 Generator Capacity Constraints
Each unit’s output power needs to be restricted by limiting inequality between its
limits. This constraint is represented by
Pi;min Pi Pi;max
where Pi;min ; Pi;max minimum and maximum generation of unit i.
2.2.3 Ramp Rate Constraints
The actual working range of all generating units is restricted by the ramp rate
constraint and is provided as follows:
Pi P0i URi
P0i Pi DRi
where Pi ; P0i current and previous power output of ith unit, respectively
2.2.4 Prohibited Operating Zone
Prohibited operating zones constraint is defined by
Pi;min Pi P1
i;k1 Pi Pi;k
PU k ¼ 2; . . .nz
L
PU
i;nz Pi Pi;max
where URi, DRi up and down ramp limits of ith unit, respectively
k index of prohibited zone
3 Proposed Approach Based on Squirrel Search

Algorithm
SSO is a recently developed swarm intelligence algorithm based on the foraging

behavior of squirrels. It has been first proposed by Jain et al. [47]. It is a
population-based approach consisting of a large number of squirrels in which each
squirrel moves through a multi-dimensional search space to look for food. In this
optimization algorithm, the positions of squirrels are considered as different design
variables and the distance of the food from the squirrel individual is analogous to
the fitness value of the objective function. In SSO, the individual squirrel alters its
position and moves to the better positions. It involves that there is n number of
squirrels in a deciduous forest and only one squirrel at each tree. It is assumed that
the three types of trees, namely normal, acorn, and hickory trees, are available in the
forest. The forest area is supposed to contain N trees in which one hickory tree, Na
acorn trees, and remaining are normal trees which have no food. The hickory tree is
the best foraging area for the squirrels.
The movement of each individual is influenced by the four processes, namely
(i) distributing the population, (ii) dynamic foraging behavior, (iii) seasonal
adapting intelligence, and (iv) random repositioning at the end of winter season.
3.1 Distributing the Population
The positions of N squirrel individuals are randomly generated. Then, the popu-
lation is sorted in ascending order for minimization problem and vice versa. Then,
the squirrel individuals are distributed into three types: individuals located at
hickory trees (Fh), individuals located at acorn trees (Fa), and individuals located at
normal trees (Fn). Fh is the squirrel individual with the minimum fitness value, Fa
includes the individuals that have the fitness rank from 2 to Na + 1, and the
remaining individuals are denoted as Fn.
3.2 Dynamic Foraging Behavior
The dynamic foraging behavior can be mathematically modeled as follows:

The positions of individuals which are gliding from acorn trees to the hickory
tree are updated as follows.

Xait þ dg Gc X th Xait if r1 Pdp
Xait þ 1 ¼ ð2Þ
Random location otherwise
The positions of remaining individuals which are gliding from normal trees to
the acorn and hickory trees are updated by the following equations, respectively.

Xit þ dg Gc X tai Xit if r2 Pdp
Xit þ 1 ¼ ð3Þ

Xit þ dg Gc X th Xit if r3 Pdp
Xit þ 1 ¼ ð4Þ
where r1, r2, and r3 are random numbers in the range of [0, 1], Xh is the location of
squirrel individual which reached the hickory tree, and t indicates the current
iteration. Gliding constant, Gc, is used to balance the exploration and exploitation
searches in the SSO algorithm. Its value notably influences the performance of the
proposed algorithm. dg is the gliding distance which can be expressed as
hg
dg ¼
tanð/Þ
where hg is the constant valued 8 and tan (u) represents the gliding angle which is
defined by
D
tanð/Þ ¼
L
where D and L are the drag and lift forces which can be expressed by the following
equations, respectively:
1
D¼
2qV 2 SCD
1
L¼
2qV 2 SCL
where q, V, and S are density of air, speed, and the surface area of body, respec-
tively. CD and CL are drag and lift coefficients, respectively.
3.3 Seasonal Adapting Intelligence
The foraging behaviors of squirrels are significantly affected by the seasonal fluc-
tuations. The squirrels are more active in autumn as compared to winter. To avert
the SSO algorithm from being abused into local optimal solutions, the seasonal
adapting intelligence is introduced.
The seasonal constant is given by
vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
u d 2
uX
Sc ¼ t
t t
Xai;k Xh;k t
i ¼ 1; 2; . . .; Na ð5Þ
k¼1
The minimum value of seasonal constant is expressed as
10e6
Smin ¼ ð6Þ
ð365Þt=ðtmax =2:5Þ
where t and tmax are the current and maximum iteration values, respectively. The
larger Smin value facilitates the exploration while smaller one improves the
exploitation ability of the algorithm.
3.4 Random Repositioning at the End of Winter Season
If Stc Smin , winter season is completed. Then, the locations of the flying squirrel
individuals are randomly repositioned by the following equation.
tþ1
Xinew ¼ XL þ Le0 vyðxÞ ðXU XL Þ ð7Þ
where XL and XU are the lower and upper bounds of squirrel individual.
Levy distribution improves global exploration ability of the algorithm and finds
new candidate solutions far away from the current best solution.
The Le’vy flight is calculated as
a ra
Le0 vyðxÞ ¼ 0:01 1
jrb jb
where ra and rb are two randomly distributed numbers in [0, 1], b is a constant, and
a is expressed as
2 3b1
Cð1 þ bÞ sin pb
a¼4 5
2

C 1 þ2 b b 2ð 2 Þ
b1
where CðxÞ ¼ ðx 1Þ
Algorithm: Pseudocode for SSO based ELD
Begin:
Read input parameters of SSO algorithm and system data
Generate random positions for n number of squirrels
Evaluate fitness of each squirrel’s location using Eq. (1)
Sort the locations of squirrel individuals in ascending order depending upon their
fitness value
Distribute the squirrel individuals on hickory nut tree, acorn nuts trees and normal
trees
Randomly select some squirrel individuals which are on normal trees to move to-
wards hickory nut tree and the remaining will move towards acorn nuts trees
while(Stopping criterion is false)
For t = 1 to n1 (n1 = Number of squirrel individuals which are gliding from acorn
trees to hickory nut tree)
if r1 ≥ Pdp
Update the position of squirrel individual using Eq. (2)
else
Randomly generate the position of squirrel individual within the search do-
main.
end
end
For t = 1 to n2 (n2 = Number of squirrel individuals which are gliding from normal
trees to acorn trees)
if r2 ≥ Pdp
else
main.
end
end
For t = 1 to n3 (n3 = Number of squirrel individuals which are gliding from normal
trees to hickory tree)
if r3 ≥ Pdp
else
main.
end
end
Calculate seasonal constant (Sc) using Eq. (5)
if S ct ≤ S min
Randomly reposition the squirrel individuals using Eq. (7)
end
Update the minimum value of seasonal constant (Smin) using Eq. (6)
end
The location of squirrel on hickory nut tree is the final optimal solution of the ELD
problem
End
4 Simulation Results and Comparisons
In order to examine the effectiveness of SSO-based ELD problems, numerical

simulations are performed on 6 and 15-unit schemes and the outcomes acquired are
compared with those of GA, PSO, AIS, CPSO, BFA, BBO, FA, GSO, and EMA
approaches. The numerical assessments are conducted by SSO approach based on
MATLAB simulation.
The parameters used in SSO approach are as follows:
• Number of hickory tree = 1
• Number of acorny trees, Na = 3
• Number of trees (population size) = 20
• Maximum number of generations, tmax = 100
• Gliding constant, Gc = 1.9
• Density of air, q = 1.204 kg m−3
• Speed, V = 5.25 ms−1
• Surface area of body S = 154 cm2
• Drag coefficient CD = 0.6
• Lift coefficients CL=0.675 CL 1.5
4.1 Test System 1
The proposed SSO approach is applied to a small test system composed of six
generating units with a load demand of 1263 MW. For this test scheme, trans-
mission loss, ramp rate restrictions, and forbidden working areas are regarded. The
system information for this test case is provided in Table 1. Table 2 shows the
optimum schedule of generation and the total cost of generation obtained by various
approaches.
Table 1 System data for 6-units

Unit (i) Pimin Pimax ai bi ci PUR PDR Piprev POZs
1 100 500 240 7.0 0.0070 80 120 440 [210, 240], [350, 380]
2 50 200 200 10.0 0.0095 50 90 170 [90, 110], [140, 160]
3 80 300 220 8.5 0.0090 65 100 200 [150, 170], [210, 240]
4 50 150 200 11.0 0.0090 50 90 150 [80, 90], [110, 120]
5 50 200 220 10.5 0.0080 50 90 190 [90, 110], [140, 150]
6 50 120 190 12.0 0.0075 50 90 110 [75, 85], [100, 105]
494
Table 2 Best solution of 6 units’ system

Unit (MW) GA [12] PSO [12] CPSO [15] AIS [25] BFA [21] BBO [22] EMA [44] GSO [29] SSO
P1 474.8066 447.4970 434.4236 458.2904 449.46 447.3997 447.3872 446.892 447.0936
P2 178.6363 173.3221 173.4385 168.0518 172.88 173.2392 173.2524 175.4966 172.9299
P3 262.2089 263.4745 274.2247 262.5175 263.41 263.3163 263.3721 262.4621 263.9487
P4 134.2826 139.0594 128.0183 139.0604 143.49 138.0006 138.9894 137.0965 138.6932
P5 151.9039 165.4761 179.7042 178.3936 164.91 165.4104 165.3650 164.5297 164.9655
P6 74.1812 87.1280 85.9082 69.3416 81.252 87.0797 87.0781 89.3483 87.7593
PL 13.0217 12.9584 12.9583 12.655 12.4437 12.446 12.443 12.5273 12.3902
Minimum cost ($/h) 15,459 15,450 15447 15448 15443.8164 15443.0963 15443.075 15,448 15442.4
Bold designates the results of suggested approach
V. P. Sakthivel et al.
It is found from the table that the proposed SSO approach provides lesser fuel
cost than the other approaches.
4.2 Test System 2
The SSO is also implemented on a bigger test system that consists of the 15
generating units. Transmission losses and forbidden area of operation are included.
The system’s complete load demand is regarded to be 2630 MW. Table 4 presents
the generator coefficients, capacity limits, ramp rate limits, and forbidden areas. In
Table 5, the ideal generation plan, cost, and power loss acquired by the suggested
SSO approach are contrasted with other approaches (Table 3).
4.3 Convergence, Statistical, and Computational Analyses
The convergence behavior of SSO is depicted in Figs. 1 and 2. It is seen from

figures that SSO converges more quickly. The 50 independent trials are executed
for the two test cases, and the obtained statistical results are presented in Tables 3
and 6. From the statistical analysis, it is manifested that the generation costs
obtained by different trials are closer to the best solution. The average execution
time taken by the SSO algorithm is the least among the other compared approaches.
Thus, the proposed SSO approach confirms the excellent solution quality, com-
putational efficiency, and convergence characteristics.
5 Conclusion
In this paper, a new meta-heuristic swarm intelligence algorithm named squirrel

swarm optimizer (SSO) for solving the ELD problems is introduced. The proposed
SSO approach has been implemented in two power systems and compared with
other approaches available in the literature. From this comparative study, it is
evident that the proposed SSO algorithm has acquired better solutions in terms of
solution quality and convergence characteristics. In the vein of ELD problem, this
proposed SSO approach may also be urged for solving other constrained power
system optimization problems.
496
Table 3 Statistical analysis of 6 units’ system

Compared items GA [12] PSO [12] CPSO [15] AIS [25] BFA [21] BBO [22] EMA [44] GSO [29] SSO
Min. cost ($/hr) 15,459 15,450 15447 15448 15443.8164 15443.0963 15443.075 15,448 15442.4
Mean cost ($/hr) 15469 15454 15449 15459.7 15446.95383 15443.0963 15443.075 15450 15442.6
CPU time/iteration (sec) 0.22 0.066 – – – 0.0325 0.0244 0.189 0.023
Table 4 System data for 15-units
Unit(i) Pimin Pimax ai bi ci PUR PDR Piprev POZs
1 150 455 671 10.1 0.000299 80 120 400
2 150 455 574 10.2 0.000183 80 120 300 [185, 225], [305, 335], [420, 450]
3 20 130 374 8.80 0.001126 130 130 105
4 20 130 374 8.80 0.001126 130 130 100
5 150 470 461 10.4 0.000205 80 120 90 [180, 200], [305, 335], [390, 420]
6 135 460 630 10.1 0.000301 80 120 400 [230, 255], [365, 395], [430, 455]
7 135 465 548 9.80 0.000364 80 120 350
8 60 300 227 11.2 0.000338 65 100 95
Squirrel Search Optimizer for Solving Economic …
9 25 162 173 11.2 0.000807 60 100 105

10 25 160 175 10.7 0.001203 60 100 110
11 20 80 186 10.2 0.003586 80 80 60
12 20 80 230 9.90 0.005513 80 80 40 [30, 40], [55, 65]
13 25 85 225 13.1 0.000371 80 80 30
14 15 55 309 12.1 0.001929 55 55 20
15 15 55 323 12.4 0.004447 55 55 20
497
498
Table 5 Best solution of 15 units’ system

Unit (MW) GA [12] PSO [12] CPSO [15] AIS [25] EMA [44] FA [28] GSO [29] SSO
P1 415.31 439.12 450.05 441.1587 455.00 455.00 455 455.00
P2 359.72 407.97 454.04 409.5873 380.00 380.00 380 380.00
P3 104.42 119.63 124.82 117.2983 130.00 130.00 130 130.00
P4 74.98 129.99 124.82 131.2577 130.00 130.00 130 130.00
P5 380.28 151.07 151.03 151.0108 170.00 170.00 170 170.00
P6 426.79 459.99 460 466.2579 460.00 460.00 460 460.00
P7 341.32 425.56 434.53 423.3678 430.00 430.00 430 430.00
P8 124.79 98.56 148.41 99.948 72.0415 71.745 72.0672 72.5623
P9 133.14 113.49 63.61 110.684 58.6212 58.9164 60 59.6765
P10 89.26 101.11 101.13 100.2286 160.00 160.00 158.487 157.487
P11 60.06 33.91 28.656 32.0573 80.00 80.00 80 80.00
P12 50.0 79.96 20.912 78.8147 80.00 80.00 80 80.00
P13 38.77 25.0 25.001 23.5683 25.00 25.00 25 25.004
P14 41.94 41.41 54.418 40.2581 15.00 15.00 15.274 15.262
P15 22.64 35.61 20.625 36.9061 15.00 15.00 15.0592 15.0542
PL 38.2782 32.4306 32.1302 32.4075 30.6626 30.6614 30.927 30.046
Minimum cost ($/h) 33113 32858 32835 32854 32704.4503 32704.45 32706.9 32698.3
Fig. 1 Convergence of SSO

algorithm for 6-unit system
(Test system 1)
Fig. 2 Convergence of SSO

algorithm for 15-unit system
(Test system 2)
Table 6 Statistical analysis of 15 units’ system

Compared GA PSO CPSO AIS EMA [44] FA [28] GSO SSO
items [12] [12] [15] [25] [29]
Min. cost 33113 32858 32835 32854 32784.5024 32704.4503 32704.45 32698.3
($/h)
Mean cost 33228 33039 33028 33021 32976.81 32704.4504 32856.1 32700.23
($/h)
Mean CPU 49.31 26.59 13.31 – – – – 5.63
time (sec)
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Voltage Sag Mitigation for PMSG
System Using DVR Based Hybrid
Fuzzy Logic Controller
Basagonda Chandrika and B. C. Sujatha
Abstract Nowadays, many industries are using non-conventional energy sources to

generate a huge amount of power/electricity, as these are non-pollutant. But con-
necting wind turbine to the power system or grid may lead to power quality issues such
as voltage sag/swell, flicker, and harmonic and inter-harmonics. DVR is one of the CP
devices used to mitigate voltage drop/raise (Srivastav and Sharma in Int J Adv Res
Electr Electron Instr Eng 6(5), 2017 [1]). Sag is a more critical issue than swell. In this
paper, sag and harmonic problems have been addressed. It demonstrates that how
DVR injects voltage to compensate sags and reduces harmonics during fault. Here, the
performance of DVR with PI controller, fuzzy controller, and hybrid fuzzy logic
controller has been compared. The demonstration is done in MATLAB/Simulink.

Keywords Custom power (CP) Dynamic voltage restorer (DVR) Wind energy

system (WES) Permanent magnet synchronous generator (PMSG) Fuzzy logic

controller (FLC) Hybrid fuzzy logic controller (HFLC) MATLAB/Simulink
1 Introduction
In modern days, power quality problems have become more critical issues not only
for industries also for commercial people. So, maintaining a good quality of the
power without any disturbance is very important. If any failure occurs in the sys-
tem, it effects on the whole system; hence, it is essential to clear all failures and
disturbances. In the proposed system, WES is connected to the grid, which is based
B. Chandrika (&)
Power and Energy System, UVCE, Bangalore University,
K R Circle, Bangalore 560001, India
B. C. Sujatha
Department of EEE, UVCE, Bangalore University,
K R Circle, Bangalore 560001, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_47
504 B. Chandrika and B. C. Sujatha
on PMSG. There are many types of wind turbine. Voltage dip leads to an increase
in the current beyond the inverter limitation. Due to this, DC capacitor voltage
increases vulnerably. Hence, the fast removal of voltage sag is important [2].
There are many alternative ways to mitigate voltage sag, such as STATCOM,
DVR, UPQC. In [3], the dynamics of wind energy system is analyzed with and
without DVR and STATCOM. The modeling and construction of PMSG have been
explained in the literature [3]. This PMSG is very efficient than induction generator,
as it is excited without any energy supply. Because of connecting wind turbine
harmonics will be generated in the system, DVR is used to mitigate harmonics and
voltage dip. DVR injects the constant voltage and helps to enhance power quality in
the network. Here, DVR is connected with fuzzy logic controller, as it can able to
check the error of 0.1–0.9.
2 DVR
DVR is one of the CP devices which are used to inject voltage to compensate load
terminal voltage. It is designed to connect in series to the distribution system via
injection transformer. It injects constant voltage to the load terminal for mitigating
sag/swell. Sag is a more critical issue than swell.
2.1 Main Components of DVR
1. Injection transformer
2. Harmonic filter
3. Storages devices/control system
4. VSC/VSI.
Voltage injection from the DVR can be written in equation form [4] as,
VDVR ¼ Vload þ ðZline Iload Þ Vsource ð1Þ
where
Vload Load voltage
Zline Impedance of line
Iload Load current
Vsource Source voltage at fault condition
VDVR DVR injected voltage (Fig. 1).
Voltage Sag Mitigation for PMSG System Using DVR Based … 505
Fig. 1 Schematic diagram of

DVR
2.1.1 Injection Transformer
Injection transformer is used for the purpose of boost Vac, supplied by voltage
source converter to the required voltage levels.
2.1.2 Harmonic Filter
Harmonic filter eliminates the harmonic components which generated by the VSI.
Filter can be connected either high voltage side or converter side of the injection
transformer.
2.1.3 Storage Devices/Control System
DVR is used for compensation purpose. For compensation, DVR requires real
power during voltage disturbances. Hence, storage devices are used to supply real
power to DVR. In this system, controllers used are PI Controller, FLC, and HFLC.
2.1.4 VSC/VSI
VSC converts the DC voltage into AC voltage. Firing pulses to VSC is given from
PWM generator.
3 Proposed Control Scheme
In the proposed method, WES is integrated into the grid. In this method,
PMSG-based WES is connected to the source side. WES is used as an external
source. Here, wind speed is maintained at 12 m/s. Mitigation of sag and harmonics
during fault condition is very important. To mitigate these problems, DVR is
designed and proposed control strategy using HFLC. It has been shown that HFLC
has more advantages than PI. FLC analyzes analog input value in terms of logical
variables which may be any real numbers between 0 and 1.
3.1 Mathematical Equation for Conversion of Energy

in WES
The KE of wind is written as
1
Ec ¼ mv2 ð2Þ
2
m ¼ qvS ð3Þ
m = air mass; v = speed of the wind

q = density of air; S = surface area of turbine.
Power in the wind is expressed as
1 1
P W ¼ E c m v2 q S v3 ð4Þ
2 2
The above equation can be modified as
1
Pw ¼ q A v3 Cp ð5Þ
2

Cp ¼ 0:5 c 0:022b2 5:6 e0:17c ð6Þ
where
Cp Rotor power coefficient
b Blade pitch angle.
4 Test System
A 3U, 415 V, and 50 Hz programmable voltage source is connected to three

winding transformers which feeding two transmission lines. DVR is connected in
series between the point of common coupling and load through an injection
transformer. Voltage sag is created using three-phase faults. DC link is supplying
DC voltage to inverter to get AC voltage. Discrete PWM generator is used to
produce firing pulses to inverter (Table 1).
Table 1 Test system Parameter Rating

parameter
Supply voltage Three-phase, 50 Hz, 415 V
DC voltage 120 V
Line resistance 0.001 O
Line inductance 0.005 H
Stator phase resistance 0.425 O
Fig. 2 DVR control system with HFLC
Vital role of dynamic voltage restorer is to inject voltage at load terminal during
fault condition. Simulation is carried out for duration of 0.1–0.2 s. DVR with
HFLC scheme [5] is given in Fig. 2.
The proposed system configuration of DVR with hybrid fuzzy logic controller is
given in Fig. 3.
Simulation is done for DVR with PI controller, fuzzy logic controller, hybrid fuzzy
logic controller for voltage sag from 0.1 to 0.2 s. Nominal voltage taken here is
415 V, 50 Hz. It is observed that DVR has injected the required voltage for
Fig. 3 Proposed system configuration
Fig. 4 Supply voltage of the proposed system
compensation in all three phases during sag condition. Discrete PWM generator has
been used for pulse generation (Figs. 4 and 5).
Case 1: Compensated System for PI Controlled DVR
See Figs. 6 and 7.
Case 2: Compensated System of DVR with Fuzzy Logic Controller
See Figs. 8 and 9.
Case 3: Compensated system of DVR with Hybrid Fuzzy Logic Controller
See Figs. 10 and 11; Table 2.
Fig. 5 Uncompensated system with three-phase faults
Fig. 6 Injected load voltage for DVR with PI controller
6 Conclusion
In this proposed system, simulation is carried out for DVR with PI, FLC, and
hybrid fuzzy logic controller for mitigating voltage dip and harmonics. Three-phase
415 V, 50 Hz generation system has been developed with wind turbine, and PWM
Fig. 7 THD for DVR with PI controller
Fig. 8 Injected load voltage for DVR with fuzzy logic controller
generator is used for pulse generation. From the simulation result, it is shown that
DVR with hybrid fuzzy logic controller has effectively compensated voltage sag at
the load side and reduces harmonic distortion that compared simulated outputs with
PI controller and FLC. This system can be implemented further by using SVPWM
for better results.
Fig. 9 THD for DVR with FLC
Fig. 10 Injected load voltage for DVR with hybrid fuzzy logic controller
Fig. 11 THD for DVR with HFLC
Table 2 Performance System Load current THD (%)

comparison
DVR with PI controller 4.77
DVR with FLC 0.38
DVR with hybrid fuzzy controller 0.30
References
1. M. Srivastav, R. Sharma, Power quality improvement of distribution networks using dynamic

voltage restore. Int J Adv Res Electr Electron Instr Eng 6(5), (2017). https://doi.org/10.15662/
ijareeie.2017.0605034
2. M.N. Eskander, S.I. Amer, Mitigation of voltage dips and swells in grid connected wind energy
conversion systems. IETE J Res 57(6), 515 (2011)
3. M. IIyas, Y. Rana, J.S. Khan, Analysis of the grid connected wind energy system using
MATLAB/Simulink. Int J Adv Res Electr Electron Instr Eng 4(7), (2015)
4. D. Francis, T. Thomas, Mitigation of voltage sag and swell using dynamic voltage restorer. in
International Conference on Magnetics and Drives (AICERA-2014 iCMMD)
5. P. Keertana, A. Chandana, Power quality enhancement for DFIG system by using HFLC based
UPQC. Int J Adv Res Eng 7(02), (2018)
Different Types of Energy Storage
Systems: A Literature Survey
Rama Rao Bomma, J. Jayakumar and T. Bogaraj
Abstract Increasing renewable energy penetration into integrated energy storage

systems (ESS) requires more efficient methods to store the energy in an effective
way. Possibly various energy storage system (ESS) technologies faces various
problems such as charging and discharging, reliability, economy, compactness, and
safety. This paper audits the diverse sorts of ESS innovations, structures, features,
and classifications. Also gives the clear idea about applications, advantages, and
limitations of all technologies in grid and transportation system. It also provides a
general review of performance capabilities of Li-ion battery and also other
advanced ESS for small satellite applications. A hybrid ESS which consists of a
battery and a supercapacitor is used in pure electric vehicles.

Keywords Energy storage system (ESS) ESS technologies Microgrid Electric

vehicle Energy management system
1 Introduction
The fast development of vitality utilization, CO2 emanations, and request supply
bungle all inclusive is because of the rising populace development rate and
urbanization levels [1]. These challenges expect improvement to enhance vitality
use and limit fuel utilization and dangerous outflows [2]. Different options in
contrast to the utilization of petroleum products have been proposed to accomplish
supportable vitality frameworks [3, 4]. Sustainable power source (RE) innovations
R. R. Bomma (&) J. Jayakumar

Research Scholar, Karunya Institute of Technology and Sciences, Coimbatore, T.N, India
R. R. Bomma J. Jayakumar
Professor, Karunya Institute of Technology and Sciences, Coimbatore, T.N, India
R. R. Bomma T. Bogaraj
Assistant Professor, PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore, T.N, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_48
516 R. R. Bomma et al.
with vitality stockpiling frameworks (ESSs) have turned out to be broadly sup-
ported arrangements among these choices [5–7]. ESS helps sustainable power
source combination from numerous points of view and deals with the average
power balance amid a power emergency; hence, the solidness of the framework
significantly affects the general electric framework by putting away vitality amid
off-top hours with diminished expense [8–12]. Subtleties on the utilizations of
vitality stockpiling innovations have been explored in [13–15]. The reduced life
cycle of batteries has been perceived as the key limit of ESSs that impedes the
improvement of the microgrid (MG). To deal with this impediment, numerous
scientists have prescribed half breed vitality stockpiling frameworks (HESSs) that
intend to develop the future of batteries [16].
The MG thought is projected by the Consortium for Electric Reliability
Technology Solutions (CERTS) [12]. CERTS can be portrayed as a constrained
substance that includes scattered essentialness resources (DERs) and controllable
warm and weights. These stacks are related with the upstream system for power age
using photovoltaic (PV) sheets, wind plants, vitality parts, diesel generators, and
scaled down scale turbines with a limit contraption (e.g., batteries or supercapaci-
tors (SCs)) [17]. From the utility perspective, microgrid can be considered as a
controlled cell of the power structure. From the customer point of view, MG can be
expected to meet their essentials of trustworthiness, reduced feeder hardships,
enhanced capability, voltage hang minimization, or reliable impact supply [18].
Microgrid with ESS has turned into a capable segment for future shrewd matrix
sending [19–21]. Be that as it may, because of the discontinuous idea of sustainable
power source assets and fluctuating burden profiles, the power supply in MG a few
times neglects to alleviate the heap requests framework recurrence change [17, 22].
In this manner, fluctuating sustainable control sources must be smoothed with limit
structures to give better-control quality [23, 24].
Microgrid (MG) has versatile working characteristics in structure related and
islanded modes and there is a improvement of cross section capability and security
[25, 26]. In the framework associated method of activity, MGs can keep up stable
framework recurrence by trading power with a fundamental lattice [27]. In any case,
in remote islands, MGs are arranged as off-cross section systems [28] where the
fundamental repeat control is essential [22]. Figure 1 shows the structure of MG,
where PV boards give vitality and a battery vitality stockpiling gadget (BESS)
balances the interest of vitality [25].
MG associates with the power framework through the purpose of normal cou-
pling (PCC). Specified the expanded MG establishments, circulation frameworks
present critical changes in attributes contrasted and the present dispersion frame-
work. Subsequently, reasonable control procedures must be received to deal with
these distinctions and improve by and large proficiency [26].
Numerous vital contemplations exist for the vitality stockpiling framework in
MGs. Effective administration of ESS, control electronic interfaces, charging and
releasing, transformation component of intensity, unwavering quality, and security
from perils are the serious challenges for the improvement of the vitality stockpiling
Different Types of Energy Storage Systems: A Literature Survey 517
Fig. 1 Structure of MG [25]
framework in the applications of MG. Figure 2 portrays the effect of a vitality

stockpiling framework in a power framework organize [15].
ESS can be connected for vitality exchange [29], crest shaving [30], load
streaming [31], turning hold [32], voltage support [33], dark begin [33, 34],
recurrence guideline [24], quality of power [35, 36], control dependability [37],
sustainable power source frameworks (RESs) moving [38, 39], smoothing and
firming [39], transmission and circulation update deferral [40], blockage alleviation
[41], and off-lattice administration [38, 41], as appeared in Fig. 2 [42].
The choice and the executives of vitality stockpiling frameworks and vitality
assets altogether lessen the abnormalities in a power framework organize. The goal
of this audit is to exhibit the present report of ESSs, assess problem and obstruc-
tions, and give chosen proposals to promote advancement by concentrating on the
earth and wellbeing issues. This investigation talks about different existing vitality
stockpiling gadgets, which incorporate their activities and attributes for proficient
MG use. Therefore, the key commitment of this investigation is the exhaustive
Fig. 2 Application summary of energy storage system [42]

Fig. 3 Shape of flywheel

energy storage system [61]
examination of choosing future ESSs to accomplish the practical advancement of

MGs. Along these lines, this audit gives critical data to executing ESS in MG
applications and getting better the current innovation.
2 Summary of Energy Storage System
ESS setups, their characterizations, and shapes are delineated in the accompanying
subsections.
A. Energy Storage System (ESS) Configuration
Regularly totaled and disseminated ESS are the two fundamental designs of ESS
innovation for MG applications, as portrayed in Fig. 4. For the accumulated
framework, the measure of intensity stream from DERs to PCC transport stays at a
consistent esteem. Besides, the absolute limit of this ESS can be connected to
alleviate control stream vacillations [43]. On the off chance that the limit of a
vitality stockpiling gadget builds, the expense likewise increments. Assembling and
controlling expansive ESS are troublesome. Therefore, little scale and conveyed
vitality stockpiling gadgets can be utilized to accomplish the dependable and
successful power guideline. ESS gadgets in disseminated stockpiling designs are
straightforwardly associated with explicit distributive sources with various inter-
faces. Be that as it may, controlling force stream is the fundamental challenge
looked by the disseminated framework. In addition, the capacity procedure still
endures misfortunes through influence electronic interfaces for conveyed assets and
ESS [12].
Fig. 4 CAES simplified diagram [55]
B. Classification of Energy Storage System

ESS is grouped dependent on use of vitality in explicit structure. ESS can be
comprehensively ordered as an electrochemical, warm, mechanical, compound,
electrical, and crossover vitality stockpiling framework. Additionally, these
frameworks can additionally be grouped relying upon the procedure of develop-
ments and materials utilized. Figure 5 shows the subtleties on the grouping of ESS
[44]. Batteries [45], packed air vitality stockpiling (CAES) [46], flywheel vitality
stockpiling (FES) [47], SCs [16, 48], superconducting attractive vitality stockpiling
(SMES) [49], hydrogen stockpiling [50], and mixture vitality stockpiles (HESs)
[44, 51, 52] are the most much of the time utilized capacity advancements for MG
applications.
3 Different Classifications of Energy Storage Systems
A. Mechanical storage systems

Mechanical vitality stockpiling frameworks (MSS) are beneficial in light of the fact
that they can work adaptable to change over and store vitality from sources [52]. In
addition, they can convey the put away power when it essential for mechanical
work [53]. In view of the running standard, MSS can be named pressurized gas,
Fig. 5 View of redox flow battery [55]
constrained spring, motor vitality, and potential vitality. In any case, from an
innovative perspective, mechanical capacity frameworks include three frameworks:
flywheel, siphoned hydro capacity, and packed air vitality innovations. Among the
three frameworks, siphoned hydro-capacity frameworks (PHS) contribute the most
on the planet power stockpiling limit with their long life cycle. In spite of the fact
that mass vitality frameworks still depend on PHS, PHS has serious disadvantages,
for example, high capital cost, negative ecological effect, and decreased land uti-
lization. Subsequently, the future improvement of PHS is restricted [53–56].
Subtleties on different innovations, for example, flywheel vitality stockpiling
frameworks, CAES, and gravity vitality stockpiling frameworks (GES) are talked
about as pursues.
(1) Flywheel Energy Storage Systems
Flywheel, as the fundamental part mainly current fast FESS, is a gigantic turning
barrel (plate) that is bolstered on a stator by attractively suspended course [58].
FESS can be portrayed into two fundamental classes: fast and less-speed FESS [59].
Flywheels with speed of fewer than 10,000 rpm are measured as less-speed fly-
wheels, which are progressively well known in enterprises [60]. The chief shape of
a flywheel framework and an empty barrel type are appeared in Fig. 6 [61]. It can
be utilized for the smooth operation of machines and can precisely store dynamic
vitality from the rotor mass turning at more speeds [59, 62]. The put away motor
vitality in FESS is identified with speed and latency. Less-speed FESS contains a
steel plate with large idleness and less speed. Then again, fast FESS has a com-
posite circle with moderately lower dormancy and rapid. As the pivoting pace of
rotor increments, put away vitality likewise increments proportionally, and energy
storage changes in a square with angular momentum.
Fig. 6 Charging and discharging of a lead-acid battery [49]
Fig. 7 Charging and

discharging of Li-ion battery
This put away vitality can be utilized further by decelerating rotor torque (release
mode) and restoring the active vitality to the electrical engine, which goes about as
a generator [52, 62]. The efficiencies of flywheel stockpiling gadgets go from 90 to
95%, while appraised control ranges from 0 to 50 MW [62–64]. A commonplace
examination can be created between these two kinds of flywheels, and the dis-
tinctions are condensed in [66] (Fig. 3).
(2) Compressed-Air Energy Storage Systems (CAES)
CAES by and large stores the weight vitality with the press of gas (generally air)
into the repository. Turbine is utilized for development of the packed gas; it can be
changed into mechanical vitality [69]. Figure 8 outlines the rearranged schematic of
a CAES plant [55]. Amid less power request, abundance control drives a reversible
engine or a generator unit, which thusly runs a chain of blowers to infuse the air
into the capacity unit. This stockpiling unit can be as an underground cave or an
over ground supply. Nevertheless, in the midst of low power age for the pile
demand, the put away packed air is discharged and afterward warmed by the
warmth source. The packed air vitality is later exchanged to the turbine. A recover
unit is utilized here to reuse the waste warmth vitality, which further decreases fuel
utilization and cycle productivity. A far reaching audit of CAES until 1985 was
researched in [70].
Fig. 8 Chraging and

discharging of NaS battery
The main function of CAES plant on the planet is the Huntorf control plant,
which was created with two salt arches as the underground stockpiling caves
(300,000 m3 at 50 °C and 46–66 bar). The power rating of this plant is 290 MW.
This plant was intended to work at 8 h every day life cycle by accusing of packed
air. Moreover, it can work for 2 h with full power rating [71, 72]. A propelled plant
named MacIntosh plant was created in 1991 in Alabama. Its ability is 110 MW; the
plant can work at a cycle of 26 h with full power [71, 73]. Figure 9 demonstrates
the rearranged structure of the MacIntosh plant [74]. The plant reliably demon-
strates great performance with a scope of 91.2–99.5% beginning and running
reliabilities [75].
The CAES framework can be worked for little to expansive scale control limit.
In any case, it is appropriate for a huge scale unit that includes framework appli-
cations for burden moving, crest shaving, voltage, and recurrence control [55]. The
reaction time of CAES is more. CAES can smoothen the power yield of now and
again shore wind plants. Accordingly, CAES has pulled in the consideration of the
scholarly and modern parts [76]. The ongoing improvement in the field of CAES is
the application of supercritical compacted air or packed CO2, which has expanded
the proficiency of the plant [76, 77] by conquering the issues of customary CAES.
A noteworthy test to execute the substantial scale CAES innovation is choosing the
reasonable topographical positions with underground characteristic caverns [58].
To address this issue, progressed adiabatic CAES plant was planned, which like-
wise faces a problem of small release productivity. A joined cooling; warming, and
power framework was explored in 2016 to tackle these disadvantages [78].
Fig. 9 Schematic view of SC
Fig. 10 Principal diagram of SMES system [69]
B. Electrochemical Storage Systems

In the electrochemical stockpiling frameworks (EcSS), substance vitality in the
dynamic material is changed over into electrical vitality [81]. This change method is
finished by substance response, and vitality is put away as electric flow for a
particular voltage and time [75]. The dimension of voltage and current are produced
through the arrangement or parallel connections of cells [80]. This is the biggest
gathering of vitality stockpiling gadgets explored by [77]. Ordinary
battery-powered batteries and stream batteries (FBs) are two strategies that store
vitality in electrochemical structure. Be that as it may, substance response dimin-
ishes the future and vitality of battery albeit insignificant support is required for
these batteries [58].
Electrochemical capacity gadgets are accessible in various sizes, which is the

primary preferred standpoint of this innovation [66]. Lead-corrosive [67],
lithium-particle [69], sodium-sulfur (NaS) [12, 32, 42], nickel-cadmium (NiCd)
[55], nickel- metal hydride (NiMH) [71], and FBs [8, 69], are test of this stockpiling
framework. Some regular EcSSs that can be connected in MG are examined in the
accompanying subsections.
(1) Redox Flow Battery Storage Systems
FBs, which are normally called redox stream batteries (RFBs), work in charged or
released mode by a (reversible) concoction response. The reaction occurs between
the electrolytes of the battery. These two electrolytes of RFBs are contained in
autonomous tanks. As far as possible is direct in respect to the furthest reaches of
batteries, and the point of confinement of battery is affected by the amount of
battery cells and materials. Power is delivered when redox mixture response (re-
duction– oxidation) occurs in the midst of action [42]. RFBs have high efficiency
(up to 85%) with a long life cycle. It has high soundness and limit with versatile
operational characteristics in the electrical system. In this manner, RFB winds up
advantageous for application in a self-ruling and independent system [43]. A typical
and develop test of redox stream battery is vanadium redox stream battery (VRFB)
[58]. Figure 11 represents the essential perspective on vanadium battery [55]. It
demonstrates that two fluid electrolytes (V 2+/V 3+ and V 4+/V 5+) with broke
down metal particles have been siphoned to the contrary sides of the battery. Stream
Fig. 11 Topology of hybrid MG system with HESS [58]

battery has just a single dynamic component out of the two permeable anodes,
anolyte and also the catholyte. Amid charging/releasing mode, H + is traded
through the particle detachment of the layer [55]. The concoction responses are as
per the following when the cell voltage is around 1.4 V.
(2) Battery Energy Storage Systems
BESS is generally pertinent for different purposes in all areas (age, transmission,
and dissemination) of electrical power frameworks and in this way gives advan-
tages to buyers [80]. In [21] and [41], the extensive audit of the capacity
arrangement of various battery stockpiling advances, for example, lead-corrosive,
lithium-particle, redox stream, NaS, and nickel-cadmium battery has been exam-
ined. The recurrence of MG is foreseen to be constrained by BESS innovation.
A basic proportional circuit of a battery is introduced in Fig. 12 [68]. The working
point is the convergence of the source line. Vb is the terminal voltage drop, and VL
is the heap line voltage.
Figure 12 portrays the regular power profile of BESS for one day. The power
bend over the even pivot (time) means the releasing qualities of battery to control
the recurrence. Power underneath the time pivot portrays the charging condition of
the cell to keep up the recurrence inside the sensible range [52].
Battery capacity is an important determinant in selecting a storage device. The
limit of a battery might be characterized as the all out amount of electrical charges
that can be conveyed in a solitary release by the cell. The condition of charge
(SoC) can be portrayed as the proportion of outstanding ability to the ostensible
limit.
Distinctive examinations uncover that a semi Z-source inverter is an appropriate
procedure for the parallel activity of the battery. In Reference [13], a semi Z-source
Fig. 12 Capacity of global cumulative storage installations

inverter for BESS has been proposed for the application in MG. In this model, the
shoot-through obligation cycle of the semi Z-source inverter is connected to share
the heap current between the batteries worked in the islanded association conspire.
In any case, on account of a framework associated mode, to get the autonomous
guideline of current in both battery frameworks, the proposed model relies upon the
inverter tweak file and the shoot-through obligation cycle. The consequence of this
investigation demonstrated that microgrid voltage stays adjusted in the unequal
burden conditions. Different battery advances are delineated in the following
subsections.
a. Lead-Acid Storage Systems
Lead-corrosive (PbA) battery is the most broadly utilized battery-powered capacity
with different sizes and structures in various applications [58]. Among all elec-
trolyte batteries, the PbA battery demonstrates high effectiveness (70–80%) and has
the most elevated cell voltage [58].
The cathode and anode are made of PbO2 and Pb, individually. Sulfuric cor-
rosive is utilized as the electrolyte. They are more affordable contrasted and other
battery advances, for example, NiCd and NiMh, and are profoundly appropriate for
extensive scale MG applications [81]. Different focal points of this innovation are
that PbA battery gives incredible charge maintenance and vitality thickness with
quick reaction and long life cycle (5–15 years) [42]. In any case, customary PbA
battery has a short cycle lifetime (500–2000 cycles), low explicit vitality, occasional
water support, and untimely disappointment because of sulfation. To conquer the
constraints referenced, progressed PbA batteries have been created, which have
multiple times higher power dealing with capacity and four to multiple times
expanded life cycles [33, 58].
PbA batteries can be classified into overflowed and valve-directed (VRLA)
batteries. The last has turned out to be progressively well known because of its high
explicit power, generally low establishment and support cost, and fast charging
attributes [44]. VRLA incorporates the adsorbed glass material (AGM) and GEL.
AGM batteries have com-settlement volume and recombine hydrogen and oxygen
to frame the water in the charging mode; hence, water utilization is constrained
[45]. Be that as it may, GEL batteries need the controlled instrument for charging.
The fundamental weakness of this GEL battery is that inside the GEL electrolyte,
gas air pockets might be delivered.
b. Lithium-Ion (LI-ION) Storage Systems
Despite the fact that lithium-particle batteries were first popularized during the
1990s, this vitality stockpiling innovation has turned into the quickest developing
innovation lately [33]. A Li-particle stockpiling gadget can store vitality at the
megawatt scale. The huge headway of this innovation in expanding the dimensions
of vitality stockpiling limit is because of the attributes of high productivity (>90%),
high vitality thickness, quick reaction time (in milliseconds), and alluring
self-release rate (5% per mount) [52]. A schematic of the Li-particle battery
alongside the charging and releasing strategy is exhibited in [11]. The cathode and
anode are produced using lithium metal oxide (LiCoO2) and graphite carbon cell,
separately. Amid the charging time frame, Li-particle goes from cathode to anode.
The procedure is turned around on account of the release time frame. The elec-
trolyte utilized here can be framed utilizing a natural dissolvable with disintegrated
lithium salt or strong polymer [55] (Fig. 7).
The proposed strategy was considered in the accompanying situations, for
example, dark begin activity, the dismissal ability of positive and negative current
unsettling influence amid voltage guideline, and low voltage shortcoming. The test
result uncovers that the proposed technique displays an adequate act under regular
MG situations. To drag out the battery life, the present dimension must keep up the
scope of most extreme unique charge present and greatest powerful release current.
Additionally, the battery voltage ought to likewise keep up the scope of most
extreme charge voltage and greatest release voltage. The impediments of the
Li-particle battery are its cycle profundity of release (DoD) and surprising expense.
Be that as it may, the expense of the Li-particle cell is relied upon to diminish with
expansive scale creation. Table 2 represents the highlights of various vitality
stockpiling gadgets and aides in the choice of Li-particle battery as a vitality
stockpiling gadget given its improved execution [42].
Li-particle batteries are intended for high-temperature applications. The plan of
batteries relies upon better than ever sciences (e.g., LiFePO4 and Li4Ti5O12). In this
manner, these batteries are portrayed by high gravimetric and volumetric vitality
thickness (75–200 Wh/Kg and 200–500 Wh/L). It likewise demonstrates improved
proficiency (90–95%), high power capacity (multiple times concerning ostensible
power), broadened lifetime (of roughly 20 years), delayed cycle activity (8000 full
cycles), and a wide temperature extend (20–55 °C) [33, 58]. Accordingly, this
innovation needs to turn out to be progressively prevalent because of its little size,
light weight, and potential.
MGs are little power frameworks that work autonomously from the appropria-
tion matrix, and Li-particle batteries can be the most appropriate stockpiling
innovation for the islanded task of MG [36]. Additionally, a solid thought for
lithium-iron-phosphate (LiFePO4) battery is talked about in [57]. In any case,
Reference [58] suggested that a lithium-sulfur battery can be a decent option
because of its high explicit vitality, dependability, relatively minimal effort, and
diminished natural danger. As of late, Tesla has executed the world’s biggest
stockpiling innovation with Li-particle battery. The limit of this Hornsdale wind
plant is 100 MW. In this manner, a propelled Li-particle battery can be created by
consolidating every one of these qualities, which show satisfactory execution with
great effectiveness, huge storeroom, long date-book life, and low release rate.
C. Sodium-Sulfur (NaS) Storage Systems
NaS battery includes liquid terminals (both sodium and sulfur) and non-fluid beta
alumina electrolyte. Sodium is utilized as the negative anode and sulfur is treated as
the positive terminal. Figure 8 demonstrates the charge and discharge responses of
the NaS battery. Amid the releasing period, sodium (Na) is oxidized at the Na-beta
between face to create sodium particle Na+ when going through the electrolyte.
This particle is joined with sulfur to shape sodium polysulfide (Na2Sx). The
particle is likewise seen to ace duce the ideal yield voltage. Electrons move through
the outer circuit. Invert instrument happens when the battery is energized [33]. The
in general electrochemical response in the NaS battery can be composed as
Na þ xS ¼ Na2Sx;
where the estimation of x ought to be inside 3–5.

This innovation is generally material for burden leveling, voltage droop mini-
mization, and balancing out sustainable power source control age [29]. Be that as it
may, as referenced, this sort of electrochemical vitality stockpiling gadget needs to
work at high temperature (350 °C/623 K) to keep up high reactivity and guarantee
that sodium and sulfur transform into fluid [32, 59]. This component prompts
challenges in utilizing the NaS battery in different applications given that the cost
increments because of its usage [79]. In any case, with the progression of inno-
vations since 1980 and applying the particular fabrication process, the vitality
thickness of this battery turns out to be a lot higher (multiple times from
lead-corrosive battery), and cost moves toward becoming lower contrasted and
other capacity gadgets. Increasingly finished, look into is continuous to control the
point of confinement of temperature and keep up high vitality thickness, as intro-
duced in [20]. As a potential gadget to actualize in MG, it demonstrates high
efficiency, a long cycle period as long as 15 years, and quick reaction (in mil-
lisecond) amid full charging and releasing operation. Consequently, nations, for
example, Japan and China are putting resources into extensive scale mechanical
uses of this innovation [21]. The utilization of NaS battery in certain pieces of the
world is introduced in [19, 22]. This particle is joined with sulfur to frame sodium
polysulfide(Na2Sx). The particle is additionally seen to master duce the ideal yield
voltage. Electrons move through the outer circuit. Turn around system happens
when the battery is energized [13, 33, 38].
D. Electrical Storage Systems
Electrical vitality stockpiling framework (EESS) might be characterized as the limit
of putting away electrical vitality to deliver power what’s more, providing it to the
heap for use when essential. Vitality can be put away by adjusting the electrical or
attractive fields with the assistance of capacitors or superconducting magnets [52].
The present power organize framework faces the test of integrinding the trans-
mission and dispersion framework with restore capable vitality sources. Thusly,
EESS has been treated as a reasonable innovation to alleviate this issue because of
the various appealing highlights in the framework organize. These highlights may
help in working the power framework organize, load balancing, improving the
power quality, supporting the MG, and lessening the need of bringing in electrical
vitality in the pinnacle request period [55]. Ultracapacitors (UCs) and SMES
frameworks are instances of EESS [58]. They can be utilized as momentary
stockpiling gadgets if there should be an occurrence of high stream current given
that the limit of the ordinary capacitor is constrained. In this way, a supercapacitor
with high stockpiling limit may supplant the ordinary capacitor, which has high
capacitance. SMES are favored at the exit of the power plants to balance out the
yield or in the modern part, where top vitality consumption must be suited [52]. The
subtleties of these two stockpiling frameworks alongside their ongoing improve-
ment are depicted broadly in the accompanying subsections.
(1) Supercapacitor Storage Systems
SCs, additionally called UCs or electric twofold layer capacitors (EDLCs), can be
characterized as capacity gadgets that can store electrical vitality between two
leading cathodes. This innovation has no concoction responses. It has turned into
the option in contrast to a traditional capacitor utilized in various electronic
applications and general batteries. This innovation has the attributes of high power
thickness and high pinnacle control yield; the long logbook life cycle can be
revived and released up to a huge number of times contrasted and the conventional
battery [29]. The vitality thickness of SC has been expanded because of the uti-
lization of a high-surface zone material, for example, initiated carbon. In the uses of
the power framework, for example, correspondence and shuttle innovation, beat
burden may exist. This kind of burden may cause extreme power and thermal
aggravations in MG applications; this is the principle purpose behind presenting the
SC, which has a quick reaction in power leveling and power offsetting establish-
ments with the best possible control framework to beat these issues [30, 31, 69].
Figure 9 outlines the essential structure of a supercapacitor. The capacitance of SC
is not steady; rather, it differs with the difference in the voltage, which relies upon
the dog lease request and supply from SC. the electrolyte. This particle is joined
with sulfur to shape sodium polysulfide (Na2Sx). The particle is additionally seen to
professional duce the ideal yield voltage. Electrons move through the outside cir-
cuit. Switch system happens when the battery is energized [33]. The by and large
electrochemical response in the NaS battery can be composed as
Na þ xS ¼ Na2 Sx; ð1Þ
where the estimation of x ought to be inside 3–5.

In [33], the use of the supercapacitor for the best possible activity of MG in
lattice associated and islanded methods of activity for typical and broken conditions
were represented. In [34], another utilization of SC in the rail-street was talked
about, where 55.5% framework effectiveness was recorded. In different applica-
tions, the productivity of SC is nearly in the scope of 84%– 97%. In spite of having
every one of these preferences, this SC has a few downsides, which incorporate the
high self-release rate (up to 40% every day) and costs (6000 dollars/kWh). To
defeat these difficulties, the continuous investigation centers around the savvy
multi-layer SCs that comprise of materials, for example, carbon, graphene, or paper
[55, 35]. The scientists currently center around the development of cathode
dependent on ultra-little Si nano particles in polyaniline for SC [36].
SMES frameworks basically work dependent on the primary of electrodynamics

[37]. In this stockpiling framework, vitality is put away in the attractive field by the
course of current in a superconducting loop with the assistance of an AC to DC
converter (charging mode). Be that as it may, the put away vitality can be dis-
charged back to the network utilizing the DC to AC converter (releasing mode).
Ohmic misfortunes in this innovation can produce heat in the framework and along
these lines cause the warm insecurity of SMES [38].
(2) Super Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) Systems
The two sorts of SMES frameworks can be portrayed as follows: more-temperature
SMES (HTS) that works at approximately 70 K and low-temperature SMES
(LTS) that works at roughly 7 K. Figure 10 demonstrates the fundamental outline
of the SMES framework [69]. The LTS framework is a more develop innovation
than the HTS framework. This strategy can give quick reaction to charging and
releasing wonders, which are restricted to couple of milliseconds. In addition, this
framework has high vitality thickness (4 kW/l) and high productivity (95–98%)
with a long lifetime of roughly 30 years. Vitality put away in the SMES gadgets can
be communicated as pursues:
WLS ¼ 1L I2; ð2Þ
where L indicates the self-inductance of the curl, I is the measure of current that
moves through the loop, and WLS is the measure of put away vitality in the
loop. SMES frameworks are accessible in the scope of 0.1–10 MW for business
use. With the progression of technology, the limit is relied upon to increment to
around 100 MWh in the following decade. In any case, because of the unpre-
dictability of the cooling framework and curl material, the expense of the SMES
framework establishment is still high ($10,000/kWh) [58, 71]. Besides, visit
changes in the working current in this innovation make SMES precarious. This
issue was fathomed in [38]. SMES innovation is essentially pertinent in UPSs and
improves control quality. It has turned out to be stylish for MG applications because
of the adaptable attributes it offers in trading genuine and responsive power [39].
Current examinations on SMES gadgets depend on decreasing the expense of loops
and cooling frameworks to make this stockpiling gadget exceedingly alluring to
shoppers. Also, a half and half SMES framework could be created to expand
capacity limit [40].
F. Hybrid Energy Storage Systems
Half and half ESS (HESS) alludes to the joining of at least two ESSs that were
connected to accomplish the upsides of each ESS for getting brilliant qualities in a
single specific application. It is beyond the realm of imagination to expect to give
every one of the highlights by one ESS type. In this way, the mix of ESS has turned
into the interest for current innovation, for example, MG. As per [48], high-control
ESS gadgets are helpful for quick reaction at high rates for brief term, while high
vitality gadgets demonstrate the moderate reaction with the more expanded period.
MG needs an ESS that joins the attributes of more power and high vitality stock-
piling framework to improve the dependability and capacity of the framework with
the decrease of the power quality issues [49].
The control technique of HESS is more convoluted than that of a solitary ESS,
and numerous highlights are included, such writing audit on the HESS innovation
demonstrates that, for MG applications, the reconciliation of battery/SC [16],
battery/SMES [22, 50], battery/FC [51], FC/SC [32], and SC/RFB [49] is con-
ceivable. Battery/SC innovation is presently very prevalent and generally pertinent.
Battery/SMES HESS topology has been researched to improve the productivity of a
breeze plant [52], which repays the variance of burdens in railroad applications
[53], the all-encompassing life cycle of battery [54], and recurrence control in MG
[50]. For application in MG, HESS demonstrates better execution in frequency
adjustment contrasted and the battery-just framework. In this application, the bat-
tery life cycle is improved on the grounds that it acquires assurance from high
recurrence charging or discharging cycles and pinnacle flows. Reference [22]
uncovers that the life of battery can be stretched out from 5.7 to 9.2 years by the
proposed HESS topology. Reference [51] exhibited a HESS topology of battery/
FC, where the battery was utilized as an essential stockpiling gadget for short to
medium span, and HFC was connected as a long haul stockpiling gadget. The
impediment of moderate reaction in the battery can be overwhelmed by the quick
reaction qualities of HFC. Additionally, this HESS method demonstrates higher
explicit power than HFC alone. FC/SC HESS for MG applications likewise show
better performance (8.5% more productivity) than FC stockpiling framework just
[32].
a. Application of Battery/Supercapacitor Energy Storage Systems in
Microgrid
Numerous examinations have explored on the hybridization of battery/SC for a long
time. This theme is generally main stream with the scientists since it can furnish
nearly substantial capacity limit with quick charging and releasing characteristics
[55]. A dynamic model for this structure has been projected in [56]. This model is
fit for balancing out the recurrence change in MG application. The utilization of SC
gives the battery alleviation from worry by limiting motions and abrupt homeless
people Apart from these qualities, ensuring the framework interior power and
making full utilization of vitality are likewise the critical contemplations for HESS
[57]. A network incorporated cross breed MG framework with HESS has been
created, as appeared in Fig. 11 [58]. MG assumes crucial double job characteristics
by going about as a rectifier from the AC-side and as an inverter from the DC-side.
This HESS innovation improves the expansion of life go up to 75% through
pinnacle shaving and related warm weight response [59]. All the related research on
battery/SC uncovers this is a much improved, dependable, and effectively available
innovation that fulfills the interest of the framework and enhance battery task.
Consequently, framework productivity and future of the battery have been
improved with this HESS system.
4 Issues and Challenges of Ess in Mg Applications
The present status of ESS innovation alongside the development of HESS can
alleviate numerous difficulties looked by the past innovation, for example, pro-
ductivity or capacity limit. Be that as it may, the extent of the further improvement
of this technology for the future application in MG innovation given that BESS
innovation has lost his appeal because of calendric maturing and cyclic maturing
[60]. Research is presently centered based around the measuring, costing, wellbe-
ing, or effective administration of vitality in the framework. Along these lines, the
key issues and difficulties can be recognized with respect to material determination,
control electronic interfacing, vitality balance among ESS and MG, natural effect,
and the security of this innovation. The accompanying subsections give a point by
point review of these key issues alongside the particular proposals.
A. Selection of Materials
Material choice, cost of materials, and accessibility of crude materials are the most
critical criteria for ESS framework. Materials decide the existence cycle of the
capacity gadget. A few stockpiling materials and their improvement methodology
for different capacity, for example, mechanical, warm, hydrogen, gravity, electro-
magnetic, and electrochemical gadgets, have been talked about in various exami-
nations. In any case, the material determination is not ideal as a rule [81]. For the
further advancement of ESS in MG application, the execution of high-grade ESS
materials with their critical commitment must be tended to [61]. Charging and
releasing attributes, limit, vitality and power thickness, life cycle, and destruc-
tiveness can be significantly impacted by the materials [8]. The current ESS
component with extensive capacity limit, for example, flywheel, siphoned hydro,
SMES, lithium-particle battery, NaS battery, and stream battery is still expensive in
the power showcase. In addition, half and half ESS, for example, a battery/
supercapacitor, gives an expansive limit storeroom; however, the effectiveness of
this HESS innovation can additionally be created. In this manner, a financially
savvy long haul cutting edge innovation can lead the material choice of ESS in MG
application with improved vitality effectiveness and solidness.
B. Power Electronic Interface
The power electronic interface manages the procedure to guarantee the power
quality, execution, control guideline, dependability, solidness, and productivity of
the framework [15, 63]. To build the handiness of the MG framework, control
electronic interface (PEI) might be utilized to coordinate MG with ESS and the
current electrical power organize. PEI has different attributes since it has the
important plan for power change with the assistance of a rectifier and an inverter.
For PEI applications, distinctive converters, for example, buck, support, buck-help,
cûk, half-connect, fly back, H-extension, and Z-source converter, might be utilized,
which can be sorted under DC-DC, DC-AC, AC-AC, and AC-DC converter
topology. In view of the capacity innovation, for example, SC, FC, FESS, BESS, or
SMES, and their applications, a power converter permits the association among the
two DC transport of unequal voltage, a DC transport, and an air conditioner
transport or even the association of a present source to a voltage transport [15, 68].
The current PEI framework has detriments in size, swells, cost, adaptability, and
effectiveness [15, 74]; thus, advanced research may be required on the PEI
framework to conquer the difficulties for the effective activity of the capacity
innovation.
C. Energy Management System
Enhancement in dispersing the power in the ESS topology for MG applications can
be performed by sharing the intensity of the vitality the board framework (EMS).
A few ESS, for example, CAES, GES, and Li-particle battery can be demonstrated
for huge scale coordination, though TES, SMES, FBs, and power devices are
effective for medium-scale vitality the executives [58]. To plan an effective EMS,
the minimization of the general framework misfortune and the control of SOC can
assume an essential job in enhancing the productivity and keeping the save for
future interest, separately [65]. Also, HESS can control vacillation, which improves
control quality and limits the greatest dynamic power change rate. Consequently,
they can be a superior option than a solitary ESS framework. The variant topologies
of HESS have been talked about in this audit. Battery/SC HESS topology is seen to
be a decent decision for future improvement. In this manner, present day ESS the
board for MG applications with solid and stable attributes could be enhanced by a
quality administration framework, which builds the general proficiency and
decreases the expense.
D. Size and Cost of ESS
The size and economy of various ESS innovations are very high. In the event that
the size increments, so does the expense. As examined in various examinations on
compacted air, flywheel, HFC, gravity, and warm or battery stockpiling, measure
relies upon the vitality rating and power rating [45, 66]. Curiously large ESS is not
reasonable. Cost consolidates establishment and maintenance costs. The per unit
cost of vitality is additionally an essential factor in vitality innovation. Cost relies
upon the capacity materials, limit, charging/releasing rate, DoD, and life cycle [67,
80]. In spite of the fact that the expense of various ESS is high in various classi-
fications and acquires steady and dependable task, ESS is an unavoidable answer
for MG. Given the normal value decrease of some new advances, (e.g., GES,
Li-particle, stream battery, NiCd, or Ni-Zn) sooner rather than later and inspecting
the current stockpiling, for example, PHS, CAES, FES, FC, and TES, balancing out
voltage and recurrence variance of single ESS in MG has numerous confinements.
In this way, with the progression of innovation, HESS has been created to
incorporate more advances to accomplish a proficient musical dramation with

vitality exchange, ring shaving, time moving, and voltage support [42]. The limit of
the capacity framework can be expanded with their joining, for example, battery/
SC, battery/flywheel, battery/SMES, CAES/SC, CAES/flywheel, and FC/SMES,
which decreases the general size and economy of the plant by dodging the con-
sideration of more stockpiling gadgets independently. It additionally has a solid
commitment in expanding the future of capacity [48]. Along these lines, receiving a
comprehensive vitality stockpiling arrangement to adjust the ability to lessen the
expense and increment unwavering quality would be a noteworthy test for sus-
tainable and customary system frameworks.
E. Ecological Impact
Research on the natural effect has officially demonstrated that, as the vitality created
by inexhaustible sources builds, the discharge of ozone harming substance or other
lethal emanations decline [68]. Natural perils happen from the burning of
non-renewable energy source (CAES), attractive field (SMES), recyclable materi-
als, or synthetics of the capacity framework during assembling and transfer time.
HESS can incorporate the irregular sustainable power sources in power matrix and
in this manner can lessen fuel utilization and lethal emanation [2]. Albeit 100% RE
generation is exorbitant [68], specialists expect to lessen the establishment and
support expenses of the RE sources to guarantee manageable improvement.
F. Security Issues
The security of ESS has turned into the interest for present day MG applications.
For protected and secure tasks, different factors, for example, the attractive qualities
of materials, life cycle, temperature, cut off, cheating, and over-releasing attributes
of ESS, must be tended to proficiently. This procedure can diminish the vulnera-
bility and discontinuity of the framework. SMES ought to have the control to lessen
the ohmic misfortunes; CAES, TES, and NaS batteries require temperature control
instrument; SC stockpiling experiences high self-release rate; energy components
request wellbeing from erosion with less-and high-temperature the executives;
lead-corrosive batteries need customary upkeep amid task; and Li-particle batteries
need cheating and over-releasing security [68–71]. In this manner, late research can
concentrate on conquering these issues to make the innovation exceedingly easy to
use.
5 Discussion and Conclusion
ESSs advancements are an elective answer for the potential usage of sustainable
power source in MG applications. Numerous analysts are engaged with the
improvement of ESSs and their uses in MG to deal with the OK control balance by
putting away vitality amid off-top hours with decreased expense. In this way, the
flawlessness in the demonstrating of ESSs with streamlining qualities are the key
highlights of cutting edge ESS innovations. In any case, the improvement of an

effective ESS for MG applications is a difficult issue. In addition, practically all
examinations and surveys are restricted in the ESS types, qualities, and their
arrangements with points of interest and hindrances. The present investigation
features the diverse advances of ESS, their developments, tasks, and vitality change
components to give a solid review to guaranteeing the supportability of future ESS
frameworks in taking care of natural and financial issues. This examination likewise
checked on the execution of individual ESS, for example, flywheel, packed air,
battery, power module, supercapacitor, very attractive, redox stream,
lithium-particle, and the cross breed ESS, for example, battery/supercapacitor,
battery/SMES, and battery/F in MG activity. Besides, vitality and power thickness,
reaction time, estimate, effectiveness, cost, life cycle, and material determination
have been clarified in different pieces of this audit. This survey additionally fore-
seen the propelled power gadgets interface among ESS and MG toward the develop
half breed ESS with ideal highlights.
This thorough audit recommends that the improvement of ESS materials and
substance arrangements can expand the capacity limit, life cycle, and proficiency of
the gadget. To guarantee better execution with solid task, this examination uncovers
that crossover ESS is profoundly alluring in MG applications. This audit featured
numerous elements, challenges, and their conceivable arrangements and proposals
for cutting edge ESSs in MG applications, which may support scholastics, scien-
tists, and businesses to change and improve the current ESSs into a propelled
dimension. Therefore, the key commitment of this examination is the far reaching
investigation of various ESS mix in MG applications to give a thorough thought on
the progressed ESSs and their future sending in the MG organize. The survey has
proposed essential and specific recommendations for the further mechanical
advancement on ESS in MG applications. Propelled explore is required to improve
cutting edge ESS in MG applications. A few issues of ESS exist regarding mate-
rials, size, and cost. Control interface, condition, and wellbeing must be routed to
achieve legitimate framework functionality and market acknowledgment.
The long haul plan for ESS is to structure a practical, dependable, and limit
office to lead the maintainable utilization of ESS in MG task.
A propelled power electronic framework may continue to defeat the exchanging
difficulties and security hardware issues and address the overheating and over
charging/releasing wonders for effective ESS task. An ideal EMS and progressed
ESS topology could be a decent decision for future advancement to expand by and
large proficiency and decrease cost.
Suitable strategies must be created to discover the optimal size of the ESS to
accomplish an effective task with vitality exchange, ring shaving, time moving, and
voltage support. The vitality stockpiling approach is embraced to adjust power and
increment dependability, which would prompt a significant potential for ESS in MG
applications.
• The improvement of an appropriate model for the ESS that considers different
sub-models, for example, charging/releasing, ideal size, plan controller, well-
being, and assurance, must be considered further.
• Further research must be directed on the ESS materials and synthetic arrange-
ment improvement to build stockpiling limit, life cycle, and effectiveness.
• For an ecological effect of investigation, emanation decrease and cost-sparing
models must be created to guarantee sustainable ESS advancement and lessen
negative environmental effects assuming any.
• Examination ought to be attempted on ESS reconciliation into MG to defeat the
synchronizing unpredictability, improve the incorporation execution or islanded
activity, and increment the computational speed.
• Further research ought to be performed on the protected and secure ESS task,
which thinks about temperature, hamper, and cheating and over-releasing
qualities.
• The proposals would be wonderful commitments toward the development of
ESS innovations, which are required to dominate the power showcase later on.
In this way, propelled explore dependent on this survey may fundamentally beat
the confinements of the current ESS advances in MG applications to meet
further maintainable vitality usage.
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Renewable Energy
Design and Implementation of Efficient
Energy Management System in Electric
Vehicles
R. Gauthami, Vineeth V. Nair, Aswin Sathish, K. Vishnu Soureesh,

K. Ilango, R. S. Sreelekshmi, S. A. Ilangovan and S. Sujatha
Abstract Pollution and its related problems are degrading the planet along with its
residents at an exponential rate. The transportation system is the most potential
sector for this and electric vehicles the foremost solution. Most innovations in EVs
today concern user comforts. But, the need currently is to focus on energy and its
optimal utilization. This requires concentrating on the vehicle source side. Hybrid
energy storage systems (HESS) possess the perfect remedy to fit into this need. This
paper focuses on the development of a control algorithm for the proper designing
and the implementation of an efficient energy management system in EVs with
active HESS of battery and supercapacitor by bringing in load sharing to this
hybridization during the various load demand conditions. Energy management
algorithm has been designed. and performance has been analyzed using MATLAB.
Hardware prototype for testing was also made and the results were verified.

Keywords Electrical vehicles (EVs) Hybrid energy storage system (HESS)

Control algorithm Supercapacitors Power sharing Varying loads
1 Introduction
Electrifying our transport system and decarbonizing it has become a global race
against pollution and the growing concern for stability. EVs, which can be plug-in
hybrid electric vehicles, battery electric vehicles, or hybrid electric vehicles, are the
best solution to these problems [1]. Extensive research works are hence going on in
R. Gauthami V. V. Nair (&) A. Sathish K. Vishnu Soureesh K. Ilango

R. S. Sreelekshmi
Amrita School of Engineering, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Amritapuri, Clappana,
Kollam, Kerala 690525, India
S. A. Ilangovan S. Sujatha
Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre, Indian Space Research Organisation, Thiruvananthapuram
695022, Kerala, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_49
544 R. Gauthami et al.
all areas related to EVs. With this comes the requirement for energy and the
efficiency in meeting it. Due to the unpredictability in the availability of renewable
sources, there is a necessity for alternative solutions like energy storage systems
(ESSs) and thus comes the requirement for the proper management of these systems
[2]. Hence, bringing in proper energy management to the EV system is the main
aim of this work. To achieve this, a system with active HESS of battery and
supercapacitor connected to the DC link will be utilized to work on.
In this paper, Sect. 2 discusses the state of the art related to the work. Section 3
deliberates about the selected test system, and Sect. 4 covers the explanation about
the energy management algorithm. The simulation design and analysis of the test
system is reported in Sect. 5. The prototype implementation of the test system and
its results have been discussed in Sect. 6. Section 7 concludes the work.
2 State of Art
Current EV market has seen numerous innovations come up in different areas such
as vehicle range and charging time. However, looking deep into the technological
sides, these innovations barely scratch the surface of what the real necessity in the
current time is. Energy and its proper utilization is the most important factor now.
Lithium-ion batteries are one of the most popular energy storage systems owing to its
high energy density property. However, there are number of limitations for Li-ion
batteries like low power density, temperature issues, weight, and high cost [3]. Though
alternative energy storage devices like supercapacitor and fuel cells are paving ways, no
single storage system is able to satisfy the market demand completely [4, 5].
Supercapacitor–battery hybrid combination perhaps is the best that can be offered.
Supercapacitors are electrostatic energy storage devices with advantages such as high
power density and quick charging/discharging cycles [6]. Thus, they are a good option
to meet the sudden peak demands of a vehicle, whereas batteries are handy for sup-
porting the normal demands of the vehicle [7, 8]. Battery–supercapacitor hybridization
supports a number of benefits such as increasing the battery life, extending range, and
decreasing vehicle cost [9]. High energy density device is combined with a high power
density device, hence complementing its disadvantages.
In this paper, designing, development, and implementation of an effective energy
management algorithm with the active HESS configuration of battery and super-
capacitor have been proposed for efficient energy management in EVs.
3 Test System Description
The block diagram of the selected test system which consists of EV motor drive
system and active HESS topology of battery and supercapacitor connected across a
DC link through the DC–DC converters individually is shown in Fig. 1. Here, the
Design and Implementation of Efficient Energy Management … 545
test system does not consider recharging of supercapacitor, and hence, a DC–DC
converter is sufficient in place of a bidirectional DC–DC converter. The DC link
voltage is maintained at constant system voltage. From the DC link, the connection
goes to the motor driver and the motor. To achieve efficient energy management,
HESS system with EMU is used.
4 Energy Management Control Algorithm
The energy management control mechanism for the EMU is shown as flowcharts in
Figs. 2, 3, and 4. Here, the entire control mechanism is based on the amount of load
current that is required for the vehicle operation. This has been implemented
practically using Arduino UNO for hardware validation. The EMU senses the
battery voltage, battery current, supercapacitor voltage, supercapacitor current, the
load voltage, and the load current. Based on the sensed parameter values and the
control algorithm given, EMU gives the appropriate switching pulse to the DC–DC
converters, and hence, load sharing is effectively brought in.
Initially, the voltage of the battery is checked by the algorithm. If the battery
voltage is lower than the minimum cutoff, the vehicle does not start and the battery
needs to be charged, whereas if the voltage of the battery is above the minimum
cutoff, the vehicle starts.
When the vehicle starts, generally there will be a high current requirement.
Hence, this demand will be met by the supercapacitor. If the vehicle is accelerating,
the system undergoes the load sharing strategy. In this strategy, if the load current
required is below ‘x’, where ‘x’ is the nominal current that can be supplied by the
battery at 1C rate, the entire load is supplied by the battery alone. Now, if the load
requirement is above a value ‘y’, where ‘y’ is a high transient current, the entire load
Fig. 1 Block diagram of active HESS topology with EMU in electric vehicles
Fig. 2 Flowchart of algorithm

Fig. 3 Flowchart continuation

Fig. 4 Flowchart continuation
is met by the supercapacitor alone. But, this will be performed only after checking
the voltage available in the supercapacitor. If the voltage is sufficient, superca-
pacitor will be made to meet the demand. Otherwise, the battery itself acts as the
source. For the conditions in-between these, load current is met by both the sources
together.
This case is further divided here into two conditions. If the load demand is
greater than a specific value ‘a’ (where ‘a’ can be fixed according to the designer’s
requirement), supercapacitor is made to meet the majority of the requirement while
the battery meets the rest. For conditions below ‘a’, battery meets the majority of
the requirement while supercapacitor meets the rest of the requirement. Again, here
also, the voltage available in the supercapacitor is checked, and it is only if the
voltage is sufficient that the supercapacitor is allowed to aid in the load sharing.
Now, if the vehicle is free running, the current drawn would be small. Hence,
battery will supply the entire demand. If the vehicle is in decelerating mode, the
same conditions as during acceleration will be checked and correspondingly the
load requirements are met from the two sources.
5 Simulation and Performance Analysis
The simulation design of the proposed test system which has been modeled in
MATLAB Simulink platform is shown in Fig. 5. The components used for simu-
lations are a battery of nominal voltage 12 V and rated capacity of 2.5 Ah.
Supercapacitor rated at 120 F and rated voltage of 12 V. Loads used are RL load.
5.1 System with Battery and Supercapacitor
The test system has been modeled, and its performance has been validated using
MATLAB Simulink. EMU controls the supercapacitor and battery side DC–DC
converter separately with PWM gate pulses. Whenever a particular source is
required, the circuit breaker at the corresponding DC converter is turned ON and is
turned OFF at all other times. The blocking diodes are kept at the output of the
converters to avoid the reverse flow of current. The load demand is simulated from
zero to the maximum demand which is 8 A, with varying loads. The load is varied
for 0.8 s in steps of 1 A per 0.1 s. The condition given is such that whenever the
load current is less than 3 A, the battery delivers the entire demand. If the load
demand is more than 5 A, supercapacitor delivers the entire demand. For the
Fig. 5 MATLAB circuit diagram for test system (0–8 A)

condition in-between, the load demand is shared by the two sources (here, for a load
current of 3–4 A, battery supplies major load, and for a load current of 4–5 A,
supercapacitor supplies major load).
From Figs. 6, 7, and 8 it is clear that for varying load current of 0–8 A, the
battery shares maximum current till 3 A and supercapacitor supplies current from
5 A onwards. For the conditions in-between, load is shared between the two
sources. Here, it is observed that during load switching, the system experiences
fluctuations in the load voltage and current. Hence, only the mean values of voltage
and current are considered [10].
The performance of EV current, battery, and supercapacitor current behaviors
during 0–0.005 s is shown in Fig. 9. Since the load requirement is less than 3A, the
Fig. 6 Load voltage and load current
Fig. 7 Battery SoC, voltage, and current

Fig. 8 Supercapacitor SoC, voltage, and current
Fig. 9 CASE: 1 load, battery, and supercapacitor current for load <3 A
battery is able to meet the entire requirement by itself. The supercapacitor current is
very less(almost nil), meaning it is not contributing to the load demand.
Figure 10 shows the performance of the system when the load current is more
than 3 A but less than 4 A, the battery and supercapacitor meet the load require-
ment together, but with battery contributing more than the supercapacitor. Battery
current is around 3 A while the supercapacitor is contributing just around 1 A. In
this case, battery is dominant in load sharing.
Figure 11 shows the performance from 0.47 to 0.472 s. The load requirement is
around 5 A. Here, the supercapacitor contributes around 4 A the rest is contributed
by the battery (around 1 A). Both sources together meet the requirement.
Figure 12 shows the performance for 0.65–0.655 s; the requirement of the load
is just less than 7 A. Any current that is more than 5 A is a very high current
Fig. 10 CASE: 2 load, battery, and supercapacitor current for load in-between 3 and 4 A
Fig. 11 CASE: 3 load, battery, and supercapacitor current for load between 4 and 5 A
demand. Hence, the supercapacitor is made to meet the entire load demand by itself.
The battery does not operate in this condition, and hence, the stress on the battery is
reduced, while such high current requirements can be easily met by the
supercapacitor.
Figure 13 shows the current and voltage profile of battery and supercapacitor at
the converter end during 0.475–0.5 s. Here, the load requirement is high (5 A), and
hence, the duty ratio of the buck converter at the supercapacitor side is increased in
order to aid the battery. Hence, more current is drawn from supercapacitor. This is
Fig. 12 CASE 4: load, battery, and supercapacitor current for load >5A
Fig. 13 Output voltage and current of battery and supercapacitor at buck converter end (load
*5A)
because, both the converters are parallel connected and voltage at that point will be
equal. Hence, even if one of the converter end voltage is increased, it tries to
maintain at reference voltage (which is the rated voltage of the load, here 6 V) and
thus drawing more current.
5.2 System with Battery Alone
The system has been simulated with battery-alone condition to compare the amount
of stress that the battery takes when it is a single source, with that of the hybridized
battery–supercapacitor condition during high demands. The supercapacitor in the
source side has been removed, and the battery was made to meet the same load
conditions alone.
Figure 14 shows the load current and the load voltage for battery-alone condi-
tion. Here, during the high load demand (from 0.5 to 0.9 s), there is a slight drop in
the load voltage. This shows that the battery is not able to meet the high load
current requirements properly (Fig. 15).
Fig. 14 Load voltage and load current—battery-alone condition
Fig. 15 Battery SoC, voltage and current for 0–0.9 s

Fig. 16 SoC comparison of battery-alone and battery-in-hybrid condition
In Fig. 16, it is clear that for simulation of 0.9 s, the SoC of battery when used
alone is 99.988%, whereas it is 99.997% when the supercapacitor is also used. For a
full-scale system, the SoC drop would show huge differences and the stress on the
battery would be proportionally higher.
6 Hardware Realization of the Active HESS

Configuration with EMU
The hardware model for the proposed system consisting of active HESS topology
and EMU together was implemented as shown in Fig. 17. Here, the source side
consists of a battery and supercapacitor both rated at 12 V which is connected to a
motor driver (MD10C) via a DC–DC buck converter. This motor driver is used to
Fig. 17 Hardware prototype block diagram

run the motor. Arduino UNO microcontroller module acts the EMU for this system.
Voltage and current sensors were used to sense the signal parameters. Balancing
circuits were also used to assist during the charging of the battery and the super-
capacitor. The digital storage oscilloscope (DSO) outputs of the hardware prototype
testing in no-load have been shown in Figs. 18, 19, 20, and 21. The load voltage
was maintained at around 6 V for all cases. Due to the losses created during the
practical implementation of the system, slight variations have been observed. When
these losses were neglected, the system was found to behave as expected by the
control algorithm.
In Fig. 18, the load current is 318 mA while the battery current is 392 mA and
the supercapacitor current is 34.7 mA. It was observed that since the load was less,
battery supplied the majority of load.
Figure 19 shows that when load demand is 363 mA, battery supplies 234 mA
and supercap supplies the rest.
Figure 20 shows the output when the load demand is 475 mA. Here, battery
supplies 198 mA while supercapacitor supplies 284 mA, hence reducing the stress
on battery.
The load demand in Fig. 21 is 527 mA. Since the load requirement is high, the
supercapacitor contributes majority (481 mA) while battery supplying 65.1 mA.
Fig. 18 DSO output—Case 1: load voltage, battery, and supercapacitor current for load *0.3 A
Fig. 19 DSO output—Case 2: load voltage, battery, and supercapacitor current for load around
0.3–0.4 A
Fig. 20 DSO output—Case 3: load voltage, battery, and supercapacitor current for load around
0.4–0.5 A
Fig. 21 DSO output—Case 4: load voltage, battery, and supercapacitor current for load >5 A
7 Conclusion
This work is focused on developing efficient control method to have proper load
sharing between battery and supercapacitor in an active HESS topology, by using
an energy management unit. The proposed control algorithm required for the EMU
has been designed, developed, and successfully implemented into the test system.
Simulation of the test system has been done on MATLAB Simulink. The sim-
ulation results showed that based on the control algorithm given to the EMU, the
DC–DC converter output is controlled, and hence, the load is shared by the two
sources. The hardware prototype model has been designed and implemented to
validate the performance of the test system. The results showed that by controlling
the EMU, the load demand can be shared by the hybrid energy storage system.
Furthermore, it can be inferred from the results obtained that a hybrid combi-
nation of battery and supercapacitor has a number of advantage such as decreasing
the stress on the battery, reducing the size of battery, increasing battery life, and
regenerative braking.
Acknowledgements We would like to express our deepest appreciation to all those who provided
us the support to complete this work. We thank all the staff at the Applied Power Systems Division
(APSD), Chemical Systems Group (CSG), Vikram Sarabhai Space Centre (VSSC), and Indian
Space Research Organization (ISRO), Thiruvananthapuram for assisting us with the hardware
prototype. We also thank all the staff of the Dept. of Electrical and Electronics Engineering and the
Principal and Management of Amrita School of Engineering, Amritapuri, Kerala. A special
mention to our family and friends for their unabated encouragement.
References
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International Conference on Technological Advancements in Power and Energy (TAP
Energy), (2017)
A Cost-Effective PV-Based Single-Stage
Conversion System for Power Backup
B. Kavya Santhoshi and K. Mohana Sundaram
Abstract Shortage of power is a severe problem in rural areas of India. This work
aims at providing a feasible solution to this problem. When a power outage occurs,
inverters are used as a backup power source in residential applications. In general,
an inverter has to go through a two-stage process for power conversion from DC to
AC since a special converter is required to boost the voltage to higher level. The
inverters that are used for residential purpose consume electricity from grid in order
to charge or discharge the battery of the inverter that usually causes overloading.
These main disadvantages can be overcome with the use of Quasi-impedance-
source inverter (QZSI). With the use of a single-stage conversion circuitry for AC
application, an attempt to provide a cheap and economic renewable energy system
has been made in this work.

Keywords Photovoltaic Renewable Quasi-Z source Inverter

Single-stage conversion Sine PWM
Acronyms Used
QZSI Quasi-impedance-source inverter
VSI Voltage-source inverter
CSI Current-source inverter
ZSI Impedance-source inverter
DCM Discontinuous conduction mode
CCM Continuous conduction mode
MPPT Maximum power point tracking
SL-QZSI Switched-inductor Quasi-Z-source inverter
SPWM Sinusoidal pulse width modulation
B. Kavya Santhoshi (&) K. Mohana Sundaram

Department of Electrical and Electronics, Vel Tech Multi Tech Engineering College,
Chennai, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_50
562 B. Kavya Santhoshi and K. Mohana Sundaram
1 Introduction
Renewable energy is the area of interest of researchers, and solar energy has gained
importance due to various advantages that it possesses compared to others; the main
advantage being that it is available always. Since solar energy obtained from a PV
panel possesses harmonics, there has been a search for a remedial action to over-
come harmonics. Also, energy from the sun is not available in all seasons, and there
exists intermittency in power produced using solar panels. Continuity of supply and
power backup is the possible solution to the power production using solar panels.
Consecutively, batteries are used in a PV-based system, and various harmonic
reduction techniques, pulse width modulation techniques and MPPT techniques had
been proposed so that the efficiency on a total scale is improved. Traditional
inverters such as VSIs and CSIs suffer from few limitations, and hence, an alternate
topology (Z-source inverter) was proposed for single-stage conversion. Thereafter,
research has focused on different topologies of Z-source inverters and their evo-
lution. The concept of Z-source inverters was proposed by F. Z. Peng. It brought to
the limelight the advantages of using Z-source inverters instead of VSIs and CSIs.
In general, inverters and generators provide energy backup during power outages.
For residential applications, inverters are most preferred. But these inverters draw
power from grid for charging or discharging of battery. In the proposed work, a
standalone inverter drawing power from solar panel and having single-stage con-
version with low harmonics at the inverter output is proposed. A unique circuitry is
proposed with a modulation strategy that is commonly used, i.e. sinusoidal pulse
width modulation.
2 The Evolution of Z-Source Inverters
F. Z. Peng, in the year 2003, introduced the concept of Z-source inverter [1]. In a
ZSI, there is a distinctive impedance (Z) arrangement that can act as a median point
between the main inverter circuit and the power source. The ZSI has superior
characteristics in comparison with VSIs and CSIs. The most significant facet of ZSI
is that a ZSI can behave like a buck–boost inverter and have wide variation in
voltage range.
In the same year, F. Z. Peng also proposed a Z-source inverter that found
application in adjustable speed drives. The output voltage required for an appli-
cation can be achieved despite the magnitude of line voltage because ZSIs can boost
capacitor voltage to high levels. Some more literature works based on Z-source
inverters were proposed between 2003 and 2007 [2]. Efficiency seems to be a
problem, and hence, Quasi-Z-source inverters (QZSIs) with more advantages than Z
source were introduced [3]. Ample advantages exist by using them, in particular for
PV applications.
A Cost-Effective PV-Based Single-Stage Conversion System … 563
Joel Anderson and F. Z. Peng, in the year 2008, proposed four different topologies
using Quasi-Z-source inverters [3]. Operation in DCM and CCM for voltage-fed and
current-fed QZSIs was depicted, and the results were compared. Inference obtained
from the paper was that QZSIs function better and this work uses this inference
importantly [3]. Due to the stochastic fluctuations in PV, energy storage had to be the
only preferable option. Many works in literature focused on PV-based systems with
energy storage (batteries) thereafter [4, 5]. J. G. Cintron and F. Z. Peng, in their paper
regarding Quasi-Z-source inverter comprising energy storage, have depicted the
benefit of energy storage in a PV-based system. When PV power is less than grid
power, battery discharges, and when the PV power is more than the grid power, battery
charges [6]. The harmonics in the load, however, are still present to a considerable
level [5]. Thus, the application of MPPT techniques, optimization methods and PWM
techniques to solar-based impedance-source inverters gathered interest for research-
ers. Many papers, with unique control techniques, were proposed. Some of them are
explained in the following section.
The Maximum Power Point Control (perturb and observe method) and the point
of common coupling current control of the ZSI are suggested. In order to obtain the
constant DC-link voltage, have good disturbance rejection and increase the dynamic
response of the system, a novel DC-link PID compensator is proposed. Arghyadip
Bhattacharya and Bidyut Kr. Bhattacharyya, in their paper, proposed an MPPT
algorithm that varies the reference voltage in each step of computation, and when
compared to the triangular waveform, it gives variable duty ratio for the switch S1
of the boost converter, connected to the solar PV array, thus extracting maximum
amount of energy from the PV array. The simple QZSI is applied for a standalone
system for water pumping and electricity. The system consists of a centrifugal
pump coupled to the shaft of a motor accompanying a QZSI fed by PV arrays.
Embedded adaptive FL-IC-based MPPT algorithm is used. A. Battiston, E.-H.
Miliani, S. Pierfederici and F. Meibody-Tabar proposed a flatness-based controller
on a QZSI in an automotive application. In this, the current is shared between
battery systems by adjusting the duty cycle in shoot through mode of inverters.
However, it is an expensive strategy for PV-based systems.
Later, a modified SPWM with two carrier signals in order to obtain maximum
boost condition was proposed. Although the harmonics are reduced considerably,
circuit topology and implementation become complex. From Quasi-Z-source net-
works, there was an evolution to switched-inductor- and switched-capacitor-based
impedance-source networks. Switched-capacitor (SC) and switched-inductor
(SL) structures have been projected in order to improvise the performance level
of conventional converters in either step-up or step-down mode [7]. The proposed
inverters, in this paper, have the following main characteristics: continuous input of
current, lesser voltage stress on capacitors, lower stress on inductors and higher
boost voltage inversion ability. They are applicable for photovoltaic applications,
where a low input voltage is inverted to a high AC output voltage. The new
topology proposed here is asymmetric. A unique cell is employed at one side of the
network, in which a capacitor is inside the original switched-inductor cell. The
suggested inverter, in the paper, SL-QZSI, has a common ground point for
DC-source voltage and no start-up inrush current. The proposed inverter has a
higher voltage gain with respect to the SL-qZSI for the same modulation and
source. Then, further research on ZSIs leads to the development of trans-Z-source
and TZ-source inverters.
In trans-Z-source inverter, the inductors in impedance network of a conventional
ZSI are replaced with either transformers or coupled inductors. In this configura-
tion, the voltage gain is raised when transformer turn ratio is lowered. Hence, for
low-cost applications, transformers with lower turn ratio are required. In [8], lesser
components were used in the circuit.
3 Proposed Standalone PV-Based Single-Stage

Conversion System
The traditional two-stage inverters suffer limitations such as high component cost
and less efficiency [9]. Thus, ZSI with a single-stage structure is used as an alter-
nate. The proposed topology will act as an effective solution to economical inverters
used for backup of power. The PV panel and battery unit provide the input supply
to QZSI network that is placed between the input and the three-phase inverter.
Using SPWM, the pulses are generated to activate the inverter. These gate pulses
make the switches in the inverter to get turned on in a specific pattern. Based on this
ON and OFF functionality of the switches, output AC voltage waveform is traced.
In this case, the application can supply power at residences. So during the absence
of power or solar energy, the battery which is charged during the availability of
solar energy will provide input. The topology of QZSI used in this work is inherited
from [10, 11]. Simulation is carried out with tested values. They have shown the
advantages as follows: 1. the rating of the capacitor of the impedance network is
greatly reduced, 2. the ripples of output obtained are reduced significantly and 3.
PV panel produced constant current.
The schematic of proposed configuration is presented in Fig. 1. The power to
charge the battery is taken from PV panels. The DC energy obtained from PV is fed
to the Quasi-Z-source network. The boosting of voltage is obtained at this juncture.
The control of three-phase inverter switches through SPWM takes place. The output
obtained has fewer harmonics compared to the traditional inverters.
A comparison in voltage stress on switches and efficiency between these two
inverters is shown in Figs. 2 and 3, respectively. It is based on Eqs. (1) and (2)
VDC/VPV ¼ 1:732G/2 ð1Þ
VDC/VPV ¼ 1:732G 1 ð2Þ
where VDC is the DC-link voltage, VPV is the PV output voltage and G is the
overall gain of the inverter.
PV PANEL QZSI THREE LOAD

AND NETWORK PHASE
BATTERY INVERTER
SINUSOIDAL
PWM
CONTROL
Fig. 1 Schematic of proposed system
Fig. 2 A comparison of
voltage stress between
two-stage inverter and QZSI
Fig. 3 A comparison of
efficiency between two-stage
inverter and QZSI
52 V input from PV is fed to the QZSI. Initially, a resistive load of 25 X is taken as

load. The key index of measurement of harmonics is total harmonic distortion
(THD). Without application of PWM control, THD measured 12.73%. After
application of SPWM, the harmonics at the output have reduced. The final results
obtained from MATLAB have proven significant reduction in THD to a total of
1.9% from the first simulation carried out without PWM control which yielded
12.73%. The parameters that have been used for simulation are shown in Table 1.
The THD values obtained through FFT analysis in MATLAB before applying
SPWM and after applying SPWM are made known in Figs. 4 and 5, respectively.
Table 1 Entities used for simulation using MATLAB 7.10.0 (R2010A)

Parameter Value
Input voltage 52 V
Input current 18 A
L1 1 mH
L2 1 mH
C1 100 lF
C2 100 lF
R 25 X
Fig. 4 Total harmonic distortion before applying SPWM
Fig. 5 Total harmonic distortion after applying SPWM

Fig. 6 Hardware accomplishment of the proposed work
Table 2 Components used for hardware implementation of the proposed model

Circuit Components used Quantity
Power supply unit DC supply, step-down transformers, 1
full-bridge rectifier and voltage regulator
Power electronic unit MOSFET IRF840 12
Controller unit AT89C51 (40 PIN) 1
Driver circuit IR2110 6
Load R load 25 X
Therefore, it could be noted that THD has been mitigated by approximately 10%
with the assistance of SPWM control. Hardware realization of the proposed work is
exposed in Fig. 6, and the components used for the same have been shown in
Table 2.
5 Conclusion
An attempt to bring forward a standalone PV-based system to act as a cost-effective

solution for power outages in rural areas was made. The evolution from a traditional
Z source to the latest T-source inverters is clearly described. It can be inferred that
qZSI inverters have more advantages than ZSIs. Special reference was made to
Quasi-Z-source inverters used in photovoltaic applications. They have proven to be
a viable solution to the stochastic fluctuations that occur in DC power obtained from
PV modules. The proposed work uses few components and hence cheaper than
standard inverters in market in terms of electricity charges. A unique QZSI fed from
photovoltaic panels is proposed. It could be used like a standalone system that acts
as an efficient backup system during power outages in rural areas. Further, SPWM
technique is used to minimize the harmonics of the output. Simulation was done
with MATLAB, and the results have proven to show significant improvement in
terms of harmonic reduction.
References
1. F.Z. Peng, Z-source inverter. IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. 39(2), 504–510 (2003)
2. X. Ding’, Z. Qian’, S. Yang’, B. Cuil, F.Z. Peng, A direct peak DC-link boost voltage control
strategy in Z-source inverter. IEEE (2007)
3. J. Anderson, F.Z. Peng, A class of quasi-Z-source inverters, in IEEE Conference (2008)
4. Z. Rasina. M.F. Rahmanb, Control of bidirectional DC-DC converter for battery storage
system in grid-connected quasi-Z source PV inverter. IEEE (2015)
5. J.G. Cintron, Y. Li, S. Jiang, F.Z. Peng, Quasi-Z-source inverter with energy storage for
photovoltaic power generation systems, in Proceedings of 26th Annual IEEE Applied Power
Electronics Conference and Exposition (2011), pp. 401–406
6. K.S. Chandragupta Mauryan, V. Jayachitra, A. Nivedita, V.M. Parvathy, A study on
intelligent control for smart grid. Int. J. Adv. Res. Comput. Sci. Electron. Eng. 3, 163–167
(2014)
7. A. Chub, O. Husev, J. Zakis, J. Rabkowski, Switched-capacitor current-fed quasi-Z-source
inverter. IEEE (2014)
8. P.C. Loh, D. Li, F. Blaabjerg, T-Z source inverters. IEEE Trans Power Electron 28(ll), 4880–
4884 (2013)
9. B. Kavya Santhoshi, S. Divya, M. Sasi Kumar, Selective harmonic elimination for a PV based
quasi-Z source inverter for drive systems. IEEE (2014)
10. B. Kavya Santhoshi, K. Mohana Sundaram, S. Padmanaban, J.B. Holm-Nielsen, K.K.
Prabhakaran, Critical review of PV grid-tied inverters. Energies 12, 1921 (2019)
11. B. Kavya Santhoshi, K. Mohana Sundaram, Hybrid converter with simultaneous AC and DC
output for nano-grid applications with residential system. J. Eng. Appl. Sci. 13, 3289–3293
(2018)
Solar Tracking System Using IoT
Krishna Chaitanya Diggavi, Manidhar Thula and B. Pakkiraiah
Abstract The preeminent goal of this project is to elucidate about the maximum
power generation through solar tracking system and it has been noticed that the
yield of solar cell is more than static tracking system. The furthermore supremacy
add on points from our project is that it does not affect the environment, shrinkage
the cost of fossil fuels and the total tracked power generation results have been
contemplated in IFTTT account via E-mail. This proposed system design basically
consists of two sections, software programming which is interlaced with hardware
components to stir the position of solar collector at different angles, certain shadings
are done such that output of it may differ with respect to shading on the solar
collector.
Keywords Solar energy Internet of things Thing speak Node MCU
1 Introduction
The natural energy sources, which are known as renewable energy sources which
continuously produced by natural processes and forces occurring in our environ-
ment, the energy sources which are in-exhaustible and naturally replenished once
used.
Renewable energy is an indigenous resource available in considerable quantities
to all developing nations and capable in principle of having a local, regional or
national economic impact; usage of it is financially and economically competitive
for certain applications because when it is used in the rural areas, the need of
K. C. Diggavi (&) M. Thula

Department of EEE, Guru Nanak Institute of Technology,
Hyderabad, Telangana 500050, India
B. Pakkiraiah
Department of EEE, Gokaraju Rangaraju Institute of Engineering and
Technology-Autonomous, Bachupally, Hyderabad, Telangana 500090, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_51
570 K. C. Diggavi et al.
transmitting electrical power or transporting the non-conventional fuels are not

necessary.
As the renewable energy has evolved a lot in these days because the sun is the
main provenance of energy at the earth, the energy reaches the earth from the sun in
the form of electro-magnetic radiation, where the sun’s heat is solar energy, earth’s
heat is the geothermal energy, energy in waves is tidal energy and energy in wind is
wind power, as the conversion technology is modular, it will be easy to add new
capacity and these can be developed rapidly.
2 Solar Energy
In this modern world, energy has become an integral part of our daily life. The
energy source mainly we use is supplied to us in the form of diesel, petrol, coal,
LPG, CNG and electricity. As the need for an alternative energy source is
increasing at an alarming rate, solar power generation can be a solution for all of our
energy concerns.
The irradiance of solar energy is the suns radiant. We receive solar radiation in a
range of 4–7 kwh/m2 per a day and in that, only 71% reaches the earth and
remaining energy is observed by the atmosphere [1]. Solar photovoltaic technology
converts sunlight into electricity directly without any other additional energy
conversion step [2]. Such amount of energy is good enough to generate electricity
from the solar photovoltaic collector.
3 IoT
The devices which communicate with the IoT technology provide all the required
information and instructions of the working of the devices under given treatment of
this technology. IoT technology is used in automation of home to monitor and
control either locally or remotely using smart phones through mobile applications.
Most typical IoT devices are lights, fans, security alarm, camera, sensors, door lock
and other electrical and electronics appliances [3].
As IoT is managed and run by multiple technologies, in this paper, Internet of
things technology is used for supervising solar photovoltaic power generation
which can greatly improve the maintenance, performance and monitoring of the
solar panel [4]. This paper will facilitate the maximum output voltage character-
istics of the tracking and turning the solar panel in the direction of the optimal angle
of receiving the sunlight using LDR. It also automatically keeps track of the amount
of voltage supply received by the solar panel in optimal angle.
Solar Tracking System Using IoT 571
4 Fabrication
Solar tracking system is fabricated through simple circuit diagram which is given
below and it gives complete structure and detailed connection of the components
used in the solar system [5, 6] (Fig. 1).
4.1 Working
The sun-tracking solar panel consists of three LDRs: solar panel, a servo motor and
Node MCU. Three light-dependent resistors are arranged beside of the solar panel.
LDR produces low resistance if the intensity of light falls on them is more. The
solar panel angle changes with the help of servo motor in the sun direction where
the light intensity is more by comparing the light intensity on 3 LDR sensors, i.e.,
low resistance compared to other [7].
The flow chart gives detailed explanation about the sensing of the LDR sensor
and changing the position the solar collector that is panel according to the position
of the sun (Fig. 2).
Panel moves towards 1st angle of 30 degrees towards the east in morning ses-
sion, as the intensity of light falls on the LDR 1 increases and if intensity on the
second LDR is more, panel slowly moves towards second angle that is. In the noon
time and if the intensity on the third LDR is more, panel slowly moves toward third
angle that is, in the evening session, sun is ahead and intensity of light on the all
three sensors is same. In such cases, panel is constant and there is no rotation.
Finally, when the intensity of the sun does not fall on any of the LDR sensors then
the panel moves to initial position for the sunrise for high intensity of the light.
Fig. 1 Circuit diagram

Fig. 2 Flowchart of LDR sensor
These all signals are given to the controller that is Node MCU which is inter-
faced with the Arduino Uno, this acts as the main controlling unit which passes the
signal to servomotor which is annexed to the solar panel. In our project, the signal is
received from the LDR sensors by the intensity falling on them, respectively, and
these data is monitored in the cloud as data sheet in an excel sheet through the
software called thing speak, by the technology called Internet of things.
5 Results
The designed solar tracker was operated for a whole day from 8:00 AM to 5:00 PM
and voltage generated was read at hourly interval. At the same time, the same solar
panel of identical specification was set at a fixed position and voltage reading was
taken throughout the day. During the experiment, two digital multi-meters were
used for reading data. Open circuit voltage and short circuit current at each hour
were determined.
5.1 Determination of Output Voltage Characteristics
According to the changing conditions of light in a day, we split the day into three
sessions that are morning (8 AM to 11 AM), afternoon (11 AM to 2 PM) and
evening (3 PM to 5 PM) which approximately have 3 h of time period each and we
spent 20 min for the experimental output in each session, which completely take
1 h of time for all sessions to get experimental result.
Our intension is to calculate the output voltage for the solar panel of 12 V which
consists of 36 cells with three different variation of exposure of panel to sun in all
three divisions of a day.
In the first and foremost, the panel is in initial position that is toward the east, as
the sun rises in east. We took the output voltage of 12 V solar panel is noted down
in every tilted position of solar panel and then we further move on for shading
process (Fig. 3).
As it is a prototype, that the solar panel which is annexed with the LDR sensors,
which cannot resist the continuous intensity of solar heat, because these sensors are
not industrial. So this experimental prototype setup cannot be performed continu-
ally in light, so we consider 20 min in each session so that every session’s output
voltage of a solar panel can be calculated in one hour a day.
Case I
In the morning session, the panel is in particular angle that is 45° which is per-
pendicular to horizon of sun path.
Step 1: We shaded first 12 cells out of 36 cells of 12 v solar panel about 6.5 min in
an overall time period of 20 min, and all remaining 24 cells are exposed to the sun,
and the output voltage of solar panel with shaded region is noted down (Fig. 4).
Step 2: Similarly for output voltage of second shaded region, we shaded the “24”
cells for the next 6.5 min here about 13 min are accomplished in time and again all
remaining 12 cells are exposed to the sun (Fig. 5).
Step 3: In the final step of shading process where all the “36” cells are shaded, so
that intensity of the light does not fall on it, this process is shaded up to remaining
Fig. 3 Solar panel

Fig. 4 First shaded region
Fig. 5 Second shaded region
Fig. 6 Final shaded region
6.5 min in total time period 20 min and output voltage is noted down for all these
three different variation in shaded region (Fig. 6).
Case II
In the afternoon session, the panel is tilted to another particular angle of 90° is
exactly perpendicular to the sun position. Further steps will be performed and
output of solar panel is noted as Case I.
Case III
In the evening session, the panel is again tilted to 135° so that the panel is exactly
perpendicular to evening position of a sun. Further steps will be performed ad
output voltage of panel is noted as Case I.
Day 1 Voltage Readings
Voltage is measured with tracking of the sun’s path. In day 1, the voltage is noted in
a table for all three mornings, afternoon and evening and graph of the voltage with
respective time is shown below. Here, the time is taken in minutes that is about
20 min (Table 1).
From the above table for the time 6.5 min is taken as first shaded region in all the
three different session with their particular angles, 13.0 min is taken as second
shaded region in all the three different angle variation in every session and 19.5 min
is taken as final shaded region in every session according to their angles, curves of
each session according to their shaded regions is shown in graph with respective of
time versus voltage (Fig. 7).
From the above graph, we observed three curves with different colors, that the
each color shows three sessions, i.e., the red colored curve shows the voltage curve
of morning session, the green colored curve shows the voltage curve in afternoon
session and finally, the blue colored curve shows the voltage curve in the evening
session.
Table 1 Day 1 voltage is measured with tracking

Time Morning-tracked Afternoon-tracked Evening-tracked
(min) voltage readings voltage readings voltage readings
0 10.42 10.62 10.27
6.5 8.9 10.1 9.62
13.0 5.9 8.25 8.3
19.5 3.82 7.2 4.9
Fig. 7 Day 1 maximum voltage detection from graph

The maximum voltage is found at 0.4379 A, 10.968 V point on the curve. The
maximum power at that point is 4.71 W. Day 2 voltage is measured with tracking
of the sun’s horizon (Table 2).
Curves of each session according to their shaded regions are shown in graph
with respective to time versus voltage (Fig. 8).
Comparison Between the Solar Tracing System and Without Tracking
Finally, we did the comparison between the solar tracing system and fixed system.
We have taken readings for three sessions that is at 9 AM in morning session, 1 PM
at afternoon session and 4 PM at evening session (Table 3).
The graph represents the voltage curves of the tracked system and fixed system,
we noted the voltage of the solar collector which is noted for another day and graph
of the voltage with respective time is shown below, here, the time taken in hours
Table 2 Day 2 voltage is measured with tracking

Time Morning-tracked Afternoon-tracked Evening-tracked
(min) voltage readings voltage readings voltage readings
0 10.2 10.51 10.27
6.5 9.14 9.62 8.1
13.0 7.35 8.7 6.7
19.5 5.3 7.0 4.9
Fig. 8 Day 2 maximum voltage detection from graph
Table 3 Voltage of tracking system

Time (min) With tracking voltage readings Without tracking voltage readings
9 AM 10.96 11.62
1 PM 10.62 10.23
4 PM 10.27 8.34
Fig. 9 Comparison of tracking system
Fig. 10 Power analysis graph
from the above table 9 AM is taken as 0, 1 PM is taken as 1 and 4 PM is taken as 2

which is shown in time versus voltage graph (Fig. 9).
By solar tracking, the power consumption data is received in Gmail through the
thing speak account with the help of the in Internet of things (Fig. 10).
Power analysis graph is shown above which is received in the Gmail through the
IFTTT account and software called thing speak and technology said to be Internet
of things.
6 Conclusion
In this paper, we demonstrate a simple and concise overview of the solar tracking
mechanism to increase the efficiency of the solar energy, as this system continu-
ously track the sun’s trajectory over the course of the day which is used to collect
the far greater amount of solar power. The system is constructed to be autonomous
such that user need not to do lot of configuring once the system is assembled.
We designed in order to compare the voltage waveforms of the tracking system

and rigged system, and to display the daily, weekly and monthly analysis of the
solar energy from the collector. This project can be further enhanced by using these
current parameters of the amount of solar energy which is able to store in battery.
This proposed can facilitates the fault detection in real-time monitoring in solar
power generation plants. From the above conclusions, a final conclusion could be
made that in any environmental condition, the automatic solar tracking system is a
way much better implementation than the fixed panel.
References
1. M.R. Patel, Wind and Solar Power Systems Design, Analysis and Operations, 2nd edn. (CRC
Press, Boca Raton, 2006)
2. E. Anderson, C. Dokan, A. Sikora, Solar panel power tracking system (Worcester Polytechnic
Institute, 2003). Z. Bundalo, Microcontroller based solar tracking system, in Proceedings of
TELSIKS Conference (Niš, Serbia), pp. 518–552
3. P.G. Pachpande Internet based embedded data acquisition system. Int. J. Electron. Commun.
Comput. Eng. 5(4) (2014) July, Technovision, ISSN 2249-071X
4. B. Kang, S. Park, T. Lee, S. Park, IoT-based monitoring system using tri-level context making
model for smart home services, in IEEE International Conference on Consumer Electronics
(ICCE) (2015)
5. Solar Technologies | Photovoltaic Solar Panels | Thin Film Solar Panels | Solar Thermal. Solar
Panels, Photovoltaic Systems, Solar Solutions for Home, Business & Utility-Scal-Sun Power
Retrieved August 29
6. Introduction to the arduino microcontroller, in Hands-on Research in Complex Systems
(Shanghai Jiao Tong University June 17–29)
7. A.H. Yamin, M.N. Ibrahim, M. Idoras, Embedded solar tracking instrumentation system, in
Power Engineering and Optimization Conference, vol. 7 (2013), pp. 223–227
Demand Management System
for OFF-Grid PV System
Mrutyunjay Das, Kuldip Singh and Ch. Laxmi
Abstract In an efficient and stabilized energy distribution system, proper syn-

chronization between supply and demand is highly desired. OFF-grid PV system is
playing vital role for fulfilling the electrical demand with solar power plant and DG
synchronization. In the generation side, renewable energy sources are generally tied
with DG to meet the peak demand and providing the reference voltage and fre-
quency for string inverters. Due to the variable nature of the load, it creates lots of
reverse power flow problems in DG, which lead to the system instability. Demand
side management is using load and generation control for integration of PV power
plant with DG in OFF-grid mode. The study is carryout at 75 kW power plant with
synchronization of 125 kVA DG in real time for understanding the instability
parameters and control of generation and load demand with DMS.

Keywords Demand side management Solar photovoltaic system OFF-grid

DG integration Peak period OFF-peak period
1 Introduction
Due to rapid urbanization, the demand for energy is increasing at a faster rate which
puts a thrash on the generating units. But due to gradual depletion of fossil fuels and
rapid deterioration of environment widens the difference between supply and
demand of energy. To curb with the situation, solar PV system synchronized with
DG is integrated with the OFF-Grid so as to supply energy during the peak periods
through grid. Due to the requirement of reference voltage and frequency for the grid
string inverter, DG needs to be synchronized in OFF-grid mode. But due to the
variable nature of load, reverse current flows through DG in the absence of grid
supply which makes the unstable. So there is a need for demand side management
M. Das (&) K. Singh Ch. Laxmi

Department of EEE, Guru Nanak Institute of Technology, Hyderabad, Telangana State
500050, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_52
580 M. Das et al.
to stabilize the system. This paper deals with the demand side management by
generation scaling method [1].
The electrical energy generated in solar PV mainly depends on solar irradiation,
which is not constant throughout the day. During the peak load period, total gen-
eration of solar PV is supplied to load and during OFF-peak period, the balance
generated energy is supplied through grid. But during the grid failure, the excess
energy generated flows to the DG in the form of reverse current creating transient
instability which deteriorates the condition of DG set. Demand side management is
one of the methods for stabilization of the system during transient period [1, 2].
Demand side management has been employed to manage the factors responsible
for instability of the system, e.g., loads shaping and consumption nature of the end
users. This can provide the consumers about flexibility in their consumption of
electrical energy.
We know that the load is always of variable nature. Broadly, the entire load can
be classified as scheduled and unscheduled loads. Similarly in terms of generation
also some are of independent nature and others are dependent. For a stable power
system, load should always match with that of generation. To attain stability, either
the generation should be changed with respect to load or load should be rescheduled
with respect to generation. But rescheduling of generation has its own limits.
Hence, to attain the stability in power system, rescheduling of loads is the effective
solution in the present scenario which requires the implementation of demand side
management [1, 3].
2 OFF-Grid PV System
The maximum solar irradiance is used to be measured by reference PV cells at STC,

i.e., solar radiation of 1000 W/m2 and ambient temperature of 25 °C. Due to the
variable nature of solar irradiance, the solar electricity produced is also variable. In
order to overcome this variation in the output of PV, an energy storage system is
necessary to be included which can release energy during peak periods and
maintain effective power supply. In India, energy storage concept is used in
industrial as well as commercial sectors for shaving the peak load along with the
function as backup power supply. Among the challenges that are holding back, the
widespread use of energy storage systems is the cost. Despite declining prices for
energy storage, it remains higher than the price per unit of current obtained from the
grid. For that reason, the integration of PV systems with grid is a better option for
continuity of supply and meeting the demand. To meet the energy demand, some
form of renewable energy must be integrated with grid [4–6].
In case of grid failure, the grid losses its communication with PV system and the
system is termed as OFF-grid system.
Demand Management System for OFF-Grid PV System 581
Hence, IL ¼ IPV þ IDG

Now, if IL [ IPV , the excess energy required by the load is drawn from the DG.
This is not cost effective. Also if the load is more, the DG comes to stress leading to
DG failure.
If IL \IPV , the excess energy generated will be drawn by the DG due to which a
negative current will flow through DG.
So IL ¼ IPV þ ðIDG Þ
This leads to over excitation of DG making the system instability.
3 Demand Management System
The generated power should be equal to the amount of power consumed due to the
following reasons.
First, for improving the power quality, the power consumption needs to be
balanced with the electricity produced. If the electricity produced is not sufficient to
meet the demand, it causes instability in grid, voltage fluctuation and may be total
brownout.
Second, if the produced electricity is significantly more than the demand, it
causes increase in production cost [2].
The design of power grid is based on the maximum projected demand which
also includes the peak demand. As peak demand is intermittent in nature, the
economical grid design should not have much higher capacity than the average
demand. This makes it necessary to reduce the peak demand. In terms of residential
customers, low price of electricity is prime consideration. In terms of commercial
customers, cost of electricity should be competitive. But cost of production and
operation is affected by even small increase in cost. With all these considerations,
electricity cost is a prime factor for economic development [3].
Demand side management (DSM) is generally applied to energy efficiency mea-
sures that can modify or reduce end-user’s energy demand which ultimately reduce
energy costs for a given output. From the utility point of view, it is sensible to promote
consumption by increasing sales. But this would be possible only if there will be
surplus energy. Due to the energy crisis, this seems to be impossible. Hence to reduce
energy costs, demand side management is the only solution in present scenario. This
can be done by decreasing or shifting of consumption of energy through efficient
improvements or load shifting on the customer side of the electric meter [2, 6, 7].
Residential load is the largest contributor for the increase in peak demand. The
residential loads are mainly responsive to weather factors and life style of the
people. The demand side management allows the consumers to know their load
profile and measure to control their loads. During the peak load period, most of the
generators generate near to their maximum capacity. This stresses the system and
leads to a system failure. All the loads related to residential, commercial and
industrial consist of scheduled and unscheduled loads. By the load shifting method,
the unscheduled loads can be shifted or controlled which can reduce the peak load.
582 M. Das et al.
In case of less load period, the generated energy by solar PV can be supplied to
grid. But in case of grid failure, the excess energy flows through the generator
which comes to over excitation mode causing instability of the system.
4 Case Study for OFF-Grid System
The study is carryout in an Educational Institution with 75 kW solar power plant

integration with 125 kVA DG set for fulfil the electrical demand in OFF-Grid
mode. In Educational Institutions, the critical task is PV power balance w.r.t load
demand from solar power plant, due to variability and uncertainty of output power
w.r.t time. For balance, the load demand solar power plant is integrated with DG in
OFF-grid mode [4]. The stability of OFF-grid solar power plant determines, whe-
ther the generation system can settle down to a new or original steady state after
transient disappear due to sudden load changes. OFF-grid solar PV power plant has
small capacity, so it needs to set aside DG generation to compensate for sudden
load demand as well as for providing the reference voltage and frequency for string
inverters in solar power plant. The study is carry out on different generation con-
dition as shown in Table 1 for analysis of instability in generation system at dif-
ferent load demand [4, 7].
As the data given in Table 1, the generation from solar PV power plant is
increasing the reverse power flowing in the DG set, and due to more reverse power
flow, the positive accelerating torque is acting in the same direction of mechanical
torque. The DG set is experiencing the positive angular acceleration torque (Ta) in
the same direction of applied mechanical toque and increasing the speed of DG set
above synchronous speed (Ns). The synchronization of solar PV power plant with
DG set for fulfill the load demand is shown in Fig. 1 without control.
Table 1 Generation data for PV power plant and DG

S. Load Generation Generation Frequency Speed of
No. current current from PV current from DG (Hz) DG set
(IL ) (A) (IPV ) (A) (IG ) (A) N (RPM)
1 58.4 0 58.4 48.9 1485
2 48.98 21 27.98 49.6 1475
3 50.1 92.1 −41 51.59 1508
4 51.7 108.1 −57.4 51.60 1535
5 50.1 122.6 −72.5 51.62 1567
6 60.4 0 60.4 48.9 1483
7 54.98 25 29.98 49.8 1472
8 49.1 87.1 −38 51.59 1507
9 55.7 107.1 −51.4 51.59 1534
10 51.1 120.6 −69.5 51.62 1566
Fig. 1 Synchronization of solar PV power plant with DG set with DSM control
Ta ¼ Tm Te ð1Þ

The rate of change of frequency ddft is
df T a f 0
¼ ð2Þ
dt 2H
Here, f0 is base frequency (50 Hz) and H is system inertia constant

Or
PN
F¼ ð3Þ
120
Here, F is frequency is number of poles and N is speed in RPM.
5 DMS Control
The integration of solar PV power plant and DG in OFF-grid mode is optimized by

DMS control as shown in Fig. 2.
In this case study, the reverse power flow is control with inverter control method.
The DG system is taking the 20% of total load in non-load condition for stabile
generation. The generation from solar power plant is controlled with inverter
control system. Based on the load demand, the inverter is synchronized with DG set
as shown in Table 2. In this case study, Inv1-33 kVA, Inv2-33, Inv3-10 kVA.
584 M. Das et al.
Fig. 2 Demand management control for OFF-grid
Table 2 Synchronization of solar plant and DG with DMS

S. Load Generation Generation Frequency Inverter state
No Current current from current from (Hz) Inv Inv Inv
(IL ) (A) PV (IPV ) (A) DG (IG ) (A) 1 2 3
1 58.4 0 58.4 48.9 OFF OFF OFF
2 48.98 21 27.98 49.6 ON OFF OFF
3 50.1 38.6 11.5 49.5 ON OFF ON
4 60.4 46.9 13.5 48.9 ON ON OFF
5 75.2 58.7 16.5 49.8 ON ON ON
Fig. 3 Demand management control for generation control
The excess generation for solar power plant is control with Demand manage-
ment system control unit, which is controlling the excess generation from solar and
synchronizing the solar PV Power plant with DG. The DG set operating in normal
condition at normal operating frequency as shown in Figs. 2 and 3.
6 Conclusion
The solar power plant is working in two modes ON-grid and OFF-grid. The solar
string inverter requires the reference frequency and voltage to start the generation.
In ON-grid power plant, the reference voltage and frequency are provided by grid
and excess generation of solar power plant will flow into grid through bidirectional
meter. In OFF-grid mode, the solar power plant will integrate with DG set, the
excess generation will flow in DG set during less load demand; due to excess
generation, the frequency of DG set is increasing. The excess generation will
damage the DG set. The demand management system is useful for synchronization
of solar power plant in OFF-grid with DG set for scaling the generation. The excess
generation is controlled with different operation of inverter controls
References
1. K. Singh, M. Narendra Kumar, S. Mishra, Stability analysis of isolated hybrid microgrid for
village electrification. Int. J. Eng. Technol. 7(2.23), 235–237 (2018)
2. C.U. Eze, D.D. Agwu, L.O. Uzoechi, A new proposed demand side management technique.
Int. J. Eng. Sci. Emerging Technol. 8(6), 271–281 (2016)
3. K. Singh, M. Narendra Kumar, S. Mishra, Load flow study of isolated hybrid microgrid for
village electrification. Int. J. Eng. Technol. [S.l.] 7(2.23), 232–234 (2018). ISSN 2227-524X.
http://dx.doi.org/10.14419/ijet.v7i2.23.11925
4. C.C.A. Rajan, Demand side management using expert system, in IEEE Conference on
Convergent Technologies for Asia-Pacific Reigon TENCON (2003)
5. K. Kusakana, Optimal schedule power flow for distributed photovoltaic/wind/diesel generators
with battery storage system. IET Renew. Power Gener. 8(9), 916–924 (2015)
6. K. Singh, M. Narendra Kumar, S. Mishra, Stability analysis of isolated hybrid microgrid for
village electrification. Int. J. Eng. Technol. [S.l.] 7(2.23), 235–237 (2018). ISSN 2227-524X,
http://dx.doi.org/10.14419/ijet.v7i2.23.11926
7. K. Singh, M. Narendra Kumar, S. Mishra, A study on economic power dispatch grid connected
PV power plant in educational institutes. in AIP Conference Proceedings 1952, (2018),
p. 020047. https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5032009
PV-Wind-Integrated Hybrid Grid
with P&O Optimization Technique
R. Rekha, B. Srikanth Goud, Ch. Rami Reddy and B. Nagi Reddy
Abstract Renewable energy sources are alternative sources playing an important

role in the generation of power in order to satisfy the huge requirements of elec-
tricity by various utilities. This paper presents new modeling of MPPT controller
for solar and winds integrated grid with solar irradiance and temperature as
parameters. MPPT controller like P&O is used to derive the parameters like
maximum power using a simulation model. Outputs obtained from MPPT con-
troller are fed to DC-DC boost converter and then to the inverter to enhance
maximum power as output from PV and wind system, and results are proposed
through MATLAB/Simulink.
Keywords PV array Wind MPPT controller DC-DC boost converters

Inverter
1 Introduction
Renewable energy is an inexhaustible resource available in considerable quantities

for economic improvement for developing nations. Among various sources, solar
and wind are prominently used in generating electrical energy in order to meet the
huge demand from the utilities. As solar and wind both are intermittent in nature, it
is very difficult to predict the availability of maximum energy available for con-
version into electrical energy. In order to overcome such issues, various MPPT’s
were developed for tracking maximum energy. In this proposed paper, Perturb and
Observe-based MPPT has been used for both PV and wind-integrated grid [1, 2]
R. Rekha B. Srikanth Goud (&)

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Anurag College of Engineering,
Ghatkesar 501301, India
Ch. Rami Reddy
Nalanda Institute of Engineering and Technology, Guntur 522438, India
B. Nagi Reddy
Koneru Lakshmaiah Education Foundation, Guntur 522502, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_53
588 R. Rekha et al.
Solar energy in the form of irradiance and temperature is the input to PV, wind is
in the form of kinetic energy, and this energy is converted into mechanical energy
by using wind turbine and then fed to doubly fed induction generator to convert into
electrical output. Boost DC-DC converters along with MPPT are used to develop
the duty pulses which are needed to operate and give an output of fixed DC when
both the systems are integrated to a common bus. The input to the wind is in the
form of kinetic energy and this energy is converted into mechanical energy by using
wind turbine and then fed to squirrel cage induction generator to convert into
electrical output [7]. In this paper, modeling and control strategy of PV and
wind-integrated hybrid grid system is proposed. MATLAB/Simulink software is
used to check the operation of system proposed [3, 4].
2 Proposed Block Diagram of PV-Wind-Integrated Grid

with P&O MPPT
Integrated gird consists of three layers generation unit, control unit, and application
unit. In the proposed system, renewable energy sources PV and wind are integrated
together by using DC-DC converters as we know that PV output is in the form of
DC, whereas wind output is in AC. In order to make them integrated together,
power electronics-based DC-DC converters are employed and converted to constant
DC, given to a common DC bus and then converted into AC using an inverter and
hybrid power is generated. Generally, PV and wind are nonlinear in nature due to
which maximum power tracking is difficult. To overcome such constraint, we adopt
optimization techniques like Perturb and Observe MPPT which is utilized to track
maximum power from both the sources during its availability. IRef, a reference
current is generated during maximum power point tracking and a duty pulse is
generated from the proposed MPPT and output of constant voltage from both the
sources and fed to a common DC bus and then converted to AC by using a
switched-mode inverter and then to the grid. Figure 1 shows block diagram of
proposed system.
Fig. 1 Block diagram of proposed system

PV-Wind-Integrated Hybrid Grid with P&O Optimization Technique 589
3 Description and Mathematical Modeling of PV
A. PV Equivalent Circuit Design

The equivalent circuit of the solar cell is being studied for many years. It generally
consists of photocurrent, diode, series, and shunt resistor. General PV model is built
in MATLAB/Simulink and verified the characteristics. Figure 2 shows solar cell
equivalent circuit.
Photovoltaic current expression is as follows:

V þ IRS VJ
IPV ¼ IL IO exp 1
nVT RSH
IPV ¼ ILGC ID ISH ð1Þ
where
ILGC light generated current
ID diode current
IPV photo voltaic current
ISH shunt current
Vj ¼ V þ IPV RS ð2Þ
VPV voltage across output terminals

Vj voltage across both diode and resistor Rsh (V)
IPH output current (A)
RS series resistance

VJ
ID ¼ IO exp 1 ð3Þ
nVT
IO reverse saturation current

n diode density factor
Fig. 2 Solar cell equivalent I PV

circuit
+
I l gc Id RSh VPV
−
590 R. Rekha et al.
K Boltzman’s constant
T absolute temperature
VT ¼ KT=q ð4Þ
By Ohm’s Law
VJ
ISH ¼
RSH

V þ IRS VJ
IPV ¼ ILGC IO exp 1 ð5Þ
nVT RSH

V þ IRS V þ IRS
IPV ¼ ILGC IO exp 1
nVT RSH
From the above equation, we get the output as IPV which is shown in Fig. 3.
B. MATLAB/Simulink of PV Model
Solar energy is intermittent and nonlinear due to changes in climatic conditions, so
we need to adopt new topologies like MPPT to track maximum power from these
available resources. Irradiance and temperature are the inputs to the PV panel
whose output continuously changes as they are nonlinear in nature. In order to
overcome such constraint, a new approach of P&O MPPT algorithm is adopted to
Fig. 3 General PV model is built in MATLAB/Simulink

Fig. 4 Equivalent simulink diagram of PV module
attain maximum power as output. In MATLAB, control structure is designed. The

outputs are Ipv and Vpv which are given to the proposed MPPT’s which periodically
functions by raising or decaying the operating current of a PV array and compares
previous value output, and if the condition is satisfied, the control mechanism
moves the PV operating point in the same direction or else in the opposite direction.
It generates the duty pulses if the condition is satisfied and gives it to the DC/DC
converter which further increases its voltage output to higher voltages by using
boost converters [5]. Figure 4 shows equivalent Simulink diagram of PV module
C. Design of Wind Turbine System
The wind is a form of energy which is produced due to heavy blow of airs which is
in form of kinetic energy, and this is fed to the turbine to convert into mechanical
energy which in turn converts into electrical energy by using DFIG. The inputs to
the wind turbine are wind speed and generator speed which is fed as feedback and
pitch angle; here, we assumed pitch angle to be zero. DFIG consists of stator and
rotor windings to which mechanical torque is fed as input. Stator windings are
grid-connected and turbine drives rotor which converts mechanical torque into
electrical power and this is transferred to the grid through stator windings [3].
Wind turbine output power is given by
1 3
Pm ¼ qA Vwind CP ðk; bÞ ð6Þ
2
where
Pm = mechanical power
Cp = coefficient of turbine
k = tip speed ratio
592 R. Rekha et al.
b = pitch angle
A = turbine swept an area
q = air density.
Coefficient of Cp (k, b) used is considered from and given by
c5
C2 k
CP ðk; bÞ ¼ C1 C3 b C4 e 1 þ C6 k ð7Þ
ki
where C1 and C6 depends on the WTR and design of blade, and k1 is given by the
following equation
1 1 0:035
¼ ð8Þ
ki k þ 0:08b b3 þ 1
Further Eq. (6) can be written for specific values of A and q as shown below
Pmpu ¼ Kp Cppu Vwindpu

3
ð9Þ
D. MATLAB/Simulink of Wind System

Due to change in Wind Speed, Power developed undergoes a change in frequency
and amplitude and in order to eliminate such constraints and maintain Constant DC
voltage three-phase two winding transformer with six input ports with appropriate
phase angles for the double bridge ac/dc rectifier whose firing angle is controlled by
PI controller (Fig. 5).
Shows Simulink Diagram of Wind system.
Fig. 5 Simulink diagram of wind system

4 DC-DC Converters
Power electronics-based DC-DC converters are employed in both PV and wind

system. Fluctuated output is produced from PV, and to maintain constant DC output
voltage we use DC-DC converter which is operated by maximum power point
tracker which produces the duty pulsed required for the converters used near both
PV and wind which is to be operated and maintained at a constant voltage of 400 V
DC. The output produced from DFIG is in the form of AC. Whenever both the
outputs of PV-wind are to be integrated together, the outputs of both systems should
be same. The double bridge rectifier is used to rectify and maintain constant DC
voltage of 400 V and connected to a common grid. Figure 6 shows MATLAB/
Simulink Diagram of DC-DC Converter,
5 Inverter Design
The output of DC bus voltage of 400 V is fed to the inverter designed and con-
structed in MATLAB/Simulink and converted to 400 V line-to-line voltage at a
frequency of 60 Hz. Losses are included due to ROP and IIP. Figure 7 shows
MATLAB/Simulink of Inverter.
6 Perturb and Observe the MPPT Algorithm
At various time periods of irradiance and temperature, maximum power is tracked

and delivered to load. It calculates power (P(t)) by measuring I and V and con-
tinuously it compares with the previous power; once if there is an increment in step
size then the output voltage is varied and the duty pulses are generated which is
given to the controlled switch IGBT of DC/DC boost converter [6]. Figure 8 shows
Proposed P&O MPPT.
Fig. 6 Matlab/Simulink diagram of DC-DC converter

594 R. Rekha et al.
Fig. 7 Matlab/Simulink of inverter
Fig. 8 Proposed P&O MPPT
The I-V and P-V curves are shown in Fig. 9a, b; the obtained power and current of
the PV model depends on its inputs and operating voltage (Table 1).
(a)
(b)
Fig. 9 a solar system I-V curves, b solar system P-V curves
Table 1 PV panel Name Range

specifications
No. of connections 60
Maximum power Pm 225 W
Voltage at Pm 29.67 V
Current at Pm 7.55 A
ISC 8.27 A
VOC 36.88 V
WTIG Parameters
Characteristics of wind turbine model corresponding to various values for generator
speed and generator power in per unit are shown in Fig. 10. WT output depends on
wind speed and generator speed (Tables 2, 3, 4 and 5).
596 R. Rekha et al.
Fig. 10 Characteristics of wind speed
Table 2 WTIG parameters Name Range

Base wind speed 9 (m/s)
Pm at base wind speed 1 (PU)
Coefficient (C1–C6) [0.516, 116, 0.4, 21, 0.0068]
Performance coefficient 0.48 (p.u) for [b = 0°, k = 8.1]
Rotor type Squirrel cage
Voltage (L-L) 440 V
Nominal frequency 60 (Hz)
Nominal power 200 (HP)
RPM 1785 rpm
RS 0.01282 (p.u)
Rr 0.00702 (p.u)
LS 0.05051 (p.u)
Lr 0.05051 (p.u)
Lm 6.77 (p.u)
Inertia constant 0.3096 (s)
Friction factor 0.0114 (p.u)
Pairs of poles 2
Table 3 Boost type DC/DC converter parameters

Name Range
Initial capacitor voltage 400 V
Capacitance 200 µF
Input port RS 0.5
Switching loss current 0.025
Table 4 Parameters for double bridge rectifier

Name Range
Reference voltage 400 (V)
SR of one SCR 2 (k-X)
SC of one SCR 0.1 (µF)
RI of one SCR 1 (mH)
LF (f-filter) 66 (mH)
CF (filter) 3300 (µF)
PW of synchronized 12-pulse generator 80 (°)
KP of PI voltage control system 2
KV of PI voltage control system 20
Table 5 Transformer parameters used in the double bridge rectifier

Name Range
Input winding parameters (Yg) [V1 R1 L1] [460 (V) 0.00025 (p.u) 0 (p.u)]
Output winding parameters (Y) [V2 R2 L2] [230 (V) 0.00025 (p.u) 0.0024 (p.u)]
Nominal power 120 (KW)
Nominal frequency 60 Hz
Proposed system characteristics during the simulation process over a period of

time. The inputs to the PV and wind are irradiance and wind speed which are
gathered from [6] and shown in Fig. 11a, b. Even though the inputs fluctuate over a
period of time in both the systems, they are maintained constant voltage shown in
Fig. 12a, b by using proper power electronics-based converters. The purpose of
using P&O MPPT’s is to set the DC/DC and double bridge rectifier reference
current (Iref) so that PV array and wind output operates at maximum power point by
sequentially increasing or decreasing the operating currents. From Fig. 10a, we
could observe that during time period 8.40 am and 19.00 pm the power from solar
is very less due to the nonexistence of radiation. To overcome such constraint, we
integrated wind system to PV by choosing from wind speed profile as shown in
Fig. 11b as input to the wind turbine and integrated both together to a common DC
598 R. Rekha et al.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 11 a solar irradiance of PV panel, b wind profile
bus and maintained at a stable voltages show in Fig. 12a, b and by using inverters
converted power is transferred to the loads which are maintained at 60 Hz 440 V
line to line and the hybrid power delivered is shown in Fig. 13 [7].
8 Conclusions
PV/wind are the two predominantly used sources which are integrated together to
meet the supply and demand as PV alone cannot meet the demand for supply. In
this paper, both are designed and modeled using MATLAB and their performances
are studied. The total data has been collected from [7] and its performance char-
acteristics were observed by implementing P&O MPPT.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Fig. 12 a DC/DC converter output voltage using P&O, b wind DC output voltage using P&O,
c solar power output using P&O, d wind output power using P&O
600 R. Rekha et al.
Fig. 13 Hybrid power delivered to load using P&O
References
1. D. Pilakkat, S. Kanthalakshmi, An improved P&O algorithm integrated with artificial bee

colony for photovoltaic systems under partial shading conditions. Sol. Energy 178, 37–47
(2019)
2. B. Srikanth Goud, B. Loveswara Rao, Review of optimization techniques for Integrated
distribution generation. Int. J. Innov. Technol. Explor. Eng. (IJITEE) 8(4) (2019). ISSN:
2278-3075
3. B. Pakkiraiah, G.D. Sukumar, Research survey on various MPPT performance issues to
improve the solar PV system efficiency. J. Solar Energy (Hindawi Publishing Corporation,
2016)
4. D.K. Geetha, P. Pramila, A survey on efficiency in PV systems with DC-DC converter.
Commun. Appl. Electron. (CAE) 6(1) (2016)
5. A.F. Cupertino, J.T. De Resende, H.A. Pereira, S.I. Seleme Jr., A grid-connected photovoltaic
system with a maximum power point tracker using passivity-based control applied in a boost
converter, in Proceedings of the 10th IEEE/IAS International Conference on Industry
Applications (INDUSCON’12) (Fortaleza, Brazil, 2012)
6. E.M. Natsheh Member IEEE, A. Albarbar, Member, IEE J. Yazdani, Member IEEE, Modeling
and control for smart grid integration of solar/wind energy conversion system, in 2nd
IEEE PES International Conference (2012)
7. K.S. Chandragupta Mauryan, M. Abuvatamizhan, V. Balaji, R. Mani, Improved efficiency of
large capacity renewable energy—integration with grid. Int. J. Eng. Sci. 3, 12–17 (2014)
A Practical Approach in Design
and Fabrication of Solar-Powered
Four-Wheeled Electric Vehicle
S. Gobhinath, S. Boobalan, R. Ashwin, Jan Meshach

and K. Rajkumar
Abstract In the twenty-first century transportation, industry has undergone rapid

changes, with the advent of electric vehicles (EV), and the world is moving towards a
clean and green future. The electric vehicles depend on electrical energy from
coal-powered power plants for their charging; this dilemma has sought the attention of
researchers and engineers to look out for a cleaner technology to power up the bat-
teries. One of the possible solutions is solar-powered electric vehicle (SPEV); the
solar-powered EV can self-charge its batteries without any turbulence caused to the
environment. This paper enumerates multifarious design and fabrication strategies
involved in building a practical off-road four-wheeled solar-powered electric vehicle.

Keywords Solar panels BLDC motor Maximum power point tracking

algorithm (MPPT) Battery management system (BMS) Solar-powered

electric vehicle (SPEV) Electric vehicles (EV)
1 Introduction
The world is alarmed by climate change, and this undesired change is a result of
prolonged exploitation of non-renewable natural resources. The greenhouse gases
are the automobile sector which primarily depends on diesel or petrol for trans-
portation [1]. Solar-powered electric vehicle can be considered as an alternative to
such cars; however, this technological leap is in its infancy, practical fabrication;
S. Gobhinath (&) S. Boobalan J. Meshach

Department of Electrical and Electronics, Sri Krishna College
of Engineering &Technology, Coimbatore, India
R. Ashwin
Department of Mechatronics Engineering, Sri Krishna College
of Engineering &Technology, Coimbatore, India
K. Rajkumar
Department of Electrical Engineering, National Institute
of Technology, Trichy, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_54
602 S. Gobhinath et al.
successful charging and driving a solar-powered EV are an intense task; it involves

numerous calculations, design considerations, time and dedicated workforce to
deliver better performance. The projected system has solar panels whose outcome is
regulated by the solar charge controller, i.e. maximum power point tracker, and it in
turn supplies the regulated output to the battery and the battery supplies the required
power to the BLDC motor which is regulated by the BLDC motor controller [2, 3].
2 Proposed System Description
The overall design and the manufacturing processes are divided and assigned into
different subsystems, namely chassis, steering, braking, suspension, transmission
and electrical [1]. This model consists of solar PV array either connected at series or
connected at parallel according to the needs of the load. The MPPT comes in with a
built-in algorithm to derive the maximum power that can be taken out from the
panels. The battery is connected to the MPPT via the battery management system
[2, 4]. Further, the motor controller is connected to the battery.
3 Mechanical System Overview
The mechanical system constitutes the body of the vehicle and is responsible for the
effective movement of the vehicle [3].
3.1 Chassis Design
The idea of the vehicular design was to ensure a rigid construction that supports an
effective robust suspension and designing of a versatile steering system. The
solar-powered electric vehicle’s body was to be tapped with the polycrystalline
solar cells at a maximum scale without any disturbance to other systems [4, 5]. The
base design of the chassis was to maintain the efficiency of the solar cells, thereby
providing support to other systems of the vehicle. The design primarily focused
upon on safety aspect of the driver, and a separate fireproof wall was provided
behind the driver that separates the driver from the battery [4]. A four-wheeler
design was chosen over the three-wheeled design in order to increase the overall
stability and to enhance the seating of panels upon the chassis [5]. The overall
dimension was approximately 123*64*50 inches. Commercial welding methods
can be used to weld and form the chassis (Fig. 1).
A Practical Approach in Design and Fabrication of Solar-… 603
Fig. 1 Chassis—top view without cover and vehicular design of the proposed SPEV
3.2 Steering
The steering system ensures proper tire-to-road contact. The steering system helps
to maintain a proper angle between both the tires during turns and straight-ahead
driving. The driver should be talented to turn the vehicle with little effort. So, the
rack and pinion steering with a 6:1 steering ratio amongst various types of available
steering systems in the market to meet our objective of having a minimum turning
radius was opted.
3.3 Braking
Brakes translate friction to heat [4, 5]. The static thermal analysis was carried out
upon the disc rotor to estimate and relate their performance and their temperature
distribution. The disc brakes were chosen for the vehicle (Table 1).
Table 1 Specifications of Materials Value

brake
Axle capacity 1800 lbs
Wheel size 9″ to 12″
Bolt pattern 5 on 3-1/3
Rotor diameter 7.2”
Brake flange configuration 4 bolt
Wheel stub diameter ½
4 Electrical System Design
The electrical system is responsible for powering the solar vehicle. This is the main
system in the solar vehicle that ensures that the vehicle runs properly and smoothly.
4.1 Solar Panels
The usage of polycrystalline silicon was opted as it suited the requirements of the
vehicle’s need (Fig. 2; Table 2).
4.2 Motor
Brushless direct current motors were preferred for the vehicle; since they produce
high torque, better efficiency and a lower inertia operation at higher speeds, they
tend to dissipate heat better than conventional and require less maintenance and are
more reliable when it derives to special machine application. In addition, BLDC
motors do not present the risk of sparks or arcs. It also offers a low weight at a
relatively small size [5] (Table 3).
Fig. 2 Solar panel dimensions

Table 2 Solar panel Parameter Value

electrical characteristics
Maximum power (Pmax) 120 W
Open circuit voltage (Voc) 44.1 V
Maximum power voltage 35.0 V
Short circuit current 3.69 A
Maximum power current (Iamp) 3.37 A
Maximum system (DC) voltage 24 V
Operating temperature −40 °C/85 °C
Normal operating temperature 50 °C
Temperature coefficient of Isc 0.080%/°C
Temperature coefficient of Voc −0.350%/°C
Table 3 Motor Parameter Value

specifications
Motor type BLDC Motor
Frame size LBC 05
Power 2 KW
Current (Amp) 35 A
Voltage 48 V
Speed 3000 rpm
Motor poles 8
Hall sensor 5V
Mounting Flange
Degree of protection IP 55
Class of insulation F
Ambient temperature/Max temperature 50 °C/70 °C
4.3 Electrical Connections
Figure 3 gives the exact connection of all electrical components in the system and
the methodology followed to connect them and orient them in such a way that the
system works properly [4].
4.4 Battery
A high energy density, better self-discharge and less weight were the parameters
that were considered in order to choose lithium-ion battery [6] (Table 4).
Fig. 3 Electric vehicle with solar-powered connection diagram
Table 4 Battery Parameter Value

specifications
Rated voltage 48 V
Rated current 100 Ah
Length 800 mm
Breadth 315 mm
Depth 115 mm
Weight 35 kg
5 Conclusion
In future, adoption of green technology will become inevitable, and solar-powered

electric vehicle could be the future when proper research and development is vested
upon this technology. This technology can cure a monopoly that is prevalent in the
automotive industry.
References
1. R. Seyezhai, A. Sankar, Simulation and implementation of solar powered Electric vehicle. Circ.
Syst. 8(12), 643–661 (2016)
2. N.A. Rahim, R. Passarella, Z. Taha, Driving force characteristic and power consumption of
4.7 kW permanent magnet motor for a solar vehicle. ARPN J. Eng. Appl. Sci. 5(1), January
2010
3. J. Prasanth Ram, T. Sudhakar Babu, N. Rajasekar, A review on solar PV maximum power
point tracking techniques. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 6(7), 826–847 (2017)
4. S. Gobhinath, H. Adhithyan, S.K. Arvindadhithya, Hybrid regenerative braking system for
electric vehicles using BLDC motor. Int. J. Pure Appl. Math. 119(12), 1895–1904 (2018)
5. Z. Taha, R. Passarella, H.X. How, J.Md. Sah, N. Ahmad, Application of data acquisition and
telemetry system into a solar vehicle, in International Conference on Computer Engineering
and Applications (2016)
6. S. Gobhinath, V. Aparna, R. Azhagunacchiya, An automatic driver drowsiness alter system by
using GSM, in IEEE Explore ISCO Conference Publication, pp. 125–128 (2017)
7. W.F. Milliken, D.L. Milliken, “Race Car Vehicle” Dynamics, SAE International (2015)
8. M. Giannouli, P. Yianoulis, Incorporation of photovoltaic systems as an auxiliary power source
for hybrid and electric vehicles. Solar Energy 8(6), 441–451 (2017)
Survey on Security Aspects in Smart
Grid: Performance and Parametric
Analysis
V. V. Vineeth, S. Sophia and S. Jayanthy
Abstract Smart grid is a great new aspect of the power industry. It integrates
various advanced technologies and information and communication capabilities to
deal with problems found to occur with the existing electrical networks. Such
integration facilitates and improves efficiency and accessibility of the electric power
system with the additional features of regularly supervising, calculating, and
administrating customer demands. This leads to the excessive deployment of smart
meters in order to recognize the actual benefits. But, the deployment of smart
meters brings up different concerns on the security of information among both
consumers and service providers. This paper aims to focus on the major attacks on
smart meter security which challenges the overall grid security.
Keywords Smart grid Smart meter Cyber attack Physical attack

Security solutions
1 Introduction
The several improvements and better new capabilities of the smart grid environment
make the grid architecture more complex and expose it to various kinds of attacks.
Smart meters tend to be an important component of the grid by acting as a central
gateway located on customer’s site supporting two-way communication. Smart
V. V. Vineeth (&)
Department of Electrical and Electronics, Sri Krishna College of Engineering & Technology,
Coimbatore, India
S. Sophia
Department of Electronics and Communication, Sri Krishna College of Engineering &
Technology, Coimbatore, India
S. Jayanthy
Department of Electronics and Communication, Sri Ramakrishna Engineering College,
Coimbatore, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_55
610 V. V. Vineeth et al.
meters gather a large amount of information and transfer to companies, service

providers, and consumers. Collected data includes information about a private
consumer which may be made use to deduce activities of consumer, devices used,
and the times when home is vacant [1].
Smart meter security aspects include customer security, physical security, and
implicit trust that exist among traditional power devices. Customer security issues
arise when the private consumer information collected by a meter is prone to attack.
The vulnerability to physical access and attacks of various distributed components
comprises the physical security aspect [2]. The security aspect of communication
among power devices includes the data spoofing attack which may affect the
device-to-device communication which can affect more devices.
2 Smart Meter Overview
Smart meters are key components in the grid infrastructure, the idea being emanated
due to the wide-scale deployment of smart grid environment. Smart meter systems are
available in smart grid environment not just to stipulate instant meter information on
supplies, including water, electricity, and gas to service providers, but it, in turn, use
this information so as to make it available to end users who are the final users of
electricity and some of them even include the measurement of worthiness of power
and essential control features [3]. Smart meter devices can adapt the power generation
as on demand and thus can enable the balancing of power production and its distri-
bution in a smart grid environment. Such devices are actually the point of contact
among the two components such as the electric utility and the end user. Smart meter
acts as a point of managing being located at the end use premise and physically
managing the same. Smart meters have the added characteristics including identifi-
cation of power usage patterns and behaviors by tracking the usage of data, capability
to disconnect an end user from smart grid, generating alerts for the service providers in
case of any problem, and monitoring and controlling of smart home devices at peak
times [4]. Deploying a large quantity of software aspects and techniques is involved in
the integration of smart meters to smart grid concept. These techniques depend pri-
marily on the aspects of the demanding situations. The National Institute of Standards
and Technology developed smart grid infrastructure composed of seven domains as
shown in Fig. 1. This design and also the implementation of the smart meters thus
depend on the specific requirements of service providers and that of end users.
Different control devices and sensors are employed in a smart meter for the
purpose of identifying the various devices and parameters so as to permit trans-
mission of command signals and information. By active monitoring of performance
and also the electricity usage features of smart grid load, smart meters can carry out
a vital role in power grid in the future. Gathering of power consumption infor-
mation from end users helps providers to analyze and manage power demands and
the same can be made use of to notify the customers about efficient way so as to
make use of their smart devices. It also helps service providers to detect stealing of
Survey on Security Aspects in Smart Grid … 611
Fig. 1 Smart grid domains (NIST)
electric power and unauthorized access which in turn helps in improving the power
distribution and power quality [5]. Since smart meters can identify profitable end
users depending on overall energy consumption and power generation sources,
service providers can provide such customers with advanced voluntary value-added
services. These all require the collection of large amount of real-time data from end
users.
Though there is an enormous list of various features and capabilities provided by a
smart meter, its deployment raises many security and privacy concerns. It comes up
with major concerns on overall security including data security(regarding end user
privacy data), data integrity issues, availability, access control, to name a few. These
security concerns are due to the reality that smart meters often act as the weakest link in
grid environment [6]. That is, they can be easily attacked through other networks since
they operate on wireless means for communications. These attacks launched on smart
meters can in turn affect the overall security of the grid which can cause data cor-
ruption, mistakes in accounting, power blackouts, etc (Fig. 2).
3 Security Solution Challenges
The different problems and challenges concerned in the implementation, design,

exploitation, and maintenance of smart meters are outlined in paper [7].
The deployment of smart meters in distributed systems is analyzed which incur
huge cost, and it faces more difficulties with the increasing number of customers.
Fig. 2 Basic network architecture
The gathering and transmission of power consumption data raise privacy and
security risks. Data can also disclose the location of customers, and the authenti-
cation of such information is vital [8, 9]. DNP3 and its enhanced versions can be
used for communication network, but it cannot offer needed security [10]. Power
consumption information being carried over cellular networks has security risks
[11] which tend to other problems like poor protocols and authentication. This is
added up by data concentrators. The paper identifies different design issues
including technology aspects, physical aspects, cost of device, communication, and
identification for all devices. The maintenance issues were classified as being of
network failures, communication network, smart meter, and base server. Further, it
investigates the challenges with data transfer as being the quantity of information to
be transmitted, the access criteria and also the kind of modulation to be employed.
Certain sections of people are also interested in collecting data from smart meter
including illegal customers and attackers [12], and since the gateways can be
compatible with other appliances, it brings up cyber security and also physical
security risks [13]. The weaknesses of current smart metering systems are high-
lighted in paper [14]. It focuses on the methods used to secure transmission of data,
including symmetric and asymmetric means. Both the approaches are found to have
problems: communication security (where whole information will be lost) for
symmetric and there are problems of the reduced speed of systems in case of
asymmetric approach. It was outlined that weak security could be resulted by using
symmetric algorithm at both parts of communication, whereas though some sort of
security can be attained in asymmetric case, it is a lot of waste of time. The process
of generation and management of keys for the algorithm is also a tedious process.
The possibilities that can be modeled on a smart meter system are discussed in
paper [15]. Two types of derived attacks have been launched; assuming an attacker
can have system-level access, and an abstract model has been designed to extract
and analyze the attacks. The first attack being launched is communication interface
attack targeting on communication link. This is done by writing fake processes and
using ports, which indeed resulted in fake consumption of data. The second attack
is physical memory attack, which takes into consideration the fact that power
consumption data will be written to flash memory in case of network unavailability.
A script has been written to deactivate scripts and to overwrite data file with fake
data. Power consumption could be modified by activating the script. The effect of
these two attacks has been studied in the paper by considering the CPU and
memory overhead involved, and it is found to have a great impact. This paper [16]
focuses in detail on the security and privacy issues of smart meters. The potential
attackers, their model of attacks and threats caused, are presented. Different types of
attackers on smart meters are identified including eavesdroppers, marketing agen-
cies, customers, novice attackers, and active attackers. Security attacks launched by
these attackers include eavesdropping, denial of service, packet injection attacks,
man-in-the-middle attack, remote connect/disconnect, malware injection attacks,
and firmware manipulation. It is identified in the paper that the security and privacy
issues are closely related. The consequences are also highlighted.
A collective analysis of the reading of smart meter among a clustered group of
meters based on a detection model is done in paper [17]. The attacker is aimed at
producing faulty readings by the compromised meters. The meters of neighborhood
network are grouped into clusters, and they multicast their reading values. The
compromised meters can either report fault readings to its peers in a cluster thus
avoiding detection, or it can report it to both peers and central unit at the same time.
The results of the attacks have been identified, and an effective peer-monitoring
system is analyzed to be appropriate to find out the misbehaving of meters in a
cluster. The possible attacks on smart grid infrastructure are identified in paper [18]
focusing on smart meter perspective. Different types of attacks affecting the con-
fidentiality, integrity, availability, and non-repudiation are identified and analyzed
in detail. The physical attacks as well as their cyber counterparts are listed out, and
it is identified that smart meters are the possible targets of attack in a grid
environment.
4 Smart Grid Security Goals
Security of smart grid security can be examined as being a group of main goals such
as availability, integrity, confidentiality, and also accountability.
• Availability: This goal makes sure that information be accessed on reliable and
also in a timely fashion. Collection of the data, refinement, and the sharing of
data is important and is to be maintained by security solutions.
• Integrity: Data should be highly accurate and reliable. It should be ensured that
the data is accurate and should be free from manipulation in order to prevent
harmful attacks and fraud.
• Confidentiality: Huge volumes of data generated by the grid should be collected,

stored, and analyzed. It includes sensitive data regarding consumers and utilities.
Care should be taken so as to avoid unauthorized access to sensitive
information.
• Accountability: Since proper care is needed while disclosing sensitive infor-
mation, the communications of the user with the systems are logged properly
and are linked with specific users. That is, smart grid users are responsible for
the activities they carry out. Logs should be such that it may not be manipulated,
and integrity is to be maintained.
5 Proposed Solutions
1. Powerful authentication methods are required to verify the integrity. Explicit

requests are needed to permit access to network, and all other accesses are
denied implicitly.
2. Smart grid infrastructure may have embedded and also general-purpose sys-
tems. Both these should be secured from the malwares. Embedded systems
generally run on software from manufacturer that must necessarily have a
secure storage which should contain keys that can be used for the validation of
the particular software. Key can be made use to validate any software that is
newly downloaded. Third party generally provides general-purpose systems,
and its security is assured by means of updated antivirus solutions which
regularly get updated and also by way of intrusion prevention systems.
3. Host-based security measure should be supplemented with intrusion prevention
and detection systems (IPS and IDS) so as to guard the system against inside
and outside attacks.
4. At least once in a year, vulnerability evaluation should be done to ensure that
the interfacing elements are secured.
5. Awareness programs are to be conducted so as to educate network users about
the security aspects on using the network so as to avoid possible system threats.
6. Common authentication mechanisms like Internet Protocol Security (IPSec)
and Transport Layer Security (TLS) should be employed by the source and
destination systems in order to know each other.
7. For safe and secure communication, devices should enable virtual private
network (VPN).
8. For reliable and secure communication, devices must use public key infras-
tructure (PKI) [7]. While using cryptography for security, certain constraints
exist like the storage and processing power to execute authentication and
encryption mechanisms [8]. This is of major concern in smart grid environment
since communications involve various channels of various bandwidths to which
all the devices, other entities, and servers will be connected all the time.
9. Data filtering should be done by the utilities in order to obtain the relevant data
for their processing.
10. For achieving smart grid security, both control system engineers and software
engineers for security must equally be involved.
6 Conclusion
The various attack strategies and its effects on smart metering systems have been
identified in this paper. The detailed analysis on the attack regimes indicates a line
open up for the future research to introduce secure and appropriate model for smart
meter architecture so as to make it secure and can function by ensuring that the
model is free from all the various kinds of attacks. The model should be such that it
considers all the various categories of attacks including cyber and physical cate-
gories. This is of primary importance since the loopholes open up for launching
attacks on a smart meter affect the overall functionality of smart grid infrastructure
and may lead to the overall destruction of the grid.
References
1. J. Naruchitparames, M.H. Güne, C.Y. Evrenosoglu, Secure communications in the smart grid,
in Consumer Communications and Networking Conference (CCNC), pp. 1171–1175 (2011)
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A Literature Survey on Renewable
Energy Sources in India
Praveen Mannam and R. P. Singh
Abstract In monetary and ecological motivating forces, the advances are

reshaping the conventional perspective on power frameworks. Presently in a
multi-day’s vitality source, a sustainable power source is quickly turning into a
favored one all-around the globe. Network vitality ventures democratizing access to
the advantages of renewables on and off the lattice, developing markets driving the
organization of renewables on track to advancement, and enterprises growing the
extent of their sun-oriented and wind obtainment. Renewables are achieving cost
and execution equality on the framework, and at the attachment, the new advances
are sharpening the focused edge of wind- and sunlight-based. Wind- and sun-based
powers have shown to be aggressive with regular age advances over the top of
worldwide markets, even without endowments. The sending of new advances will
help further diminish in expenses and improve coordination. This will empower a
developing number of vitality purchasers to acquire their favored vitality source and
quicken national vitality changes over the world. As India grows, clean defensible
electrical supply avails to control for homes, structures, and furthermore bigger
networks. Circulated age (DG) has been taken as decentralized age and appropri-
ation of intensity particularly in the country regions. The distributed age
(DG) innovations in India identify with miniaturized scale turbines, wind turbines,
biomass, and gasification of biomass, sunlight-based photovoltaic, and mixture
frameworks. The expanded reaping of nature energy steam from inexhaustible clean
sources comes to the overwhelming test dependably developed to effectively suit
the power foundation. The power age from different accessible sustainable power
source structures with appropriated age must be associated with customers through
legitimate incorporation. Such a kind of joining brings the idea of small-scale
framework (MG). Along these lines, this paper proposed the significance of
micro-grid innovation in the present days in India, and furthermore, it is the
overview of lasting power core belongings with vitality frameworks organizations
in India and on the planet.
P. Mannam (&) R. P. Singh

Electrical Engineering, Sri Satya Sai University of Technology & Medical Sciences,
Sehore, Madhya Pradesh, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_56
618 P. Mannam and R. P. Singh

Keywords Renewable energy resources (RES) Micro-grids (MG) Distributed

generation (DG) Solar systems Wind energy Biomass energy
1 Introduction
The significance of sustainable power sources in the progress to a maintainable

vitality base was perceived in the mid-1970s. The current sustainable power source
is being utilized progressively in four unmistakable markets, and there are control
age, warming and cooling, transport, and rustic/off-lattice vitality services. While
assets, for example, consolidated cycle gas turbines (CCGT) have greater adapt-
ability to pursue the heap bend, progressively reasonable battery stockpiling and
different advancements are helping smooth the impacts of wind- and sun-oriented
irregularities, giving them a greater amount of the unwavering quality required to
contend with ordinary sources. From a value point of view, inland wind has turned
into the world’s most reduced cost vitality hotspot for power age, with an unsub-
sidized LCOE (levelized cost of energy is a term which portrays the expense of the
power delivered by sun oriented over some stretch of time, normally the justified
existence of the framework) scope of US$ 30–60 (MWh) [1]. An aggregate of 121
nations had sent almost 495 GW of coastal breeze control, driven by China, the
USA, Germany, India, Spain, France, Brazil, the UK, and Canada, and inland wind
had achieved value equality in these nine nations [2]. In the USA, the least expenses
are in solid breeze locales, for example, the Great Plains and Texas, while the most
noteworthy are in the upper east [3]. All-inclusiveness, the most minimal expenses
are in the nine driving nations, just as Eurasia and Australia [4]. Utility-scale
sun-powered PV is hot on wind’s heels: It is the second-least expensive vitality
cause. An expensive of sun-powered PV’s LCOE extend (US $43–53/MWh) is less
than that of some other age source [5]. A record 93.7 GW—more than the absolute
limit in the year of 2011, i.e., 69 GW was included all-inclusiveness in 2017
crosswise over 187 nations, carrying the all-out ability to 386 GW, driven by China,
Japan, Germany, the USA, Italy, India, and the UK [6]. Solar has achieved value
equality in every one of these business sectors aside from Japan, and it is the
world’s most elevated cost sun-based markets, essentially because of high capital
expenses. As Japan advances to aggressive closeouts, sun-oriented value equality is
normally somewhere in the range of 2025 and 2030. In the USA, the most reduced
expenses are in the southwestern states and California [7]. Internationally, Australia
has the most reduced expenses for sun-powered PV and Africa has the most ele-
vated because of speculation costs [8]. Commercial sunlight-based PV has come to
unsubsidized attachment equality in parts of all the top sun-powered markets that
are at framework equality, aside from India [9]. US property holders conveyed the
same number of private stockpiling frameworks in the first four months of 2018 as
in the previous three joined, generally in California and Hawaii [10]. Private
sun-powered in addition to capacity is as of now less expensive than utility retail
rates in 19 US states, just as in a few areas of Australia and Germany, where,
A Literature Survey on Renewable Energy Sources … 619
Fig. 1 UNITS = GW. Source IRENA, renewable capacity statistics 2018
separately, 40 and 50% of private sun-oriented PV frameworks introduced in 2017

included capacity [11] (Fig. 1).
Australia and Europe have more private and business housetop sun-based than
utility-scale sunlight-based limit, raising the possibility of dispersed versus
utility-scale sun based on the addition to capacity turning into the characterizing
vitality asset rivalry when network and attachment equality are come to.
2 Renewable Energy Sources in India
The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) in India has been encour-
aging the execution of wide range projects including outfitting sustainable power,
sustainable power source for country territories for lighting, cooking and intention
control, utilization of tenable powering in urban, mechanical and business appli-
cations, and improvement of substitute powers and applications. A sustainable
power source is an incredible mix of empowering patterns and request patterns.
Sustainable power source assumes a significant job in the long-haul vitality supply
security, broadening of vitality blend, vitality gets to, ecological security and
maintainability. Sustainable power source will undoubtedly assume an expanding
job in the future vitality frameworks.
India has a tremendous supply of supportable power core assets, and it has one
of the biggest projects on the planet for conveying sustainable power source items
and frameworks. To be sure, it is the prevailing domain on the planetoid to have an
elite service for sustainable power source advancement, the MNES. India is
currently the eleventh biggest economy on the planet, fourth regarding obtaining
power. Power age from sustainable sources is on the ascent in India, with the
portion of durable power supply in the nation’s absolute introduced limit ascending
from 7.8% to around 13% in the span of 2008–2014 as per the IREDA. Currently in
our country, it has about 36.4 GW of introduced sustainable power source limit. Of
these, wind is the biggest giver and stands at around 23.7 GW of introduced limit
making India the world’s fifth biggest breeze vitality maker. Little hydro control
(4.1 GW), bio-vitality (4.4 GW), and sunlight-based vitality (4 GW) establish the
rest of the limit (MNRE, 2015). It has been accounted for that as far as power age,
roughly 70 billion units for every year are being created from inexhaustible sources
(MNRE, 2014). Figure 2 beneath demonstrates the sustainable power source blend
in the all-out introduced limit in India. The Indian sustainable power source division
is the fourth most appealing [12] sustainable power source showcase on the planet.
Indeed October 2018, India positioned fifth in introduced sustainable power source
limit.
As indicated by 2018 Climatescope report, India positioned second among the
developing economies to prompt progress to clean energy. Installed sustainable
power age limit has expanded at a quick pace in the course of recent years, posting
a CAGR of 19.78% between FY14 and 18. The centerpiece authority of India has
moved to clean vitality after it sanctioned the Paris Agreement. With the expanded
help of government and improved financial matters, the area has something to be
alluring from speculator’s point of view. As India hopes to satisfy its vitality need
individually, which is relied upon to reach 15,820 TWh by 2040, sustainable power
source is set to assume a significant job.
Fig. 2 Share of renewables in total grid installed capacity. Source CEA-MNRE report
3 Solar Systems in India
India has tremendous sun-powered potential because of normal yearly temperature

shrinks from 26 to 28 °C. The bright segments are arranged in the sinister/eastern
strand, from Calcutta to Chennai. Photovoltaic (PV) cells are set on the rooftop of
houses or business structures to collect the energy from sun and to convert the
collected energy into electricity. For example, mirrors or illustrative bowl that came
over and step the shine for the period of the day are additionally utilized.
Sunlight-based vitality is an appealing prospect for India, as the nation gets
sun-oriented radiation of 5–7 kWh/m2 for 300–330 days in a year. This means a
power age capability of roughly 20 MW/km2 for sun-based photovoltaic
(SPV) applications and 35 MW/km2 for sun-oriented warm age.
This suggests India gets sun-oriented vitality comparable to about 5000 trillion
kWh/year, which is proportional to 600 GW. This far surpasses the nation’s present
vitality utilization. India is positioned fifth in SPV establishments and ninth in
sun-oriented warm application installations on the planet. India has 10–12 maker’s
creating around 100 MW of SPV cells and roughly 20 producers with a complete
installed capacity of 120 MW in module fabricating. The proposed National Solar
Mission under the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) tries to give
long-haul vision to the improvement of solar energy in India.
The draft objectives of the proposed mission include:
• 10–12% of total power generation capacity estimated for year.
• Solar power cost decreases to accomplish framework tax equality by 2020.
• 4–5 GW of introduced sun-based assembling limit by 2017 of integrators-cum-
specialist organizations (around 80), with an all-out limit of roughly 245 MW
[13].
4 Wind Energy
Wind vitality age was a significantly credited to the provision of quickened dete-
rioration. Wind vitality is the undisputed market pioneer in India, representing
almost 70% of all-out lattice interactive renewable limit in the country. India is
outperformed distinctly by Germany as one of the world’s quickest developing
markets for wind energy. By the mid-1990s, the subcontinent was introducing more
wind creating limits than North America, Denmark, Britain, and the Netherlands.
The ten machines, close Okra in the region of Gujarat, were a portion of the primary
breeze turbines introduced in India [14].
5 Biomass Energy
India is extremely wealthy in biomass. It has a capability of 19,500 MW

(3500 MW from bagasse-based cogeneration and 16,000 MW from surplus bio-
mass). Right now, India has 537 commissioned and 536 MW under development.
The actualities strengthen the possibility of a responsibility by India to build up
these assets of intensity creation.
The following are the rundown of certain states with greater opportunities for
biomass creation:
• AP (200 MW)
• Bihar (200 MW)
• Gujarat (200 MW)
• Karnataka (300 MW)
• Maharashtra (1000 MW)
• Punjab (150 MW)
• Madras (350 MW)
• UP (1000 MW) [14].
Government initiatives
A few activities by the Government of India to support the Indian tolerable
source area are as per the following:
• A new hydropower has been delineated for the developmental of hydras
enlarged in the community.
• To execute a 238-million-dollar communal assignment on advancement hyper-
critics innovations for disinfectant char control.
• The sun-based housetop area (Table 1).
Table 1 India’s existing and projected renewable energy capacity additions. Source Mericom
India IEEFA Estimates
(GW) Installed Capacity Estimated capacity additions
capacity as of additions
Source FY201B/19 FV2018/19 FY2019/ FY202Q/ FY2021/ Total
20 21 22
Utility-scale 26.7 6.5 7.5 11.6 14 0 59.8
solar
Rooftop solar 3.9 1.6 2.0 3.0 40 12.9
Wind 1.7 5.0 6.4 6,4 53.1
Biomass + RoR 13.8 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 15.3
Floating solar 0.1 1A 1.5
Hybrid wind and 0.1 0.4 0.7 1.2
solar
Total 79.8 10.3 15.0 22.0 27.0 143.8
6 Micro-Grids (MG) in India
In creating nations like India, a great many people in remote territories are not ready
to infer the advantages of the progressing jolt process. Since there is no power that
organizes accessible to associate the secluded towns to the focal or state networks,
more ventures are required. In this association, the government had started some-
time before, the procedure of country zap through sustainable and other locally
accessible conveyed age assets. The current ongoing provincial jolt projects are for
the most part with a sustainable age. In the point of view of the manner in which
that the conventional vitality sources are rapidly depleting and speak to a danger to
the earth, a short investigation of political, financial, specialized, and ecological
viewpoints for the arrangement of RESs-based miniaturized scale frameworks
(MG) in India is finished. In India, however, there is an activity for the consolation
of micro-grids and there is as yet far to go in defeating certain obstacles.
There are many secluded DGs of composed task existing in the nation. Well
known among them is the Sagar Island micro-grid [15]. This specific venture is by
and large together subsidized by MNRE, the Indian Government, Indo-Canadian
Environment Facility (ICEF), and West Bengal Renewable Energy Development
Agency (WBREDA). “Asia-Pacific association on Urban Development and
Climate: APP” is the territorial participation structure built up by the initiative of
the USA to enhance the capacity of Kyoto Convention [16]. At present, seven
nations (Japan, USA, Australia, Korea, China, India, and Canada) are taking part in
this action. They framed Renewable Energy and Distributed Generation Task Force
(REDGTF) to direct primer and achievability contemplates for improvement of
keen vitality arrangement utilizing different sustainable power sources in different
nations. One such investigation has been completed in Maharashtra, India, for
extensive assessment criteria for circulated power utilizing micro-grid [17].
7 Conclusion
According to the information referenced by Indian CEA (Central Electricity

Authority), the yearly development in power age during ongoing FY 2018–19*
(*up to February 2019) is 24.77% which is uncommon improvement contrasted
with 6.47% in 2015–16 FY. At last, the use of maintainable source of energy
resources for power age is giving more advantages to the nation and individuals,
particularly contamination-free living conditions and expanded lifetime.
References
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2. M. Motyka, A. Slaughter, C. Amon, Global Renewable Energy Trends
3. US Department of Energy, Wind Technologies Market Report (2016)
4. REN21, Renewables 2018: Global Status Report (2018)
5. Lazard, Levelized Cost of Energy Analysis—Version 11.0
6. Capacities Calculated from IRENA, Renewable Capacity Statistics 2018
7. US Department of Energy, 2016 Wind Technologies Market Report
8. REN21, Renewables 2018: Global Status Report
9. CSIS, BNEF’s New Energy Outlook 2018
10. W. Mackenzie, US Energy Storage Monitor, June 5, 2018
11. J. Farrell, Reverse power flow. Institute for Local Self-Reliance, July 2018; REN21,
Renewables 2018 Global Status Report
12. According to Renewable Energy Country Attractiveness Index 2018 by EY
13. India Ministry of Non-Conventional Energy Sources (MNES). http://mnes.nic.in/
14. Global Energy Network Institute (GENI). www.geni.org
15. (Online) Available: http://www.iset.uni-kassel.de/abt/FBA/publication/2008/2008MitraSesi.
pdf, Nov 2009
16. (Online) Available:http://unfccc.int/kyotoprotocol/items/2830.php, Nov 2009
17. F. Ahmad, M.S. Alam, Economic and ecological aspects for microgrids deployment in India,
in Sustainable Cities and Society. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2017.11.027
Designing of Solar Hybrid Electric
Vehicle from Source to Load
P. Ajay Sai Kiran and B. Loveswara Rao
Abstract Electric vehicles have gained large attention everywhere throughout the
world due to rising global gas emissions and with increased fuel cost and depletion
of fuel of conventional transportation. With the widespread EVs, there is an impact
created by them not only on the transportation sector but also on the power sector.
With various types of configuration of EVs, the scope of smart grid and microgrid
and also the reliability of the grid resilience and reliability can be improved. In this
paper, solar-based hybrid electric vehicle has been designed and the impact of EVs
and utilization and scope of EVs from source to load is analyzed.
1 Introduction
Electric vehicles have been adopted by many countries due to its advantages over
conventional ICE in the aspect of fuel and tailpipe emissions. This adoption has
both advantages and disadvantages on the distribution of power this paper is framed
completely discussing the scope of electric vehicles and also different case studies
of electric vehicles and schemes adopted by different countries over the globe to
increase EVs. Adverse environmental conditions in the sense pollution is been
increased due to tail pipe emissions from conventional vehicles. Electric vehicles
gain an advantage over internal combustion engine because the efficiency of the
electric motor is high compared to the IC engine, and speed control will be easier
and regenerative braking will be an additional advantage. The increase of electric
vehicles will give the scope of “prosumer” where the consumer will be acting as a
producer too with the energy that has been stored in the battery and energy that can
P. Ajay Sai Kiran (&) B. Loveswara Rao

Department of EEE, Koneru Lakshmaiah Education Foundation,
Vaddeswaram, Guntur 522502, Andhra Pradesh, India
P. Ajay Sai Kiran
SASI Institute of Technology and Engineering, Tadepalligudem
534101, Andhra Pradesh, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_57
626 P. Ajay Sai Kiran and B. Loveswara Rao
be produced by hybrid electric vehicle combination of internal combustion and

electric generator.
The popularity of EVs during 1900 is also a key to know the development of
personal vehicle and the other available options. Steam was the most dependable
source for driving vehicles and powering load too.
A portion of the main self-impelled vehicles during the late 1700s depends on
steam, yet it took until the 1870s for the innovation to grab hold in automobiles.
This is because steam is not the best option for personal vehicles as it requires
longer time to start up and water needs to be replaced.
An electric vehicle does not have any of the issues related to steam or gas. They
were simple to drive and did not discharge any pollutants like the other cars. The
downfall of the electric vehicles started due to the back step taken by companies due to
the limitations in charging infrastructure and the lack of sale due to a limited range.
1.1 Type of Electric Vehicles and Charging Infrastructure
Depending upon the type of configuration, fuel electric vehicles are classified as
shown in the table (Table 1).
In BEV, the required energy to propel the vehicle has been produced by the
battery management system solely. BEV does not have charging capability; it
completely depends upon battery swapping technology. Battery swapping is the
technology in which the discharged battery will be supplanted by charged battery
depending upon the specifications of the vehicles (Fig. 1).
In HEV, there are two sources that are responsible for the propulsion of the
vehicles. The energy will be supplied depending upon the load requirement; the
main advantage of HEV internal combustion engine has the capability to generate
the electric energy required for charging the battery. The main disadvantage of
HEV does not have the capability of charging infrastructure (Fig. 2).
As illustrated in the figure, the drive train configuration is the combination of
fuel and Electric energy, the HEC can work in the following pattern [1]:
1. Fuel drivetrain propels the load alone.
2. Electric energy source drives train alone.
Table 1 Comparison of different drive trains

S. No. Name of the technology Drive train
1 Battery electric vehicles (BEV) Battery
2 Hybrid electric vehicles (HEV) Battery + ICE
3 Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV) Battery + ICE
charging supported
4 Fuel cell EV (FCEV) Fuel cell + ICE
5 All electric vehicle Battery
Designing of Solar Hybrid Electric Vehicle from Source to Load 627
Fig. 1 Rear axle configuration of battery electric vehicle
Fig. 2 Hybrid electric

vehicle configuration
3. Both fuel and electric drivetrain propel the load at the same time.
4. Electric drive is been charged from the load (regenerative braking).
5. Electric drivetrain obtains power from fuel drivetrain (ICE charging battery).
The disadvantage of hybrid electric vehicles can be overcome by plug-in hybrid
electric vehicle (Fig. 3).
By the combination of ultra-capacitor, battery will provide many advantages as
an attractive storage system; the main advantage of ultra-capacitor is high power
density whereas the battery has a high energy density; and both the battery and the
UC provide power to the motor and power electronic DC/AC inverter during
acceleration (Fig. 4).
The fuel cell EVs have been the focus of auto manufacture as an alternative
source. In major, the difference between a battery and fuel cell is that fuel cell
generates electrical energy rather than giving out stored energy. There are five types
of FC, which are currently being developed, the alkaline fuel cell (AFC), the proton
Fig. 3 Plug-in HEV drive

train configuration
Fig. 4 All electric vehicle

configuration
exchange membrane fuel cell (PEM), the phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC), the
molten carbonate fuel cell (MCFC), and the solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC) [2].
1.2 Charging Methods
Charging in general aspect is the action of putting energy back to the battery; that is,
for restoring energy, different charging methods have been discussed in this session
and different charging infrastructure.
1. Constant Voltage Charge
The name itself clears that the constant voltage charge is when a constant voltage is
supplied across the battery pack. This level of voltage is a preset value given by the
manufacturer. This method is accompanied by a current limiting circuit most of the
time, especially during the beginning of charging where high currents are drawn
comparing to its capacity. The voltage value is chosen depending upon the type of
battery.
2. Constant Current Charge
The constant current charging method is supplying a constant current to the battery
with a low percentage of current ripples independent of the battery state of charge
or temperature. This method is achieved by varying voltage to the battery by using
control techniques such that current through it will be constant. This constant
current charging can be done in two methods: “single rate current” or “split rate
current.”
3. Taper Current Charge
This method is implemented when the source cannot be controlled or source is
nonregulated. This is usually implemented with a source (transformer) having high
voltage when compared with the capacity of the battery voltage. Resistance is used
to limit the current flowing to the battery. A diode can also be used to ensure
unidirectional power flow to the battery. In this method, the current starts at the full
rating and gradually decreases as the cell gets charged.
4. Pulse Charge
This technique involves using a short time current or voltage pulses for charging.
By changing the width of pulses, the average of the current or voltage can be
controlled. Pulse charging provides two significant advantages. It reduces charging
time. The conditioning effect of this technique highly improves the life cycle. The
intervals between the pulses are known as rest time which plays a crucial role; they
provide some time for chemical reactions inside a battery to take place.
5. Reflex Charge
During charging procedure, some gas bubbles appear on the electrodes, especially
amplified during fast charging. This phenomenon is called “burping.” By applying
very short discharge pulses or negative pulses the phenomenon of Burping can be
achieved, for example, by short-circuiting the battery for small intervals compared
to charging time intervals in a current limited fashion, typically 2–3 times bigger
than charging pulses during the charging rest period resulting in depolarizing the
cell will speed up the stabilization process and hence the overall charging process.
This technique is also called as “burp charging” or “negative pulse charging.”
6. Float Charge
Due to self-discharging of batteries, they get discharged over time. 100% SOC
should be maintained by batteries for a long time to be ready for the time of use.
But they may lose 20–30% of charge due to self-discharging. To compensate this
self-discharging, a constant voltage which is been determined by battery charac-
teristics has been applied permanently. This voltage is known as “float voltage.”
1.3 Charging Infrastructure [3]
The charging infrastructure will depend upon the type of charging it is whether
slow, fast, or superfast charging. Depending upon the above-stated criteria,
charging infrastructure is classified into three types (Table 2).
1.4 Batteries Available for Battery Electric Vehicles [4]
Batteries are source required to drive the electric vehicles, the review of different
batteries available has been reviewed, and the status of the battery technology has
been discussed.
Table 2 Different types of charging

S. No. Types of charging
1 Alternate current charging: it is also known as level 1 or level 2. In this system, an
inbuilt car inverter converts AC to DC
2 DC charging: it is otherwise called level 3 or direct-current quick charging (DCFC).
This charging framework changes over the AC from the lattice to DC before it enters
the vehicle and charges the battery without the need of inward inverter. It works at
the power from 25 kW to excess of 350 kW
3 Wireless charging: this system uses electromagnetic waves to charge batteries. It is
generally a charging cushion associated with a divider attachment, and plate is
appended to the vehicle. Current technologies line up with level 2 chargers and can
give catalyst to 11 kW
1. Lead–Acid (Pb–Acid)
Lead–acid batteries are widely used for many applications over a century. It has the
advantage of high efficiency in the range of 95–99%. Its main disadvantage that has
limited its adoption is their weight, and they have low specific energy (30–40 Wh/kg).
2. Nickel–Cadmium (Ni–Cd)
Nickel–Cadmium is widely used for traction applications. Their specific energy is
low within the range of 45–60 Wh/kg. They are recommended when high instan-
taneous currents must be provided.
3. Nickel–Metal Hydride (Ni–MH)
Nickel–metal hydride is most widely used in EV and PHEV applications.
Comparing with the above types of specific energy at expense of lower life cycle,
Ni–MH batteries have been up to two or three times more energy than a Ni–Cd type.
The typical value for the specific energy of present technology is 75–100 Wh/kg.
4. Lithium–Ion (Li–Ion)
This type has noticeably high specific energy, specific power and great potential for
technological improvements providing EVs and PHEVs with perfect performance
characteristics such as acceleration performance. Their specific energy is in the
range of 100–250 Wh/kg. Because of their nature, Li–Ion batteries can be charged
and discharged faster than Pb–acid and Ni–MH batteries, making them a good
option for EV and PHEV applications.
5. Lithium Polymer (Li–Po)
Li–Po batteries have the same energy density as the Li–Ion batteries but at a lower
cost. This specific chemistry is one of the most potential choices for the applications
in EVs and PHEVs. There have been significant improvements in these technolo-
gies. Formerly, the maximum discharge current of Li–Po batteries was limited.
6. ZEBRA Batteries
Mostly used batteries after Lithium–Ion is ZEBRA batteries; they are exclusively
modeled for EV applications. It is a sodium–nickel chloride battery; this technology
is first developed in South Africa in the 1980s, later Switzerland has adopted this.
1.5 Motors Used for Propelling
Electric vehicle industry is now using mainly three motors for propelling the
vehicle.
1. Brushed DC motor.
2. Brushless DC motor.
3. Permanent magnet synchronous motor.
4. Three-phase induction motor.
5. Switched reluctance motor.
Out of the above classifications, BLDC has majority application because of its
following advantages.
I. Low maintenance.
II. 85–90% conversion efficiency.
III. High operating speeds.
IV. Since no brushes are available, there will be no chances of sparking.
V. The size will be compact and occupy less space.
VI. Simple to control for forward and reverse actions.
2 Determination of SoC and SoH
State of charge and state of health are important parameters that will influence the
run time of EVs. SoC and SoH are defined as
3 Battery Pack Calculations

In this paper, we have taken 3 kW motor and controller and 250 W solar panel to
design a PHEV. We use Samsung 18,650 Lithium–Ion batteries of 500 No. For
constructing the suitable amount of battery capacity, calculations are shown below.
The capacity of each battery = 2600 mAh

Motor for Power Train = 3000 W
Solar Panels@250 W = 2 * 250 W
Controller = For operation of BLDC motor mosfet switiching
For constructiong the battery bank
A. Battery Bank Calculations
The voltage of one battery = 3.6 V

Rated Capacity of one = 2.6 Ah
Battery
C-Rate = 0.5
Rated Capacity of One battery in Wh ¼ Voltage of one battery * Rated capacity of one battery
¼ 3:6 V 2:6 Ah ¼ 9:36 Wh
ð1Þ
Total number of batteries used to construct a battery bank = 500

The total capacity of battery bank in Wh = 9.36 * 500 = 4.68 kWh
It means the battery bank can feed 4.68 kW of load for one hour
B. Series and Parallel Combination calculation of Li–Ion to feed load of 3 kW
Number of batteries in series = 13
Number of series in parallel = 25
Total number of series–parallel
Combination = 13S42P
Generally, battery bank for EVs is defined in series-parallel combination as
XsYp.
Battery capacity in mAh

Battery Life ¼ 0:70 ð2Þ
load curren in mA
The factor 0.70 makes allowance for the external factor that will affect battery
life.
Table 3 Technical Type of module 250 W

specifications of solar panel
Maximum power 250 W
Tolerance ±3%
Open-circuit voltage 37.8 V
Short-circuit current 8.7 A
Maximum power voltage 31.5 V
Maximum power current 7.94 A
Module efficiency 15.3%
Solar cell efficiency 17.2%
10 Ampere Hours
Runtime ¼ ð3Þ
Load in Watts
C. Solar Panel for EVs

In this paper, we have taken two number of 250 W solar panels, which survive two
purposes: one is to drive EV and other to charge the battery bank, and it depends
upon the requirement specifications of the panel as shown below (Table 3).
4 Comparison Between ZEBRA and Li–Ion Batteries
See Table 4.
5 EVs Scope of Research
A. EVs As Distributed Generation
Table 4 Comparision between ZEBRA and Li–Ion batteries

ZEBRA batteries Lithium–Ion
High energy density >110 Wh/kg High energy density
Indefinite, maintenance free, storage life Low maintenance
at ambient temperature
100% coulombic efficiency, accurate Quick charging: Lithium–Ion batteries take a
charge capacity fraction of the time taken by other batteries to
charge
Expensive: The production of ZEBRA Expensive: The manufacturing of Lithium–Ion
batteries can be an expensive affair batteries can be a expensive affair
With the increase in the sale of plug-in EV globally, it includes both battery EVs
that drive on electric power and an internal combustion engine. It contains battery
packs with a storage capacity between 4 kWh and 100 kWh. EVs are becoming an
important distributed energy resources (DER) that utilities, microgrid, smart grid,
and many industries can use to help efficient energy balance between supply and
demand, provide ancillary services, and support critical energy needs during
outages. Overseen and upgraded by framework administrators, these portable
“storage-on-wheels” system can give the huge potential to increment overall.
Energy demand will be served with the help of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles
which will make electrical system more resilience and robust.
The emergence of PHEV and battery electric vehicles will be a source of dis-
tributed energy storage in the power sector. The potential exists for this storage to
bring benefits from the ability to shift net demand depending upon response to
power sector needs. However, there are some constraints by a range of factors
including their mobility, need to serve transport energy requirements, and the
availability of physical charging opportunities.
B. Optimized Charging Scheme:
Along with the charging infrastructure and charging schemes, there is another
method of how the battery will charge and it is known as revive capability as it is
discussed below (Table 5).
Since charging of electric vehicles is unplanned and unsystematic, it cannot be
controlled and predicted based upon the load curve, because the charging of EVs
depends upon customer interest. So, it requires some optimizations and predictions
to avoid the burden on the existing grid. By adopting a load forecast method for fast
charging of electric vehicles considering information interaction such as state of
charge of the battery, this minimizes the time cost of the EV user [5].
A methodology has been developed to determine the battery charging load on
the power system load profile; different conditions have been considered for con-
trolled and uncontrolled charging; and uncontrolled charging will impose peak or
nearly peak in off-peak time. With smart and planned charging methods for EVs,
burden on power systems can be reduced to a maximum extent [6].
Table 5 Specifications of different types of chargers

Types of charging Specifications
schemes
Rapid chargers The work on two types supplies AC and DC as well. Rapid chargers on
AC will be rated at 43 kW, for DC it will be 50 kW at least. Both will
charge a vehicle to 80% SoC within 30–60 min; it depends upon
battery capacity
Fast chargers The capacity of fast chargers will be between 7 and 22 kW. Typically,
full SoC can be obtained in 3–4 h
Slow units The range will be up to 3 kW; the main application is for overnight
charging usually between 6 and 12 h for pure EV and between 2 and
4 h for PHEV
The electrical vehicle routing problem (EVRP) tries to limit the charge utiliza-
tion of electric vehicles. The far-reaching computation of charge utilization utilized
by electric vehicles is given in this model. Target capacity is encircled limiting
charge utilization and directing electric vehicles [7].
Charging and battery limitations are responsible for the downfall of EVs. With
the advancement in charging infrastructure again, there is the adoption of EVs.
With regenerative braking, some amount of power can be obtained to charge up
the battery in BLDC motor driven.
EVs now have some advanced technologies known as reviving by which some
amount of energy will flow back to batteries when brakes are applied.
EV an advanced braking mechanism is designed combining various regenerative
methods and plugging. Different methods such as stopping time, energy recovery
for different running conditions can be obtained.
6 Application of EVs in Power system
See Table 6.
7 Results
See Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9.
Table 6 PHEV at different levels

S. Level Support by PHEV to power system
No.
1 Generation Bulk-energy services: electric-supply capacity
level
2 Generation Ancillary services: regulation, spinning, not-spinning, and
level supplemental reserves, voltage support, black start
3 Transmission Transmission infrastructure services: transmission-upgrade deferral,
level transmission-congestion relief
4 Distribution Distribution infrastructure services: distribution-upgrade deferral,
level voltage support
5 Distribution Customer energy management services: power quality, power
level reliability, retail electric energy time-shift, demand-charge
management
Fig. 5 Solar hybrid electric

vehicle on test drive
Fig. 6 13S42P Lithium–Ion

battery bank
Fig. 7 Program developed to

monitor charging and
discharging
Fig. 8 Battery bank

discharge when SoC is >40%
Fig. 9 Battery bank charge

when SoC is <40%
8 Conclusion
The adoption of electric vehicles has advantages and disadvantages as well. It will
be an unplanned load which will add burden on the grid because of its charging
infrastructure. During the charging process, it will create power quality issues in the
distribution system so safety steps should be taken while connecting EVs for
charging. EVs have the greatest advantages as they can be used as storage on
wheels with this; the resilience of the grid can be improved when no distribution
infrastructure is available. The consumer can act as prosumer with V2G integration
which gives scope for development in the microgrid, smart grid, and distributed
generation where EVs play a key role. By utilizing renewables as a charging source,
we can decrease the burden to some extent. The experimental setup has proved it;
charging and discharging can be done simultaneously as BMS will take care of the
process.
References
1. Study on impact of electric vehicles on the grid, Assisted By MP Systems Advisory Private
Limited
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the consideration of the electric vehicle’s driving range. Transp. Res. Part C 86, 641–654
(2018)
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for the electric vehicles. J. Power Sources 374, 237–248 (2018)
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J. Pure Appl. Math. 118(24), ISSN: 1314-3395 (online version) (2018)
5. N. Shaukata, B. Khana, S.M. Alia, C.A. Mehmooda, J. Khana, U. Farida, M. Majidb, S.M.
Anwarc, M. Jawadd, Z. Ullaha, A survey on electric vehicle transportation within the smart
grid system. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 81, 1329–1349 (2018)
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September 2018
7. S. Onori, L.S.G. Rizzoni, Hybrid electric vehicles energy management strategies. https://doi.
org/10.1007/978-1-4471-6781-5
Design and Development of Solar
Photovoltaic System Using Single-Phase
MLI
J. Prakash, K. Gunalan and K. Mohana Sundaram
Abstract In recent years, high-quality power becomes a prerequisite for research

and industrial applications to ensure the results to be qualitative and the evaluation
to be precise. To comply, all the sensitive equipment require high-quality power,
where uninterruptable power supplies are merely used which guarantee continuous
power supply to those loads. Inverter plays a major role in the UPS system. In this
paper, the inverter of UPS is replaced by nine-level modified multilevel inverter
(MLI) with the reduced number of switching devices and with equal voltage
sources in order to that reduces the switching losses and harmonics. This proposed
system is dealing with the strategy for PV applications using modified perturb and
observe algorithm (MPO), so the maximum power is obtained at all time with
reduced power oscillation. The voltage from the PV panel is very less that is
boosted using DC–DC boost converter circuit and further fed to the inverter unit. In
this system, the converter and MPPT control unit are formed into a closed loop so
that the boost converter output depends upon the power obtained from the PV array.
The proposed system model is developed by using MATLAB/Simulink software.
Hence, the investigations done on simulation disclose that the proposed system
affects a high output voltage with a very low total harmonic distortion using fewer
switching devices.

Keywords Multilevel inverter (MLI) MPPT MPO DC–DC boost converter
Switched-mode power supply (SMPS) THD
J. Prakash (&)
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Jaya college of Engineering
and Technology, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]
K. Gunalan
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, R.M.K. College of Engineering
and Technology, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India
K. Mohana Sundaram
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Vel Tech Multitech Dr. Rangarajan
Dr. Sakunthala Engineering College, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_58
640 J. Prakash et al.
1 Introduction
Power quality turns to be a major issue for electricity consumers. The risky factors
of harmonics on different kinds of devices are disclosed. Electric power converters
are developed to be a major cause of harmonics in the industrial environment.
Non-sinusoidal current is supplied to nonlinear loads outcome in non-sinusoidal
voltage. Hence, harmonic distortion results decrease the power quality of uninter-
ruptable power supplies that are positioned between the power system and critical
load for securing their own load but they emerge as the major power system
polluters, often affecting other loads. The multilevel inverter and UPS inverter are
in usage with equal DC sources for adding the same magnitude of input DC voltage
to the necessary output voltage. In this intended method, a nine-modified multilevel
inverter is used for the reduction of THD with equal voltage source [1].
The output of the solar PV array relies on the irradiance level and the ambiance
temperature; building upon these two aspects, the solar photovoltaic operating point
is adjusted to acquire the highest amount of the solar cell efficiency. This technique
is known as maximum power point tracking technique (MPPT). The PO method is
the most familiar MPPT approach employed in the commercial photovoltaic gen-
eration system (PGS) [2, 3].
The process involved in this algorithm is comparing the present value and the
past value and giving the command to the switch in boost converter. Conventional
P&O algorithm has a drawback in tracking efficiency that will be overcome in this
proposed system with some changes in the algorithm. The power output from the
panel is maximum all the time and which is further fed to different units such as
boost converter and inverter unit. The power is efficiently converted for the 1Ø load
with a reduction in the harmonic content in the output level [4, 5].
Implementation of the proposed system will compensate the present load
demand and avoid outages during a fault time in the conventional scheme of power
distribution through the power grid.
Figure 1 shows the proposed system block diagram. The solar panel which is
used for this system is CHSM6612P-320. Maximum power from the panel is about
320 W, which may differ swing climatic conditions. The specification of
CHSM6612-320 is given in Table 1.
The operating point of solar PV system is maintained at peak in order to
maximise the output of the system by using proposed boost converter with MPO
algorithm technique. The duty cycle of the converter is selected by using MPO
algorithm in order to sustain the DC output voltage with low ripple content, and
also overall conversion ratio is improved [6].
Design and Development of Solar Photo … 641
Fig. 1 Proposed system block diagram
Table 1 CHSM6612P-320 W panel parameters

Parameters Values
Module name CHSM6612P-320
Maximum power 320 W
VOC 45.68 V
ISC 9.06 A
VMP 35.86 V
IMP 8.93 A
Fuse rating 15 A
Maximum system voltage DC1000 V
Nominal operating cell temperature 46 °C
Cell technology Poly-silicon
2 Boost Converter
The level of output voltage in the converter is higher than that of input level by
using boost converter. Figure 2 shows circuit diagram of boost converter which
consists of diode, semiconductor switch (IGBT), inductor and capacitor. The pur-
pose of the capacitor is to filter the unwanted ripples which help converter output
voltage to be in fixed level [7, 8, 6].
Fig. 2 Boost converter circuit
2.1 Operating Principle
Mode (a): During this mode, switch SW1 is on state, then the current passes
through inductor and switch as shown in figure, and it stores the energy in the
inductor whose polarity is positive on the left side of the inductor (Fig. 3).
Mode (b): During this mode, switch SW1 is in off state, the stored energy in the
inductor is to discharge through diode D1, hence the inductor polarity is reversed,
and both the sources are added in series which produce a higher voltage as shown in
Fig. 4 [7].
Fig. 3 On state
Fig. 4 Off state

2.2 Design of Boost Converter Elements
The duty cycle (D) for the circuit can be calculated as [8, 9]
Vin
D¼1
Vout
The inductor (L) for the circuit can be calculated as
Vin ðVout Vin Þ

L¼
Vout fs DIL
Vin Input voltage

Vout Output voltage
fs Minimum converter switching frequency
DIL Inductor ripple current
The power dissipation of the diode is given by
Pd If * Vf
If Diode forward current
Vf Forward voltage
For reducing the noise in the output voltage through enhancing the values of the
capacitor with external compensation, the output capacitor by applying the formula is
Cout(min) Iout ðmaxÞD
fsDVout
Iout(max) Maximum current output
Cout(min) Minimum output capacitance
DVout voltage ripple at desired output
3 Modified P&O Algorithm
In P&O method, MPPT controller continuously varies the boost converter duty cycle
in order to change in the level of voltage till the power point maximum is achieved. The
corresponding voltage is fixed as a system voltage. The drawback in this method is
oscillation of the power output due to rise and fall on the power curve against the
voltage changes even under stable irradiance. The above said drawbacks are overcome
by a new proposed algorithm named as modified perturb observe (MPO) technique
just by reducing the number of steps in the conventional process which is shown in the
MPO flowchart. Similarly, on improving the manipulation process using the PV array
parameters, the speed of response increases correspondingly [4].
Fig. 5 Modified P&O algorithm
a. Pseudo Code for the Proposed MPPT Algorithm:

Step 1: Start the process.
Step 2: Initialisation of variables.
Step 3: Measure the voltage V and current I from PV array.
Step 4: Calculate the power P (i.e. P = V * I) from the observed parameters of
the panel.
Step 5: Calculate the power and voltage deviations (Dp, DV).
Step 6: Multiply both results and assign to a new variable (DG).
Step 7: Check the variable (DG > 0 or DG < 0).
Step 8: Based on the results of the variable check, increment or decrement the
duty cycle and end the process (Fig. 5).
b. Flowchart for MPO:
4 Modified Multi Level Inverter Topology
The nine-level multilevel inverter circuit is proposed for photovoltaic applications.

The number of power switches in different multilevel inverter is listed below in
Table 2 [8, 10].
Table 2 Power switches in multilevel inverter

Name of the inverter No. of switches Level of output
Cascaded inverter 20 power switches Nine level
Diode clamped inverter 24 power switches Nine level
Proposed MLI Seven power switches Nine level
Fig. 6 Schematic circuit of the boost converter with nine-level modified multilevel inverter
The nine-level multilevel inverter input voltage Vdc is split up into four levels
(each Vdc/4 magnitude) by using DC link capacitor, thus we include the four
capacitors (C1, C2, C3 and C4) for voltage dividing in the nine-level proposed
modified multilevel inverter which is shown in Fig. 6.
In order to generate PWM signal for MLI switching circuit, there is a need of
four numbers of equal reference signals; hence in our proposed system, triangular
carrier signal with different DC offset and pulsating DC supply is used to generate
the switching pulse. Table 3 shows the corresponding switching sequences and the
operation of proposed MLI topology, and it may also be observed that the [8]
nine-level voltage can be generated.
In order to achieve nine-level output , the power switches of MLI are operated in
nine different modes. In mode 1, the switches S1 and S4 are in on state, and then
MLI operated is at maximum positive voltage, i.e. Vdc. In mode 2, the switches are
Table 3 MLI switching sequence

Mode Switching sequence Voltage level
1 S1 and S4 +Vdc
2 D1, S3, D2 and S4 +3Vdc/4
3 D5, S6, D6 and S4 +Vdc/2
4 D9, S7, D10 and S4 +Vdc/4
5 S3 and S4 Vdc = 0
6 S2, D3, S5 and D4 −Vdc/4
7 S2, D7, S6 and D8 −Vdc/2
8 S2, D11, S7 and D12 −3Vdc/4
9 S2 and S3 −Vdc
Fig. 7 Schematic of the typical output voltage in nine-level inverter
operating in the following sequence D1-S5-D2-S4, where 3/4th level of the voltage
has been reduced. Figure 7 shows the schematic of the typical nine-level inverter
output voltage, and modified PWM switching patterns to the nine-level are shown
in Fig. 8 [11, 12].
In order to mitigate the drawback of the conventional topology, the proposed
modified nine-level multilevel inverter topology has been implemented. The
requirement of number of power switches in the proposed system can also be
reduced with low power rating, due to that it reduces the switching losses as well as
maintains the THD level within permissible limit (less than 5%).
c. Simulation Results:
MATLAB version 2015a is used to develop the simulation model as shown in
Fig. 9 and also the verified simulation results such as nine-level inverter output
voltage, THD level and power quality.
Here, CHSM6612P-320 W panel parameters are assigned as PV panel model
input parameter. The output of model is varied which depends upon climatic
Fig. 8 Modified nine-level inverter PWM switching patterns
changes such as temperature and irradiation level as shown in Figs. 10 and 11,
respectively.
This simulation results show the proposed system that achieved higher efficiency
and also mitigate the switching losses. Figure 12 shows the converter output
voltage maintained 230 V for different input condition.
At various points, the modified nine-level inverter is analysed. It seems that there
is the reduction in the output harmonic level by increasing the output voltage
magnitude steps with help of PWM control. The nine-level inverter output current
and voltage waveform without using the filter are shown in Figs. 13 and 14,
respectively [10].
Fig. 9 MATLAB/Simulink model for the proposed system
Fig. 10 I−V curves
Fig. 11 P−V curves
The nine-level inverter has been operated at a frequency range of 1–2 kHz, in
order to maintain the coordination between the nine-level inverter and the boost
converter. So, there may be a reduction in the switching losses and in the THD rate.
The FFT analysis of multilevel inverter with 100 cycles is shown in Fig. 15.
The boost converter performance remains same, even in the fast-varying
atmospheric condition. The THD level of the nine-level inverter is given as 4.90%
as shown in Fig. 16.
Fig. 12 Converter output voltage
Fig. 13 Nine-level inverter output voltage waveform
Fig. 14 Nine-level inverter output current waveform

Fig. 15 FFT analysis of multilevel inverter
Fig. 16 THD rate of MLI
5 Conclusion
The boost converter and nine-level inverter for solar photovoltaic system have been
designed and developed. The function of boost converter and modified nine-level
MLI are modelled using MATLAB software and also carried out the simulation for
various input conditions such as temperatures, irradiation levels and switching
frequencies. The MPO algorithm is implemented for MPPT control of boost con-
verter and new PWM control to the nine-level multilevel inverter. Simulation
results verified the control scheme effectiveness and also analysed the THD level
(THD-4.90%), overall converter efficiency and switching losses. This modified
nine-level inverter topology results in reducing the switching losses with the output
voltage level increases. The added advantage of the proposed has quiet better
features over the conventional topology. The output result is better in terms of
required switches, dc supplies, number of levels in output voltage, power loss, cost
and switching algorithm. Thus, the extension of the proposed system will help us to
mitigate the problem of power outages.
References
1. J. Prakash, S.K. Sahoo, S.P. Karthikeyan, Sinusoidal output voltage h-bridge multilevel
inverters,in Proceeding on SEISCON 2012, p. 264 (Chennai, India, 2012)
2. E.M. Ahmed, M. Shoyama, Variable step size MPPT using a single variable for stand alone
battery storage systems. J. Power Electron. 11(2), 218–227 (2011)
3. H.N. Zainudin, S. Mekhiler, Comparison study of maximum power point tracker techniques
for PV systems, in Proceedings of the 14th International Conference (MEPCON’ 10),
pp. 750–755 (Cairo University, Egypt, 2010)
4. J. Prakash, S.K. Sahoo, A Review on power electronics converters for solar photovoltaic
system, in Proceeding on 5th International Conference, on Science, Engineering and
Technology (SET) (Vellore, Tamil Nadu, India, 2012)
5. B.K. Santhoshi, K. Mohana Sundaram, M. Sivasubramanian, S. Akila, A novel multiport
bidirectional dual active bridge dc-dc converter for renewable power generation systems.
Indian J. Sci. Technol. 9(1), (2016). https://doi.org/10.17485/ijst/2016/v9i1/85701
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scheme in solar PV fed Boost converter and hybrid multilevel inverter, in Proceedings of the
Conference on International Intellectual Convergence on Advances in Science and
Engineering (IIASE-2017) (Chennai, India, 2017)
7. J. Prakash, S.K. Sahoo, S.P. Karthikeyan, I.J. Raglend, Design of PSO-fuzzy MPPT controller
for photovoltaic application. Power Electron. Renew. Energy Syst., Lect. Notes Electr. Eng.
(Springer India) 326, 1339–1348 (2015)
8. J. Prakash, S.K. Sahoo, Design of soft switching interleaved boost converter for photovoltaic
application. Res. J. Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol. (Maxwell Scientific Organization) 9(4), 296
(2014)
9. J. Prakash, S.K. Sahoo, K.R. Suguvanam, Design of coordinated control scheme for hybrid
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A Novel Technique to Observe
the Performance of Virtual Solar PV
Module System
G. Suresh Babu and N. R. Sai Varun
Abstract Photovoltaic (PV) energy source or a PV emulator is required to analyze

the performance of PV equipment under fluctuating conditions. Typical PV mod-
ules are costly and static with limited customization abilities. A PV emulator can
realize the characteristics of various PV modules under various test conditions (type
of locality, climatic conditions, different irradiations, varying temperatures, and
various maximum power point tracking (MPPT) algorithms) virtually. A switch
mode power supply (SMPS)-based cloud-connected PV emulator is used to validate
the Perturb-and-Observe (P&O) which is effectively illustrated.

Keywords Solar PV emulator Maximum power point tracking

Perturb-and-Observe Table mode Buck converter
1 Introduction
The exponential growth of generation of electric energy with renewable energy

source compared to its counterpart is phenomenal because of the fact that fossil
fuels are getting depleted. Among all the renewable energy sources, solar-based
energy conversion is simple. No doubt solar energy has occupied center of
attraction in renewable energy arena because of low carbon emission and decreased
capital investments. However, the research on PV modules is paralyzed due to
requirement of costly equipment and complexity in testing procedures [1].
Another limitation in the research of PV module is not attaining stable and
repeatable conditions. Also, factors like unguaranteed irradiation, unrepeatability
due to varying climatic conditions, and requirement of huge space for installation
make research no way near in reality [2]. In order to address the above issues, solar
PV emulator is one of the solutions in the present conditions.
G. Suresh Babu (&) N. R. Sai Varun

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Chaitanya
Bharathi Institute of Technology, Hyderabad, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_59
654 G. Suresh Babu and N. R. Sai Varun
Main theme of MPPT techniques is to provide an ideal duty cycle to converter

such that maximum power is extracted from PV panel. Many MPPT techniques and
algorithms are proposed [3–6], and among those Perturb-and-Observe is most
commonly used due to its simplicity in implementation practically with high effi-
ciency. Though there are various P&O algorithms based on mathematical modeling
simulations available in solar world, a nelson’s eye is manifested on real-time
conditioning.
The main aim of this paper is to provide practical conditions of the imple-
mentation of algorithm “P&O method,” by using a SMPS-based cloud-connected
PV emulator. By this emulator, various parameters can be considered (location,
time duration, tilt angle, irradiations, and temperature) while algorithm is simulated
experimentally.
Block diagram of SMPS-based emulator is shown in Fig. 1. It mainly consists of

programmable power supply, data logger, and personal computer with ecosence_50
application.
PV emulator consists of four channels which can be operated in individual
connection, in series connection, and in parallel connection. PV emulator is con-
figured in table mode.
In table mode, various parameters of PV system can be tested throughout the
day. Using the software application, data of irradiations and temperature are fetched
from database. Based on this data, IV tables are generated. This table contains 1000
pairs of voltage and current values which represent operating point on IV curve. In
table mode, each of the channels can be assigned with particular PV module
characteristics. Simulated mode is similar to table mode except that in simulated
mode it possible to accumulate ten different characteristics for each channel.
Fig. 1 Block diagram of PV emulator

A Novel Technique to Observe the Performance of Virtual Solar … 655
3 Perturb-and-Observe Method
P&O MPPT algorithm works based on PV array which is perturbed of radiation of

direction. As the power drained from array increases, operating point shifts toward
maximum power point which states voltage is also working in similar direction. On
other hand, if power drained from array decreases, operating point shifts away from
MPP and working voltage perturbation has to be upturned [5–7].
Figure 2 presents the flowchart of P&O method on the function of duty cycle.
The performance of the above algorithm is evaluated at various test conditions by
using PV emulator.
Fig. 2 Flowchart of P&O method

4 Experimental Result
All the experiments are conducted at load of 40 Ω/5 A. Figure 3 shows the
experimental setup of PV emulator connected to personal computer. PV emulator is
feeded to load through buck converter whose duty cycle is controlled by MPPT
shown in figure.
PV emulator is set for the parameters as listed in Table 1.
Figures 4 and 5 show the P versus T curves and V versus T highlighting the
power with MPPT and without MPPT. Power values are observed for period of five
minutes. Figures 6 and 7 illustrate the power versus time curves and voltage versus
time for increased load current with MPPT and without MPPT, and Figs. 8 and 9
depict curves for increased load current of 0.73 A. All the cases were studied for
selected parameters presented in Table 1. Variation of voltage and power over time
with MPPT and without MPPT is observed.
Fig. 3 PV emulator feeding resistive load through DC–DC converter
Table 1 Selected parameters Parameters Value

for PV emulator through
ECOSENCE software Solar panel vendor Vikram Solar Pvt. Ltd.
Selected solar panel ELV 40
Latitude of location 17.3921
Longitude of location 78.3195
Day and time 7/03/2019–10.00
Albedo factor 0.2
Fig. 4 Power versus time curves with MPPT and without MPPT for load current of 0.53 A
Fig. 5 Voltage versus time curves with MPPT and without MPPT for load current of 0.53 A
Fig. 6 Power versus time curve with MPPT and without MPPT for load current 0.63 A
Fig. 7 Voltage versus time curve with MPPT and without MPPT for load current 0.63 A
Fig. 8 Power versus time curve with MPPT and without MPPT for load current 0.73 A
Fig. 9 Voltage versus time curve with MPPT and without MPPT for load current 0.73 A
5 Conclusions
A SMPS-based cloud-connected PV emulator is used to test Perturb-and-Observe

MPPT algorithm. From the experimental analysis, it clearly points up the difference
of with and without MPPT, and the P&O algorithm extracts more power when
compared against latter. Under given test conditions, while using the tracker in the
system, a certain level of unstability in power arises as the algorithm is checking
MPP point continuously. On observing voltage versus time curves, there is certain
drop in voltage in either of the conditions with and without MPPT as the load
current is increased. Also, parameters like irradiations, temperature effect, and
location effect can be considered while using PV emulator. This makes an effective
study on algorithm with various test conditions.
References
1. P.J. Binduhewa, M. Barnes, Photovoltaic emulator. 2013 IEEE 8th International Conference
on Industrial and Information Systems, ICIIS 2013, 18–20, Sri Lanka (2013)
2. D. Chariag, L. Sbita, Design and simulation of photovoltaic emulator. 2017 International
Conference on Green Energy Conversion Systems (GECS)
3. S. Mule, R. Hardas, N.R. Kulkar, P&O, IncCon and Fuzzy Logic implemented MPPT scheme
for PV systems using PIC18F452. IEEE WiSPNET Conference
4. F. Locment, M. Sechilariu, I. Houssamo, Energy efficiency experimental tests comparison of
P&O algorithm for PV power system. 14th International Power Electronics and Motion
Conference, EPE-PEMC (2010)
5. M.L. Azad, S. Das, P.K. Sadhu, B. Satpat, A. Gupta, P. Arvind, P&O algorithm based MPPT
technique for solar PV system under different weather conditions. International Conference on
circuits Power and Computing Technologies (ICCPCT) (2017)
6. O. Singh, S.K. Gupta, A review on recent Mppt techniques for photovoltaic system. IEEE
IEEMA Engineer Infinite Conference (eTechNxT) (2018)
7. D. Sera, T. Kerekes, R. Teodorescu, F. Blaabjerg, Improved MPPT algorithms for rapidly
changing environmental conditions. IEEE 2006 12th International Power Electronics and
Motion Control Conference (2006)
Power Quality Analysis for Brushless
DC Motor Drive Fed by a Photovoltaic
System Using SRF Theory
S. R. Rajasree, V. Ravikumar Pandi and K. Ilango
Abstract Harmonic contents present in power network have adversely affected the
power quality and this reduces the stability of the system. In this paper, active
filter-based compensation has been developed using the PV source. A nonlinear
BLDC load is considered which injects more harmonic current in the system
whereby increasing the total harmonic distortions (THD). This THD value needs to
be maintained below the permissible limit by properly controlling the shunt active
power filter (SAPF) to get effective compensation. In this work, synchronous ref-
erence frame (SRF) theory is used to produce the compensating current required for
canceling the harmonic content produced by the BLDC load and for compensating
the reactive power. The energy to active filter is obtained from PV array and the
intermediate DC-to-DC converter stage is used to smoothen the operation of BLDC
motor drive. The complete system is modeled and simulated in MATLAB
Simulink. From the simulation analysis, it shows that the reduction of THD (%) is
within the limits and VAR compensation is achieved thereby improving the power
factor.

Keywords Active filter BLDC motor drive Harmonics MPPT Power

quality Synchronous reference frame theory
S. R. Rajasree (&) V. R. Pandi

Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Amritapuri, India
V. R. Pandi
K. Ilango
Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Chennai, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_60
662 S. R. Rajasree et al.
1 Introduction
The increasing use of nonlinear loads has produced an essential impact on the
quality of power being supplied. Passive filters [1–3] were used for compensation,
but it eliminates only a particular harmonic range. Active filters [4, 5] were used to
overcome the limitations of passive filter. Active power filters (APF) are widely
used for enhancing power quality by reactive power compensation and harmonic
filtering. Among APF, shunt APF (SAPF) was considered as the best solution to
current harmonics. Various control techniques [6, 7] for implementing active power
filtering include instantaneous PQ theory, synchronous detection algorithm, DC bus
voltage algorithm and SRF theory [8]. In some cases, reactive power is also sup-
plied by the APF along with harmonic compensation, and then the source should
provide only the active part of the load current.
Because of their efficiency and longer existence, BLDC motors are used in
applications that require the motor to run continuously. This paper uses SAPF to
provide compensation in BLDC drive application. The system considered has
photovoltaic array and DC–DC converter [9], which is connected to BLDC type
load. SRF theory is considered as one of the simple and most preferred techniques,
which can fastly extract the harmonic content and of the VAR component of
current. Hence, the SRF technique has been developed to effectively control the
SAPF.
2 Proposed Method
The proposed system is shown in Fig. 1, where the conventional source is con-
nected to a BLDC type nonlinear load [10] expected to supply only the real power
demand.
The photovoltaic array provides required energy to fulfill the VAR demand by
the nonlinear load and the power required for harmonic compensation. The PV side
output voltage is given to a DC/DC converter from which it is connected to the APF
through the DC-link capacitor. The DC-to-DC converter tracks the point corre-
sponding to maximum power (MPPT) so as to fully make use of the PV power. The
inverter control technique is aimed to neutralize the nonlinear load harmonics and
reactive power demand by load. Perturb and Observe MPPT algorithm [11, 12] is
used whose main advantage is that the check for the MPP will be independent to the
environmental condition. A DC-link capacitor is connected between active filter
circuit and PV converter system, which is used to downsize high-frequency
harmonics.
The DC-link voltage of the filter circuit is provided through the PV arrangement.
Input from PV is boosted to 700 V and fed to the capacitor. Specification of BLDC
motor is given in Table 1. The wattage rating, open-circuit voltage and short-circuit
current and of PV array is 550 W, 400 V and 2.2 A, respectively.
Power Quality Analysis for Brushless DC Motor Drive Fed … 663
Fig. 1 Block diagram of compensation system
Table 1 Specifications of Voltage 415 V

BLDC motor
Resistance of stator 2.875 Ω
Inductor value 8.5 mH
Flux induced by magnets 0.175
Pole pairs 4
Back emf Trapezoidal
Rated speed 3000 rpm
3 Design of SAPF
SAPF, which is parallelly connected with the nonlinear load, introduces a com-
pensating current to the system that is in opposition to the nonlinear load harmonic
current. Hence, the net current drawn from the network at the load side will be a
sinusoidal current of only fundamental frequency.
The power circuit design of a SAF includes filter inductor value selection,
DC-link capacitor value selection and DC-link capacitor voltage selection. The
DC-link capacitor maintains the voltage with minimum ripples and acts as a storage
element. The energy balance principle determines the size of the capacitor (Cf).
VS DIL T2
Cf 2 2 ð1Þ
DVcf DVcf ;ref
where, DVcf is the minimum or maximum DC bus voltage, DVcf ;ref is the reference
DC bus voltage, Vs is the source voltage, DIL is the reactive and harmonic load
currents and T is the fundamental period of the input voltage.
The minimum interfacing inductor (Lf, min) can be calculated as in Eq. (2)
Vcf
Lf ;min ¼ ð2Þ
2 DIsw fsw;max
where, fsw;max is the maximum ripple side frequency and DIsw is the maximum
switching ripple of the compensation current.
4 Synchronous Reference Frame Theory
The block diagram representation of SRF theory technique [7] is shown in Fig. 2.
The input currents ia, ib, ic are transformed into a–b axes and then into the syn-
chronous rotating reference frame. Here, fundamental frequency currents are con-
sidered as DC values and the harmonic elements are transformed into AC
quantities. The harmonic currents are then extracted using low-pass (LP) filter, then
correlate to the reference values and finally supplied to a PI controller to retrieve the
effective control gain values. The application of inverse d − q and Park’s trans-
formations gives out the harmonic currents in the three phases. Compared to the
instantaneous PQ theory, this algorithm provides accurate calculation of harmonic
currents under balanced load and unbalanced source conditions. In d e qe refer-
ence frame, the basic frequency components are converted to DC values and the
harmonic components are converted to non-DC values. Compared to other con-
trollers, SRF controller is not sensitive to phase errors.
The PI regulator’s output is summed up to the extracted DC current part within
the d e qe reference frame to obtain current references for the SAPF.
5 Modeling of PM-BLDC Motor Drive
Permanent magnet (PM) motors serve a wide range of applications because of their
reliability, efficiency and high-power density. A brushless DC motor [13] has a
permanent magnet rotor and a stator windings connected to the control unit.
A minimum cost means of electronic commutation of currents is six-step com-
mutation (Fig. 3).
Fig. 2 Block diagram of SAPF control technique
Fig. 3 Basic PM-BLDC drive scheme
The voltage equations for the BLDC motor are derived as:
d
vab ¼ Rs ðia ib Þ þ Ls ðia ib Þ þ va vb ð3Þ
dt
d
vbc ¼ Rs ðib ic Þ þ Ls ðib ic Þ þ vb vc ð4Þ
dt
d
vca ¼ Rs ðic ia Þ þ Ls ðic ia Þ þ vc va ð5Þ
dt
where
Rs per phase stator resistance,
Ls per phase stator inductance,
ia; ib and ic instantaneous value of stator phase currents,
vab ; vbc ; vca instantaneous value of stator line voltages,

va ; vb ; vc instantaneous value of phase back emfs
The current equation is written as
ia þ ib þ ic ¼ 0 ð6Þ
Equation (6) is rewritten as
ic ¼ ðia þ ib Þ ð7Þ
Using Eq. (7), the equations for line voltage are reordered as
d
vab ¼ Rðia ib Þ þ L ðia ib Þ þ va vb ð8Þ
dt
d
vbc ¼ Rðia þ 2ib Þ þ L ðia þ 2ib Þ þ vb vc ð9Þ
dt
d
vca ¼ Rð2ia ib Þ þ L ð2ia ib Þ þ vc va ð10Þ
dt
5.1 Inverter Switching
Table 2 shows the interval of switching, current direction and the Hall effect sensor
signals. One of the phases is open at any instant of time. The rotor position is
detected from the point at which, the open phase back emf crosses zero. Hall effect
sensors are used to identify position of rotor. The gates of the inverter are controlled
by the Hall effect switches, passing through a decoder circuit.
Table 2 Switching sequence

Switching interval Sequence Position sensor Switch Phase current
HS1 HS2 HS3 on a b c
0°–60° 0 1 0 0 S1 S4 +ia −ib Off
60°–120° 1 1 1 0 S1 S6 +ia Off −ic
120°–180° 2 0 1 0 S3 S6 Off +ib −ic
180°–240° 3 0 1 1 S3 S2 −ia +ib Off
240°–300° 4 0 0 1 S5 S2 −ia Off +ic
300°–360° 5 1 0 1 S5 S4 Off −ib +ic
The APF along with BLDC drive load and the complete control circuit was
implemented using MATLAB/Simulink platform. The overall response of the
designed system has been tested for load torque in the form of step signal as well as
continuous change in loading levels.
6.1 Case 1: Step Input as Load Torque
The load torque is supplied in the form of a step signal to the BLDC drive. Figure 4
shows the Simulink model of the proposed system.
Figure 5 represents the source side FFT analysis current without using shunt
active filter whose The THD level is 25.01%. Figure 6 represents the FFT analysis
of source current with filter whose THD value is now reduced to 4.74%.
Figure 7a shows the power analysis at source/load side before introducing the
filter. In addition to the active power, the source is producing the reactive power
which needs to be eliminated.
Figure 7b shows the power analysis at source side after including the shunt
active filter. The SRF control technique is used by the APF to generate the com-
pensating currents which helps to minimize the reactive power to zero. Figure 8
shows that the filter generates the reactive power thereby making the source reactive
power to zero value.
Figure 9a shows that the phase angle difference between the voltage and current
waveforms at source side is considerable when the control algorithm is not used.
While Fig. 9b represents the waveforms of source side voltage and current after
Fig. 4 MATLAB model of the proposed system

Fig. 5 Analysis of supply current with no filter
Fig. 6 Analysis of supply current with filter
Fig. 7 Real and reactive power a at source/load without filter b at source with filter
Fig. 8 Filter reactive power
Fig. 9 Voltage and current waveforms at source side a without filter b with filter
implementing the control algorithm. It shows that there is no phase angle difference
between them thereby improving the power factor.
6.2 Case 2: Continuous Change in the Loading Levels
The load is varied in three segments. From 0.1 to 0.4 s, the load is increased from 0
to 3 Nm linearly. Then from 0.5 to 1 s, the load is decreased to 2 Nm. Further, from
1 to 1.5 s the load is linearly decreased to 1 Nm. After 1.5 s, the load is kept
constant at 3 Nm. The results obtained demonstrate that the variations in load
torque are followed satisfactorily by the shunt active filter.
Figures 10a, b shows the power analysis at load side and source side using the
shunt active filter. According to the torque variation, the real power gets adjusted at
both sides. Figure 11 shows that the filter produces the required reactive power
thereby making the source reactive power to zero value.
Fig. 10 Real and reactive power a at load side with filter b at source side with filter
Fig. 11 Filter reactive power
7 Conclusion
The system proposed has been simulated with a highly nonlinear BLDC type load,
which simultaneously injects harmonics as well as draws a considerable amount of
reactive power. The performance of proposed control techniques using SRF theory
in SAPF is compared without any compensation in the system. The SRF control
method is very effective in providing compensation and requires less computations.
Using this method, the compensating currents are generated which results in har-
monic elimination and VAR compensation. MATLAB/Simulink model is devel-
oped and BLDC drive application is included for the simulation purpose. It is
observed that the THD level is reduced within the standard limits, reactive com-
pensation is performed and also power factor correction is achieved.
References
1. P. Salmeron, S.P. Litran, Improvement of the electric power quality using series and shunt
passive filters. IEEE Trans. Power Deliv. 25(2) (2010)
2. V.R. Pandi, H.H. Zeineldin, W. Xaio, Passive harmonic filter planning to overcome power
quality issues in radial distribution systems. IEEE Power and Energy Society General Meet
(2012)
3. V. Ravikumar Pandi, H.H. Zeineldin, Weidong Xaio, Ahmed F. Zobaa, Optimal penetration
levels for inverter-based distributed generation considering harmonic limits. Electr. Power
Syst. Res. 97, 68–75 (2013)
4. B. Singh, K. Al-Haddad, A. Chandra, A review of active filters for power quality
improvement. IEEE Trans. Industr. Electron. 46(5), 960–971 (1999)
5. P.K. Kumar, K. Ilango, Design of series active filter for power quality improvement.
International Conference on Electronics, Communication and Computational Engineering
(ICECCE), Hosur (2014)
6. D. Aiswarya, K. Ilango, M.G. Nair, A comparative performance analysis of PV grid interface
STATCOM control algorithms. International Conference on Innovations in Power and
Advanced Computing Technologies (i-PACT) (2017)
7. K. Bhattacharjee, Design and simulation of synchronous reference frame based shunt active
power filter using SIMULINK. National Conference on Challenges in Research &
Technology (CRT) (2013, September)
8. V.D. Kore, M. Fernandes, N.R. Ahire, Design of shunt active filter using reference frame
theory for power quality improvement. International Conference on Advance in Electrical,
Electronics, Information, Communication and Bio-informatics (AEEICB) (2018)
9. M.R, Sindhu, M.G. Nair, Photovoltaic based adaptive shunt hybrid filter for power quality
enhancement. IEEE International Conference on Power Electronics, Drives and Energy
Systems (PEDES) (2016)
10. R. Kumar, B. Singh, BLDC motor driven PV array fed water-pumping system employing zeta
converter. IEEE International Conference on Power Electronic (2010)
11. K.R. Bharath, P. Kanakasabapathy, Implementation of enhanced perturb and observe
maximum power point tracking algorithm to overcome partial shading losses. International
Conference on Energy Efficient Technologies for Sustainablity (ICEETS) (2016)
12. D. Beriber, A. Talha, MPPT techniques for PV systems, International Conference on Power
Engineering, Energy and Electrical Drives (2013)
13. M.U. Deepa, G.R. Bindhu, Performance analysis of BLDC motor drive with power factor
correction scheme. IEEE International Conference on Power Electronics, Drives and Energy
systems (PEDES) (2016)
Energy Management Scheme for Green
Homes Using Artificial Neural Network
A. Naresh Kumar, P. Shiva Kumar and Thati Mahesh
Abstract A novel computing energy management scheme (CEMS) for green

homes using a mixed grid solar power is introduced here. The aim of this paper is to
build an optimal, robust, and smart controller for home energy consumption by
increasing the usage of solar power and minimizing the effect on the electric grid
system while satisfying the power demand of home appliances. In order to mini-
mize the consumed power of the house, an artificial neural network (ANN)-based
energy management scheme is proposed. ANN handles the impacts of the changes
in electricity price and backup unit load and controls the energy storage accordingly
using a computing scheme.
Keywords Artificial neural network Solar grid Energy management scheme
1 Introduction
In the recent world, the increasing demand for power and the factors, viz. limited
reserves, increasing power costs, environmental pollutions leads the renewable power
to be the attractive power sources. Since this power source has an unlimited supply
and they do not cause any environmental pollutions, they are focused extensively
and used increasingly every day. Government puts in novel legislation and
feed-in-tariff to support the investor to install novel renewable power usage site [1].
However, most of the power and environmental gains were obtained by focusing
effort on enhancing the energy efficiency in commercial and residential buildings.
Data calculated by the information energy administration explains that buildings
account for 34% of the power utilized in India, and of that power, 66% is consumed
by buildings [2]. The energy efficiency of appliances, ventilation, lighting, heating,
air conditioning, and all home appliances must continue to enhance [3]. In order to
A. Naresh Kumar (&) P. Shiva Kumar T. Mahesh

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Institute of Aeronautical Engineering,
Hyderabad, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_61
674 A. Naresh Kumar et al.
cover customer limits and preference and to attain the features of reduced energy
consumption of all electrical aspects, an efficient scheme is required [4].
The hybrid performance of grid and solar is far difficult than running parts
individually. In a scheme with only grid or solar, just single element is regulated. In
a combined system, both sources are regulated separately and at the same time
based on the running condition and power demands. During very low sunlight
condition, the solar cell cannot supply consistent energy. Similarly, the grid will not
employ in all conditions like power cuts. So the power must have the model to
improve the lack of power in all conditions when the scheme does not employ
regularly or composition gives less power than the requirements. ANN designing is
clearly explained in Ref. [5].
Further, the paper is structured as follows: Sect. 2 describes training procedure
for ANN, and Sect. 3 presents the summarized results. Section 4 contains the
conclusion of the proposed algorithm.
2 ANN-Based Energy Management System
The diagram of the power system using solar power and electrical grid is depicted
in Fig. 1. The proposed system consists of photovoltaic (PV) and utility electrical
grid as a combined electrical source. Data selected from source sides is send to
computer to be validated for computing method of the energy management scheme.
Outline of proposed algorithm is illustrated in Fig. 2.
Components of ANN are input layer, weight, bias, hidden layer, output layer,
and transfer function. Normal ANN structure is shown in Fig. 3. The input data of
ANN is electricity price, and backup unit load. The output data of ANN is energy
storage. The number of neurons in the input layer and output layer is based on the
dimension of the input and output data. The architecture of ANN for energy
Fig. 1 Power system using solar and grid power

Energy Management Scheme for Green Homes … 675
Fig. 2 Proposed algorithm
Fig. 3 ANN structure
management scheme in green homes is selected based on trial and error method.
The transfer function of the hidden and output layer is ‘tansig.’ The weights are
updated after each epoch during training. The number of neurons in each hidden
layer is selected by experimenting with different ANN configurations. When the

ANN network is trained, the ANN network provides the exact output when
checked. The ANN was trained by Levenberg–Marquardt (LM) as the learning
algorithm. The best performance is attained with one hidden layer, and twenty
neurons in the first hidden layer depend on a series of trials and modifications.
Among them, the ANN network with 2-20-1 architecture was chosen because it had
the lowest errors. The MSE is 9.89e-06 in around three minutes computation time
on a computer (i5, 2.4 GHz, 4 GB RAM). ANN training is depicted in Fig. 4.
Similarly, ANN for energy management structure is given in Table 1. When the
training and testing process are finished, MATLAB found 20 different valid ANN
networks to operate.
Fig. 4 ANN training
Table 1 ANN structure information

ANN module ANN
ANN architecture 2-20-1
No. of hidden layers 1
No. of neurons in hidden layer 20
Transfer function in hidden layer and output layer Tansig
Mean square error (MSE) 9.89e−06
Computation time 3.16 min
Epochs 1015
Learning rule technique Levenberg marquardt
3 Scheme Evaluation
The test results of the electrical utility estimation typical Indian home are listed in
Table 2. There exists three time range(s) during the daytime characterizing peak
electricity demand as illustrated in Fig. 5. The hourly electricity price curve of a
typical day is represented in Fig. 6. The maximum hourly price is from 7.00 a.m. to
11.00 a.m. and from 5:00 p.m. to 7:00 p.m. The curves illustrate the off-peak
(when electricity demand is the less); mid-peak (when electricity demand is med-
ium); and on-peak (when electricity demand is the more).
Figure 7 depicts the load curve of home without using the solar power or only
when the home employs the distributed grid (red curve), then when the home is
equipped with a solar but without CEMS scheme (blue curve), and lastly when the
home is equipped with both solar and ANN-based CEMS scheme (green curve).
Figure 8 depicts the hourly cost of electrical power consumption of the individual
Table 2 Typical house power consumption pattern

Appliance Power consumption (W) Usage per Daily power consumption
name day (h) (W/h)
Refrigerator
Refrigerator 40 24 960
Freezer 50 24 1200
Cooking
Electric range 360 5 1800
Microwave 50 12 600
Coffee maker 40 12 480
Toaster oven 40 12 480
Laundry
Dryer 1600 1 1600
Washer 400 1 400
Iron 40 12 480
Entertainment
Color TV 120 5 600
Stereo 120 3 360
Computer 50 3 150
Heating
Water heating 190 18 3420
HVCS 200 24 4800
Other
Lighting 320 5 1600
Cell charging 9 3 27
Car block heater 220 3 660
Fig. 5 Typical house power

consumption pattern
Fig. 6 Typical hourly price
Fig. 7 Load curve for the

individual schemes
Fig. 8 Hourly cost curve of

individual schemes
configurations. The proposed ANN-based CEMS scheme normally resulted in

cost-saving superior than the calculated conventional and HSES system.
It can estimate the electricity monthly bills based on test results for the individual
systems. While the bill is about Rs. 100 for the conventional system, it decreases to
Rs. 80 for the home which is equipped with a solar but without CEMS scheme
system. However, the green home could decrease more electricity bill if the system
uses a CEMR scheme (Rs. 75). This saving indicated around of 25% of the starting
bill.
4 Conclusion
This paper presents artificial neural network-based energy management scheme for
green homes. The simulation results explained that the proposed scheme provides a
better scheme compared to the traditional technique for cost saving. Furthermore,
the error level data attained via the proposed controller will enhance the usage of
reserves more strongly in the green home. Future work will develop the adaptive
neuro fuzzy inference system design details of the power management scheme
based on the input of this computing algorithm for the same green home.
References
1. T.M. Hansen, R. Kadavil, B. Palmintier, S. Suryanarayanan, A.A. Maciejewski, Enabling

smart grid cosimulation studies: rapid design and development of the technologies and
controls. IEEE Electrification Mag. 4, 25–32 (2016)
2. A. Atmaca, Life cycle assessment and cost analysis of residential buildings in south east of
Turkey: part 1—review and methodology. Int. J. Life Cycle Assess. 21, 231–246 (2016)
3. W. Zhou, K.W. Li, Y. Chan, Y. Cao, X. Kuang, Liu, Smart home energy management systems:
concept, configurations, and scheduling strategies. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 61, 30–40
(2016)
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prototype for monitoring electrical appliances in home energy management system. IEEE Stud.
Conf. Res. Dev. 10, 32–36 (2015)
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in six phase transmission line using artificial neural networks. J. Adv. Res. Dyn. & Control.
Syst. 10, 342–349 (2018)
Control Systems
Comparative Analysis Between
Conventional and Neuro-Fuzzy Control
Schemes for Speed Control of Induction
Motor Drive
Shubhangi Kangale, B. Sampathkumar and N. Raut Mrunmayi
Abstract Controlling speed of induction motor is very difficult during light load
conditions because it has very poor power factor and high input surge current.
As also, it is a constant speed motor. Conventional controllers have poor control
performance and are unable to have smooth control of the speed for nonlinear loads.
The intention of the proposed scheme is to design neuro-fuzzy control scheme for
controlling the speed of highly nonlinear loads like induction motor to overcome
the lacunas of conventional controllers. This project uses a combination of neural
network and fuzzy logic controllers so that it has the advantages of both. Back
propagation algorithm is used to remove the neuro-fuzzy trial and error complexity.
To design and study the performance, MATLAB software is used.

Keywords Artificial intelligence Neuro-fuzzy controller MATLAB software

PI controller Back propagation (BP) Real-time implementation Self-tuning
1 Introduction
Today, the controlling speed of induction motor drives is an important aspect of

research. It has been valued more not only because it is the most used motor in
industries but also due to their varied operation modes. Also it is a self-starting
motor, simple and robust in construction, and the cost is low and reliable. Though it
is more advantageous to have use of induction motor drive, it is very difficult to
control the speed because of its nonlinear characteristics and parameters changes
with working conditions.
Conventional controllers have fixed gain like (PI) proportional integral and
(PD) proportional derivative controllers. These controllers suffer from load distur-
bances, steady state error, and parameter variations.
S. Kangale (&) B. Sampathkumar N. Raut Mrunmayi

Department of Electrical Engineering, Fabtech Technical Campus College of Engineering
and Research, Sangola, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_62
684 S. Kangale et al.
Design of proposed neuro-fuzzy controller (NFC) has been introduced with the
main purpose of controlling the speed of induction motor drive. The actual
neuro-fuzzy controller mixes fuzzy controller and a layered sensory neural network
design. The pace error is taken by NFC to reduce calculating anxiety, and it also
suited for practical outfit drive purposes. A back propagation criterion is used.
Weights and membership features of the designed NFC can be configured by using
unsupervised self-tuning method. Performance is going to be analogous way as
compared to that of dual-input NFC.
2 PI Controller
The proportional integral controller (PI controller) operates the plant with the
control of weighted addition of error and the integration of the error. PI controller
decreases steady state error near to zero. Figure 1 shows the basic block of PI
controller.
The PI controller is very popularly used in industries because of its features like
robust design simple structure and low cost. But at certain conditions when the
device is highly nonlinear in characteristics and uncertain, PI controllers fail to
operate [1]. These are mostly preferred when rapid response of the system is not
required and speed response is not an issue and large transport delay is acceptable.
Figure 2 shows the simulation of PI controller.
As shown in the result of PI controller, it decreases the steady state error near to
zero, which is not possible in case of proportional controller. PI controller reduces
maximum overshoot and reduces damping. It also decreases the bandwidth and
improves the rise time. But as induction motor is nonlinear in nature, the operation of
induction motor is very sensible to load disturbances, and PI controller cannot sustain
such large disturbances. Figure 3 shows the speed response of PI controller [2].
Fig. 1 Basic block of PI controller

Comparative Analysis Between Conventional … 685
Fig. 2 Simulation of PI controller

Fig. 3 Speed response of PI controller
3 Fuzzy Logic Control System
Fuzzy control is invented by Zadeh, which is a rule-based controller. It uses “if–

then” strategy for the control process. In this strategy, to form if then rules, we can
assign number of variables [3]. It can be applied to nonlinear systems as the
analytical model of the system is not required in fuzzy control [4]. Figure 4 shows
the block diagram of a fuzzy logic controller.
Fuzzy technique is also part of artificial intelligence because of unique charac-
teristics like sustainable level of tolerance, rapid adaptation, and smooth operation,
minimization in the effect of nonlinearity, and high approximation adaptability.
Fig. 4 Block diagram of a fuzzy logic controller

From the result comparisons of fuzzy control and conventional controller, it

shows that the nonlinearity in an induction motor can be reduce by fuzzy controller,
and performance can be improved and having smooth controlling of a speed than
conventional one (Figs. 5, 6, 7, 8 and 9).
Fig. 5 Simulation of fuzzy controller
Fig. 6 Speed response of fuzzy controller

Fig. 7 Structure of neuro-fuzzy controller
Fig. 8 Simulation of neuro-fuzzy controller

Fig. 9 Speed response of neuro-fuzzy controller
4 Neural Network Controller
Neural network is branch of artificial intelligence which works on biotic systems,

such as the brain.
Neural networks have unique method for solving problem. Earlier computers are
programed with a code to solve a specific problem. Until having a designed code,
computer is unable to provide solution. This limits the problem-solving power of
conventional computers.
Neural networks work in an analogous way as the brain of human work. The
neural network is the combination of different processing elements (neurons) which
works together to solve a specific problem. Neural networks can be trained by
examples. It is not having fixed program for particular task. The examples for
training should be selected carefully such that network should function correctly.
As the network has its own way of problem solving, its working is not predictable.
Neural network can be used for applications such as data classification or pattern
recognition through a learning process
5 Neuro-Fuzzy Controller
The designed NFC consists of fuzzy controller and neural network. It mainly
includes four layers which are fuzzification layer, input layer, rule layer, and
defuzzification layer [5].
It shows some transient during starting but having very constant speed control
during working condition in spite of load disturbances. It also improves transient
behavior and reduces steady state error.
6 Comparative Analysis
The analysis of the designed simplified NFC-based control strategy for induction
motor is simulated with MATLAB/Simulink. From the result figures, the execution
of the designed NFC is robust, simple in computation similar to that of the two
inputs NFC.
As a result, neuro-fuzzy controller shows dynamic and smooth control of speed
over wide range as compared with conventional controller. This is because it
overcomes the constrain of fuzzy controller as well neural network controller.
A fuzzy controller has asymmetric membership functions in motor applications
which require large manual adjustment with trial, and also it is tough to create rules
for particular applications. For neural network, it is tremendously a rigger process
to create a sequential instruction data. NFC controller has advantages of both
(neural and fuzzy logic) controller which results into superior performance of speed
response with parameters of settling time and maximum peak overshoot compared
with conventional (PI) controllers.
7 Conclusion
From the analysis of the designed NFC and typical PI controller-based IM drive, the
designed system observed superior to that of the conventional one. The designed
neuro-fuzzy controller induction motor drive system is observed rugged and
appropriate solution for practical implementation of industrial drives.
References
1. E.C. Shin, T.S. Park, W.H. Oh, J.Y. Yoo, A design method of PI controller for an induction
motor with parameter variation, in Proceeding IEEE IECON, vol. 1, pp. 408–413 (2003)
2. A. Miloudi, A. Draou, Variable gain PI controller design for speed control and rotor resistance
estimation of an indirect vector controlled induction machine drive, in Proceeding IEEE
IECON, vol. 1, pp. 323–328 (2002)
3. C.M. Liaw, J.B. Wang, Y.C. Chang, A fuzzy adapted field-oriented mechanism for induction
motor drive. IEEE Trans. Energy Convers. 11(1), 76–83 (1996)
4. M.N. Uddin, T.S. Radwan, M.A. Rahman, Performances of fuzzy-logic-based indirect vector
control for induction motor drive. IEEE Trans. Ind. Appl. 38(5), 1219–1225 (2002)
5. F.-J. Lin, R.-J. Wai, Adaptive fuzzy-neural-network control for induction spindle motor drive.
IEEE Trans. Energy Convers. 17(4), 507–513 (2002)
Estimation of Nonlinear Hybrid Systems
Using Second-Order Q-Adaptive
Self-switched Derivative-Free
Estimators
Sayanti Chatterjee
Abstract This paper introduces the adaptive versions of proposed self-switched

estimators for a class of nonlinear hybrid systems. This proposed estimation scheme
can eliminate the common disadvantage of conventional state estimators, that is the
requirement of fairly accurate information about process noise covariances. To
obtain a good compromise about computational complexity and estimation accu-
racy, a Q-adaptive (QA) state estimator based on derivative-free estimators like
second-order CDKF and first-order CDKF has been proposed and employed in this
work. The efficacy of the proposed estimators in comparison with QAEKF has been
demonstrated through simulation studies on a benchmark problem, namely chem-
ical stirred tank reactor (CSTR).

Keywords CDKF Q-adaptation Estimation Nonlinear hybrid system CSTR
1 Introduction
This paper presents a novel scheme for the estimation of nonlinear hybrid systems
(NLHS) using adaptive estimators. The main focus of this thesis work is ‘hybrid
system’ which is a special kind of complex systems containing two distinct kinds of
subsystems, namely time-evolving and event-driven subsystems, which interact
with each other and operate in real time [1, 2].
Hybrid systems, therefore, embrace a wide range of applications ranging from
embedded real-time systems to large-scale manufacturing, from aerospace control
to traffic control. The basic structure of the hybrid systems comes from discrete
event dynamical systems (DEDS).
The main disadvantage of modeling of a nonlinear hybrid system is to generate
some process noises due to mismatch of the state equation according to the mode
changes, This newly developed estimation scheme can eliminate the common
S. Chatterjee (&)
Narsimha Reddy Engineering College, Hyderabad, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_63
694 S. Chatterjee
disadvantage of conventional state estimators, that is the requirement of fairly

accurate information about process noise statistics. Considering the conjecture that
the theory of adaptation for existing linear and nonlinear signal models may also be
extended for nonlinear hybrid systems, adaptive self-switched estimators have been
proposed and their performances have been demonstrated using non-trivial case
studies in simulation. To obtain a good compromise between computational com-
plexity and estimation accuracy, adaptive state estimators (based on extended
Kalman filter and derivative-free estimators like first- and second-order central
difference Kalman filter) have been employed in this paper for NLHS. Inter-
comparison studies of different self-switched estimators using benchmark test
problem are also done in this context.
As stated earlier, modern real-world engineering systems exhibit complex hybrid
behaviors. State estimation and mode determination of hybrid systems for accu-
rately and timely online monitoring is a difficult task. In this paper, the existing
literature on the estimation of hybrid systems has been reviewed to get an idea to
choose appropriate estimation technique for further use. Although emphasis has
been given on nonlinear estimators, observers and linear estimators for hybrid
systems have been also surveyed in this chapter. Very early works have been
intentionally omitted to keep the section within page limit.
In the present work, a Q-adaptive nonlinear estimator [3, 4] is employed which
obviates the need of complete knowledge about the plant dynamics and distur-
bances. An adaptive state estimator is initialized with a guess value of the unknown
noise covariance and iteratively improves the estimate of the unknown noise
covariance. In the present work, CDKF has been used [5–7] as the core non-
adaptive nonlinear state estimation algorithm.
For the state estimation of hybrid systems, self-switched estimation algorithm [8]
has been adopted here to track the system states as well as to infer the system
modes. Thus, a separate mode estimator [9] was not necessary. As the state
dynamics of the filters modify themselves with mode transitions, such filters may be
termed as self-switched filters [8] and proposed by the same author.
The estimation [10–12] schemes of nonlinear hybrid systems (NLHS) using
non-adaptive nonlinear filters have been described in literature, where noise
statistics is assumed to be known. Though [13] mentions the possibility of
employing Q-adaptive filters for a nonlinear hybrid plant, no results specifically for
adaptive filters have been reported therein.
This section deals with another important estimation technique, known as central
difference filter (CDF). CDF is an important member of derivative free estimator
family [14]. The main advantages of using CDF-based estimator over the widely
used extended Kalman filter (EKF) are some known limitations of the EKF, such as
singularity problems and complex Jacobian calculations [15].
The linearization process based on square root factorization of the output
covariance matrices has been proposed in [4, 5]. The advantage for this type of
linearization technique has been stated as:
Estimation of Nonlinear Hybrid Systems Using Second-Order … 695
no Jacobian or Hessian matrix need not to be computed;

the linearization process is more accurate than linearization technique used for EKF.
In [10], state estimators for nonlinear systems have been derived based on
polynomial approximations using this technique. A conference paper containing
similar material has appeared in [4].
So, in one line, the novelty of the present contribution lies in proposing a
self-switched second-order nonlinear Q-adaptive filter, namely QA-CDKF-2 for
state estimation of a benchmark hybrid system. Here, we have chosen CSTR liquid
level system [16, 17].
The following sections are a blend of algorithm based on Q-adaptive second
order, plant description, results and simulation, and conclusion.
2 Algorithm of Self-switched Adaptive State Estimator
In this paper, the situation where the process noise and measurement noise statistics are
improper or unknown is considered for estimation purposes. The non-adaptive esti-
mators cannot provide satisfactory estimation accuracy in such a situation. For NLHS,
as process equations modify themselves according to the modes, the estimation errors
due to unknown noise covariances become very large. Adaptive versions of proposed
self-switched estimators provide solution to this problem [8, 12].
The general structure of self-switched estimators which has been demonstrated
in previous work of same author [8] has been reformed here for unknown noise
covariances. The adaptive version of the self-switched estimator algorithm [8, 12]
developed in this dissertation has been discussed below:
General algorithm of adaptive self-switched estimator
Step 1: Initialize the estimator (filter) state, noise covariance, and error covariance.
Step 2: Determine modes based on initialization.
Step 3: Estimate states using filter algorithm.
Step 4: Scaling-based Q-adaptation (for Q-adaptive filter) or residual-based R-adaptation
(for R-adaptive filter) is performed.
Step 5: Switch to correct modes based on estimated states.
Step 6: Modify filter equations according to the estimated modes.
Step 7: Repeat from Step 3.
2.1 Estimation of NLHS using self-switched CDKF
The general structure of self-switched estimators which has been demonstrated in

the previous work of the same author [7] has been reformed here for unknown noise
covariances. The flowchart of Q-adaptive second-order CDKF has been presented
in Fig. 1.
696 S. Chatterjee
Fig. 1 Flowchart of CDKF-2

Though second-order QACDKF has been described here, first-order CDKF and
EKF (basic structures have been discussed in the appendix section) follow the same
algorithm and modify their basic structures accordingly.
3 Plant Descriptions
In this section, another nonlinear hybrid system is used as a benchmark problem. In

this section, the benchmark test problem is considered for demonstrating advan-
tages and disadvantages of proposed estimation techniques. This problem has been
taken from the literature [16, 17]. The system as shown in Fig. 2 consists of a tank
containing a fluid whose level is controlled by three control valves (V1, V2, V3). V1
and V2 are dedicated to control inflow, whereas V3 controls the outflow. S1 and S2
are supply. Each valve opens or closes depending upon the predefined thresholds
(hlv and hlp) as shown in Fig. 2. The fluid in the tank is uniformly heated by a
thermal power source, under adiabatic conditions.
3.1 Plant Mathematical Model
With the discretization of the system dynamics, and the additional simplifying
physical assumptions, the state equations can be described by the following non-
linear difference equations, determined by the mass and energy conservation laws.
The fluid level is considered as first state (x1) and temperature is considered as
second state (x2). Q1 and Q2 are nominated as inflow rates, and Q3 is the outflow
rate. Vm is the assigned inlet fluid temperature; Ts is the time step; and wk and vk are
the process noises and measurement noises, respectively.
x1 ¼ x1 þ Ts ½a1 Q1 þ a2 Q2 a3 Q3 þ w1 ð1Þ
Fig. 2 Liquid level control

system
698 S. Chatterjee
Table 1 Value of parameters of liquid level control system

Sl. No. Name of the parameter Value of the parameter
1. Inlet flow (Q1) 1 m/h
2. Inlet flow (Q2) 4 m/h
3. Outlet flow (Q3) 4.5 m/h
4. Inlet fluid temperature (Vm) 15 °C
5. Lower threshold height (hlv) 4m
6. Upper threshold height (hlp) 10 m
Ts
x2 ¼ x2 þ ½a1 Q1 þ a2 Q2 ðVm x2 Þ þ 24 þ w2 ð2Þ
x1
The temperature of the fluid has been considered as the measurement of the
system. The values of the plant parameters are given in Table 1.
3.2 Mode Discrimination
The hybridness of the plant depends upon the liquid level. When the liquid level
crosses the lower threshold value, the valves V1 and V2 remain open and liquid
flows through inlet pipes. When the liquid level is higher than the higher threshold
value, the outflow occurs through outlet valve V3. There are two modes.
Mode 1:
If water level is less than hlv or (hlv < water level < hlp and water level is
increasing from below hlv): In this case, a1 ¼ 1; a2 ¼ 1; a3 ¼ 0.
If water level is more than hlp: In this case, a1 ¼ 0; a2 ¼ 0; a3 ¼ 1.
Mode 2:
If water level is more than hlv or (hlv < water level < hlp and water level is
decreasing from above hlp): In this case, a1 ¼ 0; a2 ¼ 0; a3 ¼ 1.
4 Results and Simulation
The mathematical modeling of this case study has been also elaborated in the
previous section. Same model has been revisited here to fulfill the aim of the thesis.
In this case study, we assume, the initial condition of liquid level is x1= 15 cm;
and temperature is x2 = 10 °C Sampling time is assumed 0.05 s. The process noise
covariances and measurement noise covariances are given below [16]:

0:02 0 0:16 0
Q¼ ;R ¼ :
0 0:01 unit 2 0 0:05 unit2
In this case study, mode changes occur and the plant behaves like a nonlinear
hybrid plant. The initial condition of the estimator is assumed to be [0 0] unit. No. of
Monte Carlo run is 1000. The liquid level has been considered as output (Fig. 3).
From the above figures, it can be deduced that the RMSE of second-order CDKF
(CDKF-2)-based estimation is comparable and shows much less error than EKF and
first-order CDKF (CDKF-1).
5 Performance Study of Q-Adaptive Self-switched

Estimator
It is well-known that it is difficult to prove convergence of nonlinear adaptive filter

especially for hybrid system, and there appears to be no publication in this area. It is
therefore expedient to thoroughly test any candidate nonlinear filter to the target
hybrid system through simulation before any plan to deploy the same.
Convergences studies of the estimation scheme using adaptive estimators have also
been carried out using the CSTR benchmark problems.
In this work, convergence validation of the second-order QACDKF has been
exhibited by
(i) Adding an unknown small disturbance in tank [9].
In this scenario, it is assumed that initial height of each tank: 15 cm. Initial height of
estimator: 0 cm. MC run = 1000. The modified process equation of second state by
adding a small disturbance D1 sin wt is given below (Fig. 4).
(ii) When inflow is 10% perturbed.
In this case, it is assumed that initial height of each tank: 10 cm. Initial height of
estimator: 0 cm. MC run = 1000 perturbation of inflow = 10%. Process noise
and measurement noises are given below (in cm2) (Fig. 5).
When the inflow is perturbed, a noticeable change in RMSE is found in case of
EKF, whereas the change in RMSE is less in case of second-order CDKF
(CDKF-2). As the measurement of state 2 is not present, the RMSE of second state
has been taken to prove the convergence and adequacy of the proposed algorithm.
In both the cases, it can be shown from figures that the RMS error for
second-order QACDKF is consistently small and change in RMSE is very little
which proves the convergence of second-order QACDKF. On the other hand, when
the unknown disturbance of same amplitude is added or inflow is same amount
perturbed, a noticeable change in RMSE is found in case of QAEKF. As the
measurement of state 2 is not present, the RMSE of third state has been taken to
prove the convergence of the proposed algorithm.
700 S. Chatterjee
Fig. 3 RMSE of (a) state 1 (b) state 2 (c) mode

Fig. 4 Convergence study of Q-adaptive estimators in the presence of external disturbance (in
logarithmic scale)
Fig. 5 RMSE of third state when inputs are perturbed (in logarithmic scale)
Performance Comparison of Q-Adaptive Self-switched Estimators

For this case study, the benchmark CSTR has been elected. The process and
measurement noises are white noises whose mean = 0 and covariances are Q and R,
respectively.
The other parameter values are taken as stated in Sect. 3. Table 2 compares the
mean values of RMSE of first state within time scale 30–50 s using Q-adaptive-
based estimation for the different initial value of process noise covariance when
window size is: 20.
The table provides a comparison study of the mean values of RMSE of first state
within time scale 30–50 s using Q-adaptive-based estimation for different window
sizes and initial value of process noise covariance is 100 times of truth.
702 S. Chatterjee
Table 2 Comparison of mean values of RMSE for different initial values of process noise
covariances
Process noise covariance 0.01 * Q 1*Q 10 * Q 100 * Q
initialization
RMSE_QACDKF-2 (in cm) 0.1189 0.0311 0.1129 0.1283
RMSE_QACDKF-1 (in cm) 0.254 0.0330 0.2349 0.2337
RMSE_ QAEKF (in cm) 0.2347 0.0320 0.2145 0.2332
Comparison of mean values of RMSE for different window size
Window size 5 10 15
RMSE_QACDKF-2 0.2507 0.1305 0.1581
RMSE_CDKF-2 0.3523 0.4312 0.5881
6 Conclusion
State estimation and mode determination for a class of nonlinear hybrid systems
have been presented in this section using adaptive self-switched estimators.
The adaptive estimators have been employed with satisfactory performances of
state estimation and mode determination of nonlinear hybrid systems over
non-adaptive ones.
While comparing adaptive state estimators in the presence of unknown process
noise covariance, it has been established that the proposed Q-adaptive second-order
CDKF can outperform the EKF and the first-order CDKF versions in respect of
state tracking. The proposed filter can consequently determine the true modes of the
hybrid system quickly. It is also inferred from the results that the estimation scheme
using QACDKF (second order) is more robust than QAEKF in the presence of the
unknown disturbance and perturbed input.
References
1. C.G. Cassandras, J. Lygeros, Stochastic Hybrid Systems (CRC Press, Taylor & Francis
Group, LLC, 2007)
2. M. Buss, M. Glocker, M. Hardt, O. von Stryk, R. Bulirsch, G. Schmidt, Nonlinear hybrid
dynamical systems: modeling, optimal control, and applications, in Modelling, Analysis, and
Design of Hybrid Systems, ed. by E.G. Frehse, E. Schnieder (Springer, 2010)
3. A. Almagbile, J. Wang, W. Ding, Evaluating the performances of adaptive Kalman filter
methods in GPS/ INS integration. J. Glob. Positioning Syst. 9(1), 33–40 (2010)
4. A.H. Mohamed, K.P. Schwarz, Adaptive filtering for INS/GPS. J. Geodesy 73, 193–203
(1999)
5. H.E. Soken, C. Hajiyev, A Novel Adaptive Unscented Kalman Filter For Pico Satellite
Attitude Estimation. PHYSCON 2011, León (2011, September, 5)
6. K. Ito, K. Xiong, Gaussian filters for nonlinear filtering problems. IEEE Trans. Autom.
Control 45(5), 910–927 (2000)
7. T.S. Schei, A finite-difference method for linearization in nonlinear estimation. Automatica 33
(11), 2053–2058 (1997)
8. S. Chatterjee, S. Sadhu, T.K. Ghoshal, Fault detection and of non-linear hybrid system using
self-switched sigma point filter bank. IET Control Theor. Appl. 9(7), 1093–1102 (2015)
9. W. Wang, L. Li, D. Zhou, K. Liu, Robust state estimation and fault diagnosis for uncertain
hybrid nonlinear systems. Nonlinear Anal. Hybrid Syst. 1(1), 2–15 (2007)
10. S. Chatterjee, Improved fault detection and for nonlinear hybrid systems using self-switched
CDKF. Selected for Presentation IEEE Indicon 2015 (New Delhi, India, 17–20 2015)
11. S. Chatterjee, S. Sadhu, T.K. Ghoshal, Improved estimation and fault detection method for a
class of nonlinear hybrid systems using self switched sigma point filter. In 2014 International
Conference on Control, Instrumentation, Energy and Communication (CIEC) (IEEE, 31 Jan
2014), pp. 578–582
12. S. Tafazoli, Hybrid system state tracking and fault detection using particle filters. IEEE Trans.
Autom. Control 14(6), 1078–1087 (2006)
13. A. Mirzaee, K. Salahshoor, Fault diagnosis and accommodation of nonlinear systems based
on multiple-model adaptive unscented Kalman filter and switched MPC and H-infinity
loop-shaping controller. J. Process Control 22(3), 626–634 (2012)
14. S. Chatterjee, S. Sadhu, T.K. Ghoshal, Improved estimation and fault detection scheme for a
class of non-linear hybrid systems using time delayed adaptive CD state estimator. IET-Signal
Process. 11(7), 771–779 (2017)
15. S. Chatterjee, S. Sadhu, T.K. Ghoshal, Self-switched R-adaptive extended kalman filter based
state estimation and mode determination for nonlinear hybrid systems. Computer,
Communication, Control and Information Technology (Kolkata, India, 2014), pp. 1–6
16. F. Cadini, E. Zio, G. Peloni, Particle filtering for the detection of fault onset time in hybrid
dynamic systems with autonomous transitions. IEEE Trans. Reliab. 61(1), 130–139 (2012)
17. C. Andrieu, A. Doucet, E. Punskaya, Sequential Monte Carlo methods for optimal filtering, in
Sequential Monte Carlo Methods in Practice (Springer, New York, 2001)
Control Quality Enhancement
of Inverted Pendulum Using Fractional
Controller
K. Muralidhar Goud and C. Srisailam
Abstract This manuscript deals with a fractional PID controller which is proposed
for inverted pendulum on a cart system (IPCS). The mathematical equivalent of the
system is done by Euler–Lagrange’s method with the consideration controller and
system frequency response specifications controller parameters like Kp , Ki , Kd ; k
and µ are determined using FPID optimization toolbox. Compared to classical
optimization techniques, this FPID technique provides better phase and gain mar-
gins for the system. FPID optimization tuning helps to obtain iso-damping property.
It is a property where the open-loop phase https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bode_
plotis constant, means the derivative of open-loop phase is zero at a frequency
called tangent frequency (xc ). Open-loop phase is flat which indicates that the plant
exhibits the property of robustness for gain variations. Systems which exhibit
iso-damping properties, overshoots the closed-loop step signal have nearly constant
for assorted values of the system gain. This ascertains that the system demonstrates
the robustness properties to gain variations.

Keywords Fractional order calculus Cart Pendulum Gain margin

Phase margin Robustness Iso-damping Underactuated
K. Muralidhar Goud (&) C. Srisailam

Department of EEE, Vardhaman College of Engineering, Hyderabad, Telangana, India
C. Srisailam
K. Muralidhar Goud C. Srisailam
Department of EEE, Chaitanya Bharathi Institute of Technology (A),
Hyderabad, Telangana, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_64
706 K. Muralidhar Goud and C. Srisailam
1 Introduction
The system under consideration is the best example of nonlinear, unstable system
[1]. The same exhibits the property of underactuated system. The underactuated
systems are mostly referred for robotic applications; they are mostly confined to
mechanical systems [2–10]. As the preferred system is nonlinear, standard linear
techniques cannot be applied to linearize it. The manuscript goal is to equilibrate the
IPCS perpendicularly. In this, the pendulum is controlled by using FOPID con-
troller. The fractional order controllers have been applied in rigid robots and
hexapod robot successfully [11–13]. FOPID controller parameters can be tuned
using genetic algorithm and particle swarm optimization technique. Here in this
paper tuning of FOPID controller parameters is done by using FPID optimization
toolbox with different optimization algorithms. The mathematical modeling is done
by using Lagrangian equations, and system is controlled using fractional order PID
controller. The three parameters Kp , Ki , and Kd are calculated using PID controller;
with these values, remaining k and µ can be obtained (Fig. 1).
2 Modeling of IPCS
Inverted pendulum is a single-input multi-output system. The pendulum will fall if

the cart remains in static position. So, to avoid pendulum unbalance the cart must be
moved. Many classical controllers are designed only to control pendulum’s position
as they are confined of only single-input single-output systems. The novelty is that,
the design of controller to control the pendulum position or to balance it even
though there is no movement in the cart.
Here are some design specifications while designing controller like,
• Settling time for x and h of less than 5 s
• Rise time for x of less than 0.5 s
Fig. 1 Inverted pendulum

with cart
Control Quality Enhancement of Inverted Pendulum Using … 707
• Pendulum angle h never greater than 20° from the vertical

• Steady-state error of less than 2% for x and h.
Summing the horizontal forces in the CS diagram, then the under mentioned
equation of dynamics is
:: :
Mx þbx þN ¼ F ð1Þ
There would not be any useful information for summing vertical forces.
The sum total of horizontal forces in the IP diagram then the under mentioned
equation of dynamics force N is;
:: ::
N ¼ m x þ ml h cos h ml h2 sin h ð2Þ
On substituting the above equation into the first equation, two system equations
will be obtained.
:: : ::
ðM þ mÞ x þ b x þ ml h cos h ml h2 sin h ¼ F ð3Þ
To acquire the second equation of dynamics in this system, the sum total per-
pendicular forces to the pendulum.
:: ::

P sin h þ N sin h mg sin h ¼ ml h þ m x cos h ð4Þ
To eliminate of the P and N terms in Eq. (4), sum total of the moments about the
pendulum centroid, the following equation comes.
::
Pl sin h Nl cos h ¼ I h ð5Þ
After combining expressions (4) and (5), the other governing equation is
:: ::
I þ ml2 h þ mgl sin h ¼ ml x cos h ð6Þ
The system analysis is done, and systems are linearized in vertically upward
equilibrium position, and h ¼ p under assumption the system oscillate within a
small neighborhood of this equilibrium. After assuming some system considera-
tions like h ¼ / þ p,
cos h ¼ cosðp þ /Þ 1
sin h ¼ sinðp þ /Þ /
: :
h2 ¼ / 2 0
After substituting above conditions in system, force equations are given by

:: ::
I þ m l2 x mgl/ ¼ ml x
:: : ::
ðM þ mÞ x þ b x ml / ¼ u
2.1 Transfer Function
Apply the Laplace transform to linearized system equations with all initial condi-
tions which are zero. Now

I þ m l2 /ðsÞs2 mgl/ðsÞmlXðsÞs2
ðM þ mÞXðsÞs2 þ bXðsÞs ml/ðsÞs2 ¼ UðsÞ
ð7Þ
I þ ml2 g
XðsÞ ¼ 2 /ðsÞ
ml s
Then, substitute Eq. (7) into Eq. (2).

I þ ml2 g I þ ml2 g
ðM þ mÞ 2 /ðsÞs þ b
2
2 ð8Þ
ml s ml s
After rearranging, the mathematical model is in the following form.

ml 2
/ðsÞ q s
¼ bðI þ ml2 Þ 3
UðsÞ s4 þ
q s ðM þqmÞmgl s2 bmgl
q s
where
h i
q ¼ ðM þ mÞ I þ ml2 ðmlÞ2
From the mathematical model above, there is both a zero and a pole at the origin.
After eliminating pole and zero, the resulting mathematical functions as shown
below:
ml
/ðsÞ q s rad
PPend ðsÞ ¼ ¼ bðI þ ml2 Þ 2
ð9Þ
UðsÞ s3 þ
q s ðM þqmÞm/ s bmgl
q
N
Similarly, the transfer function with the cart position X(S) then yield is shown in
Eq. (10)
ðI þ ml2 Þs2 gml

XðsÞ q
PCart ðsÞ ¼ ¼ bðI þ ml2 Þ 3
ð10Þ
UðsÞ s4 þ
q s ðM þqmÞmgl s2 bmg
q
2.2 State Space
The state-space form of motion equations is rearranged into first-order LDE and
then converts into the typical state-space matrix form which is shown below.
2 : 3 2 32 3 2 3
x 0 1 0 0 x 0
ðI þ ml2 Þb :
6 x::: 7 6 0 07 6 7 6 I þ ml 7
2 2 2
m gl
6 7¼6 I ðM þ mÞ þ Mml2 I ðM þ mÞMml2 76 x 7 þ 6 I ðM þ mÞ þ Mml2 7u
4/5 40 0 0 1 5 4 /: 5 4 0 5
:: mgðM þ mÞ
mlb ml
/ 0 I ðM þ mÞ þ Mml2 I ðM þ mÞ þ Mml2 0 / I ðM þ mÞ þ Mml2
2 3
x:
1 0 0 0 6 7
6 x 7þ 0 u
y¼
0 0 1 0 4u5 0
:
u
The C matrix two rows, first second elements for cart’s position and pendulum’s
position respectively and are part of the yield. Specifically, the cart’s position is the
first element of the output y and its deviation from equilibrium position is the
second element, i.e., pendulum’s deviation.
3 Controller Design
3.1 FOPID Controller
On applying some controller design specifications like Phase margin ;m and gain
crossover frequency xgc specifications:
Being gain and phase margins have always considered as important measures of
robustness. It is known that the phase margin is related to the damping ratio of the
system and hence can also function as a recital measure. The equations to define the
gain crossover frequency and phase margin are

Cðj xgc ÞGðj xgc Þ ¼ 0 dB
ð11Þ
argðCðj xgc ÞGðj xgc ÞÞ ¼ / þ /m
Robustness to variations in the gain of the plant: The next constraint can be
considered in this case which is as follows
d
argðFðsÞÞx ¼ xgc ¼ 0 ð12Þ
dx
The open-loop system F(s) = C(s) G(s) phase to be horizontal at xgc and so,
almost unbroken within a recess around xgc . That means the system is more vig-
orous to changes in gain and the peak overshoots of the response are almost
unbroken inside a gain range, also known as iso-damping property of the response.
It’s to be noted that the range of gain for which the system robustness is not
motionless with this circumstance.
The assortment is influenced on the crossover frequency around xgc for which
the open-loop system phase keeps flat. This frequency assortment will be liable on
the ensuing controller and the frequency characteristics of the plant.
High-frequency noise rejection: The opposite sensitivity function constraint on
T (jx) can be established:

T ðjxÞ ¼ Cðj xgc ÞGðj xgc Þ dB A dB
1 þ Cðj x ÞGðj x
gc gc Þ
8x\xt rad/s ) jT ðjxtÞjdB ¼ A dB;
Let A be the desired value of the thoughtfulness role for frequencies x < xt rad/s
(desired frequency range).
To ensure a good output disturbance rejection: The opposite sensitivity
function constraint on T (jx) can be defined:

1
SðjxÞ ¼ dB B dB
1 þ Cðj xgc ÞGðj xgc Þ
8x\xs rad/s ) j SðjxsÞjdB ¼ B dB;
(with B the anticipated value of the sensitivity function for frequencies x < xs rad/
s desired frequency range). The parameters of FOPID controller are estimated after
considering the above specifications. Also, the estimation of FOPID controller
Table 1 Parameter values of controller for controlling cart’s position

Controller Kp Ki Kd k l
FOPID 7.63 107 109 14,050 0.5 0.5
PID 7.8 107 1010 14,050.45 1 1
Table 2 Parameter values of controller for controlling pendulum’s angle position

Controller Kp Ki Kd k l
FOPID 7.13 10 7
3 10 10
4800 0.5 0.5
PID 7.3 107 3.2 1010 4900 1 1
parameter values using FPID optimization toolbox by using different techniques

inbuilt in FPID toolbox is done.
Transfer function of FOPID controller is:
Ki
GcðsÞ ¼ KP þ þ K d Sl
Sk
4 PID Controller
The PID controller parameters are obtained using PID tuner in MATLAB toolbox
therefore on substituting PID controller parameter values in transfer function given
as (Tables 1 and 2).
Ki
GcðsÞ ¼ KP þ þ Kd s
s
After assigning values to transfer function of controller, the controller is used for
the system for controlling operation.
5 Results
Controller for pendulum’s angle control:

See Fig. 2.
Fig. 2 Inverted pendulum response for both PID and FOPID controller
Controller for cart’s position:

See Fig. 3.
Fig. 3 Cart response for both PID and FOPID controller

6 Conclusions
In this paper, the central objective is to design a fractional order controller, which
stabilizes the underactuated system, considered here an IPCS system. These papers
approach successfully stabilized the IPCS system using fractional order (FO) PID
controller. The objective is set to control the locus of the cart and angle of the
pendulum implemented successfully. The outcomes acquired from FOPID con-
troller are much healthier than traditional PID controller. From the results’ graph, it
reveals that the fractional PID controller is better for stabilizing the underactuated
robotic system. As an overall, the results got based on fractional order controller are
much more superior to integer-order controller.
References
1. A.N.K. Bin Nasir, Modelling and Controller Design for an Inverted Pendulum System.
(Department of Electrical, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 2006–2007), pp. 1–14
2. D.P.M. de Oliveira Valrio, User and programmer manual. Ninteger v. 2.3 Fractional Control
Toolbox for MatLab (UNIVERSIDADE TÉCNICA DE LISBOA INSTITUTO SUPERIOR
TÉCNICO, 2005, August)
3. J.R. White, U. Mass-Lowell, Lecture notes. Introduction to the Design and Simulation of
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8. D. Valrió, J. Sá da Costa, Optimisation of non-integer order control parameters for a robotic
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Complex Order-Distributions. IFAC 2, prt1 (2006)
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12. C.A. Monje, Y.Q. Chen, B.M. Vinagre, D. Xue, V. Feliu, in Advanced Industrial Control
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Nonlinear Dyn. 38(1–4), 417–433 (2004)
A Review on Interference Management
in Millimeter-Wave MIMO Systems
for Future 5G Networks
E. Udayakumar and V. Krishnaveni
Abstract Millimeter-wave (mm-wave) communication systems provide data rates

in gigabits-per-second, due to large bandwidth availability used or 5G applications.
Where the absorption and path loss are high in mm waves, it introduces poor
propagation of sending the information. The shadowing can affect the millimeter
wave to travel at long distances. Because of the high attenuation, the receiver
provides low SNR value. Due to the oscillators, it causes a high interference. The
interference occurred in mm wave such as inter-carrier interference, inter-block
interference, phase noise, IQTM, etc. The various techniques are implemented at
transmitter and receiver side to reduce the interferences. These waves are called a
shorter wavelength wave, also has need to use a more number of antenna elements.
Anyway, this mm-wave system has more spectral efficiency which was used for
reducing the traffic demands. To overcome these problems, the beamforming was
used with MIMO technology. This survey shows the effect of various interference
and the cancelation techniques in downlink communications.
Keywords IQ imbalance Phase noise PAPR Zero forcing Beamforming
1 Introduction
The aim of 5G systems is to bring higher speeds in radio access providing 30–300
gigahertz frequency range [1]. The millimeter-wave communication considered a
promising key technology for future wireless communication systems. It has higher
traffic density, higher connection density, higher capacity, spectral efficiency and
E. Udayakumar (&)
Department of ECE, KIT-Kalaignarkarunanidhi Institute of Technology, Coimbatore,
Tamil Nadu, India
V. Krishnaveni
Department of ECE, PSG College of Technology, Coimbatore, Tamilnadu, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_65
716 E. Udayakumar and V. Krishnaveni
provides application services as mobile networks, augmented reality, virtual reality,

high definition videos. It provides larger bandwidth when compared with 4G sys-
tems and more vulnerability to signal blockages from buildings. The base stations
are provided with higher number of antennas for coverage of co-channel users, also
named as massive MIMO systems. A typical challenge in millimeter-wave com-
munication is severe path loss, propagation loss and blockage effects. Also, it was
affected by rain causes high inter- and intra-cell interferences.
The base stations are used to provide with higher number of antennas for cov-
erage of co-channel users, also represented as massive MIMO systems. The
multi-input multi-output (MIMO) systems have more number of transmitting and
receiving antennas, which are used to increase the channel capacity in the reception
side. The error rate performances are improved by these techniques. The MIMO
which is used in 5G technology has 5G base stations to improve the transmissions
technology for optimization of data connections. The major problems arise are
reflection, attenuation, shadowing and refraction of signals at millimeter wave with
a blockage [2].
For reducing the energy consumption, poor signal quality and to improve the
communication quality, we focus on three parameters namely path loss, delay and
capacity in 5G-green communication [3]. Millimeter waves have large antenna
arrays at both receiver and transmitter side. While using the large arrays, the link
margin has been realized in directional beamforming. Likewise, for canceling the
interference in millimeter-wave communication, a hybrid array architecture has
been used [2]. In terahertz communication systems, the highest level of interference
and SINR occurs. The analytical model is designed for radiation pattern, antenna
directivity to absorptions and blockage of interference. The main motivation of this
paper is to explore various interferences arise in millimeter-wave communications
and also show the various methods to reduce such interference. The
millimeter-wave massive MIMO system where uplink communication in the
respected cell is named to inter-cell interference [4] is shown in Fig. 1.
2 Related Work
The path loss was raised in mm-wave communication. The directional antenna is
used to get a high antenna gain for reducing the path loss. The sidelobes are
detected using half- and full-duplex. The efficient energy-based resource allocating
algorithm is used for relaying to self-interference suppression [5]. Also, attenuation
exists due to atmospheric causes namely vapor, raindrops and oxygen molecules.
For this, allocation of dynamic channel and frequency selection are used as inter-
ference model to manage the interference [6]. The interference alignment (IA),
coordinating multi-point and treating interference as noise (TIN) were the several
ways to reduce the interference. The TIN is used to breakdown strength of inter-
ference, CoMP is used to turn the inter-cell interference and IA is used to increase
the capacity and remove the interference [7]. The intra-cell interference suppression
A Review on Interference Management … 717
Fig. 1 Inter-cell interference in mm-wave massive MIMO system
is carried out by zero forcing (ZF) and suppression of interference in inter-cell takes
place by CoMP schemes in mm-wave overlaying networks [8].
The Interference-based Ranging Model (IRM) is used to increase the accuracy.
The transmission outage probability is used to analyze the signal interference noise
ratio (SINR). The SINR depends on control of medium access protocol, trans-
mission power, network topology, antenna pattern and performance analysis; also,
it is very complex. The interference model depends on channel model, antenna
direction, network topology and MAC protocols [9]. The Interference-based Ball
Method (IBM) is used to solve the Interference-based Ranging Model (IRM) and
Protocol Model (PRM).
In mm-wave beamspace MIMO systems, the inter-carrier interference got reduced
by beam selection, by utilizing beamspace in mobile stations (MBs) [10]. The
multi-user mm-wave system uses several antennas at base stations. It causes higher
propagation loss and interference. The quasi-based deterministic (Q–D) model is
employed for reducing degree of various antennas with adaptive arrays. For transmitter
side, regularized channel inversion minimum mean squared error headings,
(RI-MMSE) and for receiver side, interference cancelation (IC) MMSE MIMO
detector was used. Figure 2 shows the system model for interference cancelation [11].
The inter-carrier and inter-block interference takes place in heterogeneous net-
works that are not completely removed. The novel interference alignment
(IA) method is used to eliminate the ICI and IBI [12]. The OFDMA systems in
heterogeneous networks have good cellular capacity and coverage, also use
equalizers to remove ICI. A macro-cell users (MUs) at small and macro-cell base
stations cause co-channel interference, ICI and IBI [13].
Fig. 2 System model
3 Interferences
The E-band and Q-band in mm-wave frequency bands produce nonlinear distortion
by transmitters due to power amplifiers (PAs). The received signal regrowth
introduces in-band distortion affects the adjacent channels. A novel channelized
sideband noise method is used to cancel the unwanted emissions [14]. The RF
distortions in mm-wave MIMO-OFDM systems exist as phase noise (PN), carrier
frequency offset (CFO), phase and quadrature imbalance (IQI), cyclic prefix (CP),
peak-to-average power ratio (PAPR) and power amplifiers (PA) nonlinearity [15].
The orthogonal frequency multiple access (OFDM) has high sidelobes and com-
putational complexity.
The local oscillator (LO) noise is also known as phase noise, addition of phase
and amplitude noises. Due to wideband signals, SNR degrades with increasing LO
noise [16]. The oscillator-based phase noise is the random mismatch between the
phases of input passband carrier signal and carrier signal generator [17]. The effect
of phase noise in mm wave causes inter-carrier interference, common phase error
(CFO) due to the usage of common oscillators at both transmitter and receiver. In
independent oscillator case, usage of more antennas at transmitter and receiver side,
the phase noise occurred is low. The advanced mitigation scheme is employed for
reduction of phase noise to get better error vector magnitude (EVM) [18].
The IQ imbalance is due to loss of orthogonally among adjacent sub-carriers. It
is due to mismatch of amplitude and phase and error in 90-degree phase shifter. It
can be evaluated by ZF, MMSE and maximum likelihood detection and estimation
and phase-interpolation-based techniques [17]. The IQ timing variations are the
mismatch between in-phase and quadrature routes at TX and RX. Due to CMOS
process, it causes damage in channel length and produces image rejection ratio
(IRR). A novel pilot design and estimators, IQTM estimators and compensators are
required to compensate for the RF distortions [19]. The carrier frequency shifting
and transmitter/receiver I/Q imbalance takes place in mm wave cause severe RF
impairments. The preamble-based estimation and balancing techniques were used
to reduce the CFO [20]. The digital pre-distortion (DPD) and TX receiver scheme
are used for compensation of IQ imbalance [21].
Fig. 3 The hybrid beamforming structure for downlink transmission
The PAPR caused by power amplifiers having computational complexity and

severe propagation path loss [22]. PAPR is defined by relation between peak
powers with average power [23]. The ISTA framework, constrained-squash method
and random channel estimator with LTS were used to decrease the value of PAPR
in mm-wave MIMO-OFDM systems [24]. The mm-wave radio links are affected by
rain scatters produce cross-polarization effects. The mm waves are affected due to
rainfall rate increased during 0.01% of the year is approximately equal to 75 and
120 mm/h. The extended boundary condition method is used to find scattering
properties of raindrops [25].
The hybrid beamforming is used to decrease the number of radio frequency
chains, cancel the inter-channel interference and used to increase the quality of the
signal. The directional beamforming is used to ignore the interference and to
increase the signal power. The line-of-sight interference was also canceled by
maximal ratio combining (MRC); also, partial zero forcing (PZF) is used to mitigate
the interference, which improves the coverage and throughput [26]. The hybrid
beamforming structure for downlink transmission [27] is shown in Fig. 3. The
analog beamforming-based Kronecker decomposition is used to enhance the signal
quality and nullify the interferences, where it uses Orthogonal-Matching-Pursuit
Algorithm. It needs higher phase shifters to decrease the hardware complexity [4].
The comparison of bandwidth and delay spread for millimeter-wave channels [28,
29] is shown in Table 1.
4 Conclusion
This survey paper had shown several interference techniques which are imple-
mented in TX and RX sides. Many algorithms were used to mitigate the interfer-
ence in millimeter-wave systems. The interference compensation and estimation
Table 1 Comparison of bandwidth, delay spread for millimeter-wave channels

Carrier frequency (GHz) RF bandwidth Antenna used Max. TX–RX Mean RMS
distance (m) delay spread
(ns)
LOS NLOS
28 800 MHz SISO 500 28.8 17.4
38 800 MHz RDA 200 1.2 23.6
60 250 MHz RDA 50 0.8 7.4
73 800 MHz RDA 200 249 –
86 5 GHz RDA 685 0.125 –
RDA—Rotated Directional Antenna; SISO—Single Input Single Output; LOS—Line-of-sight;
NLOS—Non-Line-of-sight
techniques are used to solve these problems. Also, the beamformers will reduce the
interference. The PLL-based oscillators, ZF, MMSE were reduced the interference
and improved the probability of coverage for 5 g future systems.
References
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millimeter-wave MIMO systems, in 2016 IEEE International Conference on Communication
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3. T. Wu, T. Chang, Interference reduction of MmWave technology of 5G-based green Comm.
IEEE Access 4, 10228–10234 (2016)
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decomposition of interference cancel in the analog domain, in 2017 Global Communication
Conference, pp. 1–6 (Singapore, 2017)
5. G. Yang, M. Xiao, Performance analysis of MMwave relaying, beamwidth and
self-interference. IEEE Trans. Comm. 66(2), 589–600 (2018)
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millimeter-wave net consider block effect. IEEE Access 6, 23470–23479 (2018)
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8. A. Maltsev et al., Performance of interference mitigation in the overlaying Millimeter Wave
small cell net, in IEEE Conference on Communications and Networking (CSCN), pp. 130–
136 (Tokyo, 2015)
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beamspace MIMO systems. J. Comm and Netw. 19(4), 371–383 (2017)
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(Austin 2014)
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Microw. Theory & Tech. 66(7), 3433–3442 (2018)
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Preventing the Vehicle Accidents
on Highways and Implementing Safety
and Automation
P. Parthasaradhy and K. Manjunathachari
Abstract In this paper, a mechanism for vehicle control and accident avoiding
system is proposed. The salient features of this project are prevention of forward
collision mechanism with alert, braking, lane changing and speed governing, i.e.,
when the vehicle attains high speed limit, it takes over the speed governing
mechanism without the permission of the driver. The vehicle-to-vehicle commu-
nication is implemented to send the alert signals to the nearby vehicles whenever an
accident occurs. The vehicle working environment for the driver is to avoid the
forward collision and conditioning, collision avoidance and condition which are
main factors to improve the safe traffic conditions. To implement this system,
ARM7 is used. This microcontroller provides more efficient, reliable and effective
working. This system estimates the speed and distance of the existing vehicles
around, and the targeted vehicle measures these values using ultrasonic sensors.
This results the speed of that particular vehicle to avoid collisions. MEMS provide
facility for accident detection system. GPS is used to transmit the location of the
accident and nearby other vehicles or static things like. ZigBee is used as an
alternate to the network areas.
Keywords Speed adaptation Collision detection GPS Ultrasonic sensor and

ZigBee
1 Introduction
Self-controlled driven vehicles are progressively adding the features of colli-

sion prevention and alert mechanism to predict the probable occurrence of collision
with external obstacles such as another vehicle or a pedestrian. Upon detecting a
P. Parthasaradhy (&)
Guru Nanak Institutions Technical Campus, Hyderabad, India
K. Manjunathachari
ECE Department, GITAM University, Hyderabad, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_66
724 P. Parthasaradhy and K. Manjunathachari
probable collision, such systems typically initiate an action to prevent the collision
or sending an alert to the vehicle operator.
To minimize the accidents on highways and connecting roads, vehicular network
will play a vital role in intelligent transportation systems (ITS). ITS modules like
road safety and security, fleet management will rely on data exchange between
vehicle and infrastructure (V2I) or in between vehicle to vehicle (V2V) [1]. It is
observed that many of these accidents are specifically due to collision or at cross
roads. Sensors are serving as the vehicle eyes, identifying the lane position, vehicle
speed and whereabouts of other vehicles. The fact is that motor accidents are found
to be common cause of death as compared to other reasons like, cancer or heart
attack [2, 3]. For economical, technical and legal reasons, vehicle automation is not
directly brought to market [4]. It is incrementally introduced through advanced
driver-assistance systems (ADASs) such as adaptive cruise control (ACC). The
author states that highly automated vehicle for intelligent transport system. Figure 1
indicates the conceptual diagram of vehicle-to-vehicle communication. In this
concept, the communication is between the vehicles to send an emergency alert. In
this proposed work, sensors are placed at strategic positions around the vehicle
except on rear side. These sensors regularly scan the road ahead for impediments or
vehicles, and then alert signal is given to the driver accordingly.
Fig. 1 Conceptual diagram of V2V communication

Preventing the Vehicle Accidents on Highways … 725
2 System Architecture
The data collected are structured in a packet and forwarded to a remote control unit
in association with V2V and V2I wireless communication. Based on this infor-
mation, this system directly estimates the accident severity, comparing the received
data with the data bank of the previous accidents available in the database. This
information is of utmost importance, for example, to determine the most suitable set
of resources for rescue operation. Figure 2 shows the architecture of proposed
system.
A. On-Board Unit
The proposed On-Board Unit lies in receiving the available information from the
inside sensors and identify the happening of the dangerous situation, then reporting
the same to the nearest Control Unit, as well as to other nearby vehicles which may
face the problem.
B. Forwarding System
This system is installed in all vehicles. This unit receives the exigent information or
position of nearby vehicles and transmits this information to all nearby vehicles and
to the base station.
Fig. 2 Architecture of proposed system

C. Base Station
Main station is having modems like ZigBee and GSM, which serve to collect the
exigency information. Main station receives the critical messages from the vehicle
and arranges emergency support to the respective vehicle at the earliest. The base
station also displays the alert message on the LCD module of the vehicle placed
inside.
3 Prototype Implementation and Design
The sensors used are accelerometer, force resistive sensor, vibration sensor, power
supply and GPS. When an accident occurs, these three sensors collect the infor-
mation of severity of the accident and the GPS is used to detect the locus of the
vehicle. Later, this information is sent to the microcontroller. The data collected are
structured into packets and are accelerated through ZigBee. Figure 3 shows block
diagram of microcontroller-based system. The following sections explain about
modules in the prototype system.
1. Microcontroller: The LPC2148 microcontrollers is a 32/16 bit ARM7TDMI-S
CPU that combines the microcontroller with embedded high-speed flash
memory ranging from 32 to 512 kB.
2. Ultrasonic Sensor: It is a distance estimation and mapping sensor of minimized
size, higher range and flexible. The vehicle sensor detects the item with no
physical contact. This settles on the vehicle to take the choice either to escape or
to go up against and find out the deterrent according to its programming.
Ultrasonic transducers were picked for this since they are more dependable and
have a more prominent range than IR sensors.
Fig. 3 Microcontroller-based system

Preventing the Vehicle Accidents on Highways … 727
3. Motor Driver: This device is a monolithic combined high-voltage, high-current

four-channel driver intended to accept standard DTL or TTL logic levels and
drive inductive loads and switching power transistors. This device is appropriate
for use in switching applications at frequencies up to 5 kHz.
4. This is a LCD display module with 16 2 characters and yellow/green LED
backdrop illumination. LCD show utilizes STN innovation so it has an
extraordinary complexity and a wide survey point. Show module is constrained
by SPLC780D (same as regular HD44780) parallel interface chipset that is
anything but difficult to utilize.
5. GPS: The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a space-based sailing method that
provides location and indication entropy in all withstand conditions, anywhere
on or neighboring the ground where there is an open connector of reach to digit
or more GPS satellites [5].
6. ZigBee: ZigBee is a specification for a suite of high-level connection protocols
utilized to create personal country networks improved from dwarfish, low-power
digital radios. ZigBee chips are typically mainstreamed with radios and with
microcontrollers that hump between 60 and 256 KB radiate memory.
7. RF Transmitter and Receiver: The RF communicator ability interfaced to the
microcontroller through the encoder IC HT12E then modulates the digital
information from the encoder IC into RF wireless communicator by ASK
inflection model and transmits via RF out aerial. The wireless sender ability can
be victimized to transport information at up to 3 kHz from any prescriptive
CMOS/TTL publication.
4 Conclusion
In this prototype hardware kit, automatic accident notification and assistance based
on V2V and V2I communications along with self-speed control and regulation were
implemented. The efficacy of this knowledge can be upgraded with the assistance of
intelligent systems. A preliminary assessment of the severity of an accident is
needed to adjust resources as required. The results achieved on the real tests
indicates severity estimation algorithms are robust enough to allow a mass
deployment of the proposed system.
References
1. N. Watthanawisuth, T. Lomas, A. Tuantranont, Wireless black box using MEMS accelerometer

and GPS tracking for accidental monitoring of vehicles, in 2012 IEEE-EMBS International
Conference on Biomedical and Health Informatics (BHI), pp. 847–850 (2012)
2. Z. Zhang, J. Zhang, A novel vehicle safety model: vehicle speed controller under driver fatigue.
Int. J. Comput. Sci. Netw. Secur. 9(1), 355–362 (2009)
3. W. Wei, F. Hanbo, Traffic accident automatic detection and remote alarm device, in IEEE
proceedings on ICEICE, pp. 910–913 (2011)
4. S. Moon, I. Moon, K. Yi, Design, tuning and evaluation of a full range adaptive cruise control
system with collision avoidance. Control Eng. Pract. 17(4), 442–455 (2009)
5. J. Lee, An accident detection system on highway using vehicle tracking trace, in 2011
International Conference on ICT Convergence (ICTC), pp. 716–721 (2011)
MRI-Based Medical Image
Enhancement Technique Using Particle
Swarm Optimization
S. Sakthivel, V. Prabhu and R. Punidha
Abstract The recent work tends to a complexity improvement strategy, which

joins the established difference upgrade approach. The primary targets of this paper
are to expand the data substance and upgrade the subtleties of a picture utilizing the
examination procedure of parameters bolstered by Particle Swarm Optimization
(PSO) calculation. Here, PSO from swarm intellect (SI) has applied to appraise the
consideration values. In the proposed technique, the edge closeness of data
parameters, for example, mean, standard deviation, and difference have utilized to
detail the improvement strategy. These strategies defeat the past Level-3 disinte-
gration to extricate highlights from pictures of PSO methods. A reproduction result
is a proposed particle swarm optimization based contrast enhance strategy that
improves the general picture differentiate and enhances the data content in the
picture. Additionally, constraints of Peak Signal-to-Noise Ratio (PS-to-NR) and
Mean Squared Error (MSE) have investigated the Particle Swarm Optimization
(PSO) image in Fig. 1. We contrast and other difference upgrade procedures, the
proposed technique gives hidden information of a picture and it is progressively
reasonable for applications in early tumor location.
Keywords MRI images PSO technique Edge similarity index Parameters
S. Sakthivel (&)
Anna University, Chennai 600025, Tamil Nadu, India
S. Sakthivel
Department of CSE, Vel Tech High Tech Dr. Rangarajan Dr. Sakunthala Engineering
College, Avadi, Chennai 600062, Tamil Nadu, India
V. Prabhu
Department of ECE, Vel Tech Multi Tech Dr. Rangarajan Dr. Sakunthala Engineering
College, Avadi, Chennai 600062, Tamil Nadu, India
R. Punidha
Department of CSE, Bharathiyar Institute of Engineering for Woman,
Salem 636112, Tamil Nadu, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_67
730 S. Sakthivel et al.
Fig. 1 PSO image that represents the particle orientation
1 Introduction
Particle Swarm Optimization (in short PSO) is a computational strategy with

respect to a given amount of value [1]. PSO adopts the real numeric value, it is
useful for constant estimation for better solution [2]. This strategy is utilized for
upgrading the issue by iteratively attempting to improve an applicant arrangement
amid every age every molecule is quickened toward the particles past crest position
“pCrest” and the global crest position “gCrest.” At every cycle another speed, an
incentive for every molecule is determined dependent on its present speed, the
separation from its past crest location, and separation from the global crest location
[3]. The new speed esteem is then used to ascertain the following location of the
molecule in the hunt space. This technique is repeated a lot of times or until a base
blunder is accomplished. Image enhancement techniques are separated into few
strategies like point, spatial, transformation, and pseudo-coloring methods. In this
research, we focused only on spatial method. In this method, we directly work with
image pixels [4–6]. Histogram transformation process is used for dissimilarity
improvement of grayscale images, which facilitate consequent high-level tech-
niques such as recognition and classification [7, 8]. Segmentation of an image is a
procedure of image apportioning from a picture to numerous arrangements of
pixels. As improved algorithms of PSO techniques like Fractional-Order and
Standard Darwinian’s Particle Swarm Optimization. These two calculations have
been considered as existing approaches for image segmentation [9, 10]. PSO has
been effectively applied in numerous zones: work enhancement-based function
optimization, artificial neural system preparing, fluffy framework control, i.e.,
fuzzy, and different zones where genetic algorithm (GA) can be connected.
MRI-Based Medical Image Enhancement Technique … 731
2 Methods
The current framework shows a multi-goal strategy for dark dimension picture
upgrade utilizing Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO). The upgrade enhancement
technique is a non-direct issue with different requirements. The calculation
(MGE-PSO) [4] creates an entire pyramid of diversely measured picture to use
more data for development process. An MRI cerebrum picture is characterized into
typical and irregular utilizing an FFNN utilizing dimension 3-decay to separate
highlights from pictures. Henceforth, we defeat this Level-3 technique by exploring
the parameters in the MRI pictures [11]. In this PSO calculation is guided to decide
every one of the parameters esteem. An MRI cerebrum picture is arranged into the
typical and strange utilizing Feed-forward Neural Networks (FFNNs) in utilizing
Level-4 deterioration to extricate highlights from pictures, trailed by use of PSO.
The dimensionally decreased highlights are given to FFNN, and Particle Swarm
Optimization finishes an image enhancement [9]. Feed-forward Neural Network
(FFNN) is a managed classifier that is prepared in this conceptual effort utilizing
PSO. Computationally, more affordable PSO needs many positions of usage codes
and less computerized accounting. To acquire FFNN’s ideal parameters and for
execution improvement, a PSO technique was utilized [12, 13].
a. Phase-I:
We consider the MRI images as input image. The DICOM image of the brain
images is converted into JPEG image.
b. Phase-II:
MRI brain tumor images are proceeded for further preprocessing task like
1. Grayscale conversion,
2. Filtered image [14],
3. Transformation, and
4. Enhancement.
c. Phase-III:
The way toward transforming or changing over an image into gatherings of its
highlights is called quality removal. Surface is to be shown as a 2D exhibit of gray
point variety.
d. Phase-IV:
Segmentation issue is changed over into a grouping issue and a brain tumor is
fragmented by order and preparing dependent on the parameter utilized, the edge
content is characterized, and the tumor is distinguished. A large number of
iterations are performed so as to differentiate the tumors in the brain images with
the PSO algorithm and produce the PSO image output in the grayscale level
Fig. 2 Basic flow diagram of

MRI Pre-processing Feature
image analysis using PSO Image Stage Extraction
Parameter Classification
Analysis (PSO Algorithm)
without distortions [15]. The basic flow diagram of PSO image analysis is shown in
Fig. 2.
e. Phase-V:
The parameters are analyzed which were Edge Similarity Index (ESI)-Mean,
Variance and Standard Deviation, Peak Signal-to-Noise Ratio (PS-to-NR), and
Mean Squared Error (MSE) [16, 17]. In this phase, we produced output values of
MSE and PS-to-NR which are shown in Fig. 5.
3 PSO Algorithm
Algorithm:
• Each arrangement has considered as molecule or particle.
• The entire elements have a robustness assessment. The fitness values are to be
determined utilizing target work.
• The entire elements protect their individual most excellent presentation.
• They also know the excellent presentation of their collection.
• They change their rapidity thinking about their most excellent performance, and
• Furthermore the best performance of the best molecule or particle.
In PSO calculation, two ideal qualities characterize the wellness of resolution
work starting one is that the best goals of each molecule accomplished up to this
point. This worth is named as “pCrest” resolution. Another is that the best goals
caterpillar-followed by any molecule among the whole populace. This best worth is
thought as “gCrest” resolution [18, 19].
)
Si ðt þ 1Þ ¼ wSi ðtÞ þ c1:rand1ðpCrest; iðtÞ Yi ðtÞÞ
ð1Þ
þ c2:rand2ðgCrest; iðtÞ Yi ðtÞÞ
Yi ðt þ 1Þ ¼ Yi ðtÞ þ Si ðt þ 1Þ ð2Þ
where
“Yi(t), Si(t)” Shows the speed position of ith molecule or particle.
“pCrest, I” demonstrate the individual peak position of ith molecule.
“gCrest, I” demonstrates that the worldwide peak position achieved up until this
point and
“c1 and c2” demonstrate that the position accelerating of steady worth.
“rand1 and rand2” are unpredictable characteristics delivered somewhere in the
range of 0 and 1.
“w” is idleness weight used to give balance among present and universal search.
In our PSO strategy, every solution is a particle. The flowchart diagram shown in
Fig. 3 represents the above process of PSO algorithm for optimizing the MR image
[5, 20].
i. Local Crest PSO:
The local crest PSO (shortly lCrest PSO) utilizes a ring social network topology
where littler neighborhoods are characterized for each molecule. The social segment
reflects data traded inside the area of the molecule, reflecting local information of
the environment. With reference to the rapidity equation, the social contribution to
molecule rapidity is proportional to the distance between a molecule and the crest
position found by the neighborhood area of molecule.
Fig. 3 Flow diagram of

Particle Swarm Optimization
algorithm
ii. Global Crest PSO:

In the global crest PSO (shortly gCrest PSO), the area for every molecule is the
whole swarm. The social network utilized by the gCrest PSO that mirrors the star
topology. In star neighborhood topology, the social segment of the molecule
rapidity update reflects data acquired from every one of the molecule in the swarm.
For this situation, the social data is the crest spot found by the swarm.
4 Pseudo-code
4.1 PSO Coding Algorithm
Input: Problem Size, Population Size.

Output: Pg_Crest
MI= Molecule_Initialization();
For k=1 to it_max
For each Molecule p in MI do
Fp=f(p);
If fp is better than f(pCrest)
pCrest = p;
end
end
gCrest = crest p in MI;
For each particle p in MI do
v=w+cl*rand*(pCrest-p)+c2*rand*(gCrest-p);
MI=p+v;
end
end
4.2 PSO Flowchart
See Fig. 3
5 Parameter Settings
To analyze the parameters using PSO technique to distinguish the quality of the
image information which are listed as follows:
1. Edge Similarity Index (ESI),

(a) Mean,
(b) Variance, and
(c) Standard Deviation.
2. Mean Squared Error (MSE),
3. Peak Signal-to-Noise Ratio (PS-to-NR).
6 Results and Inference
To illustrate this idea, 50 samples of MRI brain tumor images have been collected.
The MRI images are enhanced and classified to assess the parameter analysis of usual
and unusual images [21]. The Particle Swarm Optimization technique was proposed
so as to enhance the images. The future method provides high accuracy and
time-consuming compared to previous research. As further work, we analyze the
parameter values based on Edge Similarity Index, PS-NR and Mean Squared Error for
determining the quality information of brain images by tabulating it and it will be
useful for the radiologist to diagnose different grades of tumors and its disorders. The
resultant images from the original MRI grayscale images, PSO image and other
error-related images are shown in Fig. 4a–e, respectively.
Fig. 4 a Original MRI image of the human brain, b PSO image from original image, c original
grayscale image, d squared error image, and e parameters’ output
Fig. 5 Parameters’ output of PS-NR and MSE values
Fig. 6 Result of the Edge Similarity Index (Mean, Standard Deviation, and Variance)
The most important output of ESI parameters (in Fig. 6) like Mean = 0.510,
Variance = 1.2957e+03 and Standard Deviation (SD) = 1.1383.
7 Conclusion
In order to analyze and properly detect the brain tumor and its grades, the known
practice called Particle Swarm Optimization is deliberating as best selections, it can
be efficiently classified the usual and unusual images. To accomplish this task, the
acquired MRI brain tumor images and Particle Swarm Optimization strategy were
involved to generate an effective result. In PSO technique, image preprocessing
strategy determines the specific feature and to be essential to certify that the pre-
cision of methods. The parameter analysis (ESI, PS-NR, and MSE) of the method
results is auspicious and inspiring future works.
Acknowledgements One of the authors would like to notify that there is no conflict on brain MRI
image dataset in this paper and authors to thank the reviewer for their valuable suggestions.
References
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3. A. Sharma et al., Recent trends and techniques in image segmentation using Particle Swarm
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4. A.M. Nickfarjam et al., Multi resolution gray level image enhancement using particle swarm
optimization. Springer 47(4), 1132–1143 (2017)
5. G. Qinqing, C. Dexin, Z. Guangping, H. Ketai, Image enhancement technique based on
improved PSO algorithm, in 2011 6th IEEE Conference on Industrial Electronics and
Applications (Beijing, 2011, pp. 234-238). https://doi.org/10.1109/ICIEA.2011.5975586
6. G. Mohan, M. Subashini, MRI based medical image analysis: Survey on brain tumor grade
classification. Biomed. Signal Process. Control. 39, 139–161 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.bspc.2017.07.007
7. J. Kennedy, R. Eberhart, Particle swarm optimization. IEEE (1995), 0-7803-2768-3/95/$4.00 0
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8. L.L.Z. Haiyin, A method of image enhancement based on genetic algorithm. Math. Theory
Appl., Category Index:TN911.73
9. R. Punidha, S. Sakthivel et al., Segmentation of brain tumor and its area calculation in brain
MR images using K-Mean clustering and fuzzy C-Mean algorithm. Indian J. Pure Math.
116(23)
10. R.S. Kabade, M.S. Gaikwad, Segmentation of brain tumor &its area calculation in brain MR
images using K-Mean clustering and fuzzy C-Mean algorithm. Int. J. Comput. Sci. Eng.
Technol. 4(05) (2013)
11. S. Bauer, R. Wiest, L.P. Nolte, M. Reyes, A survey of MRI based medical image analysis for
brain tumor studies. Phys. Med. Biol. 58, R97–R129 (2013)
12. H. Chen, J. Tian, Particle swarm optimization algorithm for image enhancement. Int. Conf.
Uncertainty Reasoning Knowl. Eng. 1, 154–157 (2011)
13. P. Mohan et al., Intelligent based brain tumor detection using ACO. Int. J. Innov. Res.
Comput. Commun. Eng. 1(9), 2143–2150 (2013)
14. Suneetha et al., Enhancement techniques for gray scale images in spatial domain. Int.
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15. P.G. Kuppusamy et al., A full reference morphological edge similarity Index to account
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16. M. Kanmani, V. Narshimhan, An image contrast enhancement algorithm for gray-scale
images using particle swarm optimization (2018)
17. M.G.H. Omran, Particle swarm optimization methods for pattern recognition and image
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Health Monitoring System Using IoT
A. Selvanayakam, A. C. Varishnee, M. Kalaivani

and G. Ranjithkumar
Abstract Health monitoring is a major issue found in recent days. Due to a lack of
proper health monitoring systems, the patient may suffer from various health issues.
Internet of things (IoT) devices are hosted nowadays to screening the health of
patients over the Internet. Specialists are manipulating these keen gadgets to watch
out for the patients. In human service innovations, IoT is quickly inconsistent with
the healthcare industry. Our framework embraces the sensors which are associated
with a microcontroller to monitor tolerant comfort. In this mission, we will create
many features using an IoT-based health monitoring system which chronicles the
patient heartbeat rate, body temperature, and unconsciousness. As well, IoT gives
an email/SMS alert at whatever points those readings goes past basic qualities.
Heartbeat rate and body temperature readings are noted, so tenacious welfare can be
tartan from anywhere on the planet over the web.

Keywords Pulse sensors Arduino GSM module Wi-Fi module Heartbeat

rate Body temperature Unconsciousness
1 Introduction
Today quantity of personalities is inclined with long-lasting illnesses; this is

because of several hazard factors, for instance, dietary propensities, physical inertia,
and liquor utilization, among others. As per figures from the World Health
Organization, 4.9 million individuals pass on from lung malignancy from the uti-
lization of snuff, overweight 2.6 million, 4.4 million for raised cholesterol, and 7.1
million for hypertension [1]. It is said that in the following 10 years, passings from
incessant ailments will increment by 17%, which means in figures of around 64
A. Selvanayakam (&)
A. C. Varishnee M. Kalaivani G. Ranjithkumar
Easa College of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_68
740 A. Selvanayakam et al.
million individuals will endure because of endless illnesses [2]. Which are pro-
foundly factor in their side effects just as their development and treatment. If not
observed before they can spare the patient’s life [3]. Patients would not acknowl-
edge the truth of illness long haul because of handicaps. For this gathering of
individuals with sort of infections must need consistent checking by the specialist to
talk about its condition and set the proper medications [4]. Because of innovative
advances in today, there is extraordinary assortment running sensor perusing
indispensable signs, for example, body temperature and pulse screen [5].
This paper thinks about the patient’s signs day by day, in view of the need for
anomalous the outcomes put away reliably which shed everyday tests so they can
be the subject of restorative investigations. Essentially likewise the readings that do
for all time to patients reports, specialists suggest you additionally exercise
schedules that enable them to improve the personal satisfaction and defeat such
illnesses. The web of things down to earth to the consideration and assimilation of
patients is logically normal in the well-being part, searching for improving the
nature of an individual’s life. Modernization in the Internet of things is new and is
categorized as the resolution of all devices that interface with the system, which can
be supervised from the web and which tolerate the expense of the measurements in
an unpretentious stage to permit connotation with individuals they practice it. For
regular issues, which are intelligible, unambiguous, locatable, addressable, and
controllable by means of the Internet—either through RFID, remote LAN, exten-
sive section establish or by different techniques. Internet of things is established in
three standards, which are Internet-situated middleware, things’ sensors arranged,
and learning-focused semantics. Such limitation on the grounds that the interdis-
ciplinary idea of the subject. The suitability of the IoT is reproduced when going
between the three standards in the progression of uses. In the equipment layer,
whose intent is to permit the interconnection of physical articles utilizing sensors
and related improvements. The complications related to this layer are recognized
with scaling down, while today there are gadgets with capacity, handling, inward
parts ought to be miniature and to improve expertise. Another test is found in the
trade’s layer, which is depended on billion gadgets related to the system, which
fuses improving the data move limit and the electromagnetic range. Confronted
with the previously mentioned, the application layer and organizations are dis-
played endless possible results that license to procure, process, and endorse critical
information for patients to the treatment of ailments and improve their lifestyles.
2 Proposed Method
Checking your relatives with heath issues turns into a troublesome undertaking in
the cutting-edge life. Particularly seniority patients have to be occasionally checked,
and their family should be educated about their well-being status every now and
then while at work. So we propose an innovative system that automates the task
with ease. Our system progresses splendid patient prosperity following structure
Health Monitoring System Using IoT 741
Fig. 1 Block diagram
that uses sensors to pursue tolerant prosperity and uses the web to send their
nuances to the family if there ought to be an event of any issues. Our structure uses
temperature similarly as heartbeat identifying to screen diligent prosperity. The
sensors are related to a microcontroller to pursue the status which is accordingly
interfaced with an LCD show similar to Wi-Fi affiliation to transmit cautions. On
the off chance that the framework distinguishes any unexpected changes in patient
heartbeat or body temperature, the framework consequently alarms the client about
the patient’s status over IoT and besides demonstrates nuances of heartbeat and
temperature of patient live over the web. In this way, IoT-based patient well-being
following framework adequately utilizes the web to screen understanding
well-being details and spare lives on schedule (Fig. 1).
3 Arduino Uno
UNO is a microcontroller dependent on ATmega328P. It has 14 advanced info

yield pins; 6 pins are for PWM yields; 6 pins go about as simple information pins.
16 MHz precious stone USB connector power jack is joined comprising LCSP
header and reset catch. UNO contains everything expected to help any typical
microcontroller (lC). In UNO, associations can be built up by interfacing Arduino
to PC with a USB link, and control with AC-to-DC connector can be given or
battery to begin (Fig. 2).
Arduino is a firm which structures gear, lC-based units for structure propelled
contraptions and natural articles that can percept, and control physical devices. It
develops a successive correspondence interface for stacking programs from PC
through USB. The power source is picked thusly. External (non-USB) power can
Fig. 2 Arduino Uno
come either from an AC-to-DC connector (divider mole) or battery. The connector
can be related by ceasing a 2.1-mm center-positive fitting into the board’s ability
jack. The leads from a battery can be inserted in the ground and VIN stick headers
of the power connector.
4 Transformer
A stage down transformer changes over the high voltage (HV) and low current from
the basic side to the low voltage (LV) and high current motivating force on the
helper side. This transformer type has a wide application in electronic contraptions
and electrical systems. Concerning the undertaking voltage, the movement up
transformer application can be for the most part parceled in two social events: LV
(voltages up to 1 kV) and HV application (voltages more than 1 kV). The first LV
application implies transformers in electronic devices. Giving the electronic circuits
requires low voltage regard (e.g., 5 V, even lower esteems these days). A stage
down transformer is utilized to give this low voltage esteem which is appropriate
for hardware provides. It changes home voltage (230/120 V) from essential to a low
voltage on the auxiliary side which is utilized for the electronic providing. In the
event that electronic gadgets are intended to have higher ostensible power, trans-
formers with high working recurrence are utilized (kHz-s). The transformers with
higher ostensible power worth and 50/60 Hz ostensible recurrence would be
excessively enormous and substantial. Likewise, the everyday utilized battery
chargers utilize the progression down transformer in its structure. The progression
down transformers has significant capacity in the power framework. They bring
down the voltage level and adjust it for vitality buyers (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3 Transformer
5 Pulse Sensor
The working of the pulse/heartbeat sensor is straightforward. The sensor has two
sides: On the one side, the LED is placed along with an ambient light sensor, and on
the other side, we have some circuitry. This hardware is in charge of the
enhancement and commotion crossing out work. The LED on the front side of the
sensor is put over a vein in our human body. This can either be your fingertip or
your ear tips, yet it should be put really over a vein. Presently, the LED emanates
light which will fall on the vein legitimately. The veins will have bloodstream
inside them just when the heart is siphoning, so in the event that we screen the
progression of blood, we can screen the pulses too. In the event that the progression
of blood is identified, at that point the surrounding light sensor will get all the more
light since they will be reflected by the blood; this minor change ingot light is
examined after some time to decide our heart pulsates. Using the pulse sensor
straight forward, but positioning it in the right way matters. Since all the hardware
on the sensor is legitimately uncovered, it is additionally prescribed to cover the
sensor with heated glue, vinyl tape, or other non-conductive materials.
Additionally, it is not prescribed to deal with these sensors with wet hands. The
level side of the sensor ought to be set over the vein and a slight presser ought to be
connected over it; typically, clasps or Velcro tapes are utilized to achieve this
weight (Fig. 4).
Fig. 4 Pulse sensor
6 DHT11
The DHT11 humidity and temperature sensor module gives aligned readings uti-
lizing a solitary advanced stick on your microcontroller. The DHT11 sensor gives 8
bits of accuracy to both dampness and temperature. It utilizes a solitary line for
bidirectional sequential correspondences. An Arduino library is accessible to
improve the task. It can quantify temperatures from 0 to 50 °C (32 to 122 °F) and
stickiness from 20% to 95% relative humidity. This sensor works with both 3.3 and
5 V microcontroller frameworks. The fascinating thing with regard to this module
is the convention that utilizations to move information. All the sensor readings are
sent utilizing a solitary wire transport, which lessens the expense and broadens the
separation. So as to send information over a transport, you need to portray the
manner in which the information will be moved, with the goal that transmitter and
recipient can comprehend what says one another. This is the thing that a convention
does. It depicts the manner in which the information is transmitted. On DHT11, the
1-wire information transport is destroyed up with a resistor to VCC. Along these
lines, if nothing has happened the voltage on the transport is equivalent VCC
(Fig. 5).
Fig. 5 DTH11
7 Accelerometer Sensor
An accelerometer estimates legitimate quickening, related with the heaviness of a

test mass. An accelerometer carries on like a damped mass on a spring. At the point
when an accelerometer encounters increasing speed, the mass is uprooted to the
point of at which the spring can quicken the mass at a similar rate as the packaging.
The displacement is then measured in order to give the acceleration. In semicon-
ductor devices, piezoresistive, piezoelectric, and capacitive parts’ area unit nor-
mally employed in order to convert the mechanical motion into associate degree
electrical signal and area unit unmatched in terms of their low packaged weight,
warm temperature varies and higher frequency varies (Fig. 6).
Fig. 6 Accelerometer sensor

8 GSM
A GSM module is essentially a GSM modem (like SIM 900) associated with a PCB
with diverse sorts of yield taken from the board—say TTL yield (for Arduino,
8051, and other microcontrollers) and RS232 yield to interface straightforwardly
with a PC (individual computer). The board will moreover have pins or arrange-
ments to connect mike and speaker and to require out +5 V or other values of
control and ground associations. These sorts of arrangements shift with distinctive
modules 3 (Fig. 7).
A lot of assortments of GSM modem and GSM modules are accessible within
the and get SMS utilizing Arduino—it is continuously great to choose an Arduino
consistent GSM module—that is a GSM showcase to select from. For our venture
of interfacing a GSM modem or module to arduino and consequently send module
with TTL Yield provisions (Fig. 8).
9 Wi-Fi MODULE
The ESP8266 Wi-Fi module could be a self-contained SOC with coordinates TCP/
IP convention stack that can grant any microcontroller get to your Wi-Fi organize.
The ESP8266 is competent in either facilitating an application or offloading all
Wi-Fi organizing functions from another application processor. This module
incorporates an effective sufficient on-board preparing and capacity capability that
permits it to coordinate with the sensors and other applications in particular gadgets
Fig. 7 GSM module

Fig. 8 Interface of Arduino and GSM module
Fig. 9 Wi-Fi module
through its GPIOs with negligible improvement up-front and negligible stacking
amid runtime. Its tall degree of on-chip integration permits for negligible outside
circuitry, counting the front-end module, is outlined to involve negligible PCB
range (Fig. 9).
The ESP8266 underpins APSD for VoIP applications and bluetooth coexistence
interfacing; it contains a self-calibrated RF permitting it to work beneath all
working conditions and requires no outside RF parts. The applications of ESP8266
are keen control plugs, domestic robotization, Wi-Fi location-aware gadgets,
industrial wireless control, and security ID tags.
10 Power Supply
A large fundamental method to manage gets a 12 and 5 V DC control supply using

a single circuit. The circuit uses two ICs 7812 and 7805 for securing the required
voltages. The AC main voltage will meander someplace close to the transformer,
changed by expansion and sifted by the capacitor to get a dependable DC level. The
7812 deals with this voltage to get a steady 12 V DC. The yield of the IC1 will be
managed by the 7805 to get a relentless 5 V DC at its yield. Along these lines, both
12 and 5 V DC are gotten. At first, little advance down transformer is used to
reduce the voltage level 230 V AC into 12 V AC (Fig. 10).
The yield of the transformer may be a throbbing sinusoidal AC voltage, which is
changed over to throbbing DC with the assistance of a rectifier. This yield is given
to a channel circuit that diminishes the AC swells and passes the DC components.
7812 regulator is used to converts 12 V DC study voltage. And 7805 regulator is
converting constant 5 V DC voltage (Fig. 11).
11 Hardware Output
The sensors are related to a microcontroller to pursue the status which is along these
lines interfaced with an LCD show similar to Wi-Fi affiliation to transmit alerts. In
the case, system recognizes any unexpected changes in patient heartbeat or body
temperature; the structure thus alerts the customer about the patient’s status over
IoT; what is more, it demonstrates subtleties of heartbeat and temperature of patient
live over the web. Consequently, IoT-based patient prosperity following system
sufficiently uses the web to screen tireless prosperity subtleties and extra lives on
the timetable (Fig. 12).
Fig. 10 Power supply

Fig. 11 Circuit diagram of power supply
Fig. 12 Hardware output
12 Conclusion
This project focuses on a real-time pervasive healthcare monitoring system using

IoT and cloud computing service which is more beneficial for elders and chronic
disease patients. The current methods available for the realization of healthcare
services are surveyed and the challenges that are part of realization are also high-
lighted. This paper proposes an intelligent real-time patient monitoring system that
monitors the subject’s vital parameters such as temperature, pulse, fall detection
model as well as detects any abnormality accurately. Appropriate medications are
suggested based on the diagnosis of the provided set of symptoms. The system
sends an alert message to the caretakers and doctors in case of any abnormality
through WBAN. The system enables the clinicians to optimize the usage of
available medical resources and minimize the costs in monitoring the patients. In
the future, we will focus on improving wearing sensor experience by using softer
materials and enabling controlled sharing of information among the doctors, the
patient, and the patients’ families through the social networking paradigm.
References
1. Y. Zhang, H. Liu, X. Su, P. Jiang, D. Wei, Remote mobile health monitoring system based on
smart phone and browser/server structure. Healthc. Eng. 6(4), 717–738 (2015)
2. M. Pustiek, A. Beristain, A. Kos, Challenges in wearable devices based pervasive wellbeing
monitoring, in Proceedings—2015 International Conference on Identification, Information,
and Knowledge in the Internet of Things, IIKI 2015, pp. 236–243 (2016)
3. J. Gómez, B. Oviedo, E. Zhuma, Patient monitoring system based on Internet of Things, in
Procedia Computer Science, vol. 83, no. Ant (2016), pp. 90–97
4. I. Chiuchisan, I.M. Dimian, U. Street, Internet of Things for e-Health: an approach to medical
applications, in 2015 International Workshop on Computational Intelligence for Multimedia
Understanding (IWCIM) (2015), p. 5
5. T. RajeshKumar, G.R. Suresh, Examination of militants utilizing NAM microphone and
wireless handset for murmured speech in view of concealed Markov model. Int. Innov. Res.
J. Eng. Technol. 02(04), 112–119 (2017)
Measurement of Fuel Level in Tank
Using IR Sensors and Reporting
Over IoT
M. L. S. N. S. Lakshmi and Chandrasekhar Reddy
Abstract Raw cotton in the spinning mills is cleaned using petrol. Petrol is one of
the essential fuels. This project is designed for the spinning industries to measure
the level of the liquid content in the tanks. The usage of IR sensors and magnetic
sensors evade the problem of oxidizing the level probes. Thermistor is a resistive
device, which is used as a temperature sensor. The content of liquid/fuel in the tank
is monitored by microcontroller. This level is displayed and updated using the IoT
module interfaced with the microcontroller.

Keywords Keil software IR sensors Microcontroller Embedded system IoT
1 Introduction
Embedded system is the mix of hardware and programming for devoted purposes.
In an embedded system, the microcontroller is totally exemplified inside the system.
These embedded systems dislike broadly useful PC, for example, PC, an embedded
system performs one-to-numerous predefined assignments, as a rule with quite
certain prerequisites.
The purpose of embedded systems ranges from portable devices such as cal-
culators and digital cameras to large stationeries like ATM’s, personal digital
assistants, or the systems controlling nuclear power plants. As far as multifaceted
nature embedded frameworks can go from exceptionally basic with a solitary
microcontroller chip, to various units, peripherals and systems mounted inside an
enclosure.
Internet of Things [1] is connecting the physical devices to your network. These
connections make your day-to-day life easy. Here, this IoT [2] device monitors the
fuel level and warns about the fuel level in the tank. These devices are
M. L. S. N. S.Lakshmi (&) C. Reddy

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering,
QIS College of Engineering and Technology, Ongole, Andhra Pradesh, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_69
752 M. L. S. N. S. Lakshmi and C. Reddy
communicated using Keil software with IoT [3] interface. As fuel is the most
essential thing used to run the automobile, monitoring of the fuel is prominent step
in any automobile industries.
The fuel management systems [4] are dedicated to maintenance and measure-
ment of the fuel level of vehicles or systems. Fuel management can be done using
following technologies RFID tags, IR sensors, handheld scanners, Bluetooth, and
nozzle-based technologies. In this paper, the Fuel executives framework that
estimates tank’s fuel level to be shown through online application and structure of
camera observation framework for station utilizing IR sensors [12] is proposed. The
paper is organized in the following structure. Section 2 describes the block diagram
of the system. In Sect. 3, the system description is described. The implementation
of the system using Keil software is explained in Sect. 4. Finally, the observations
of this paper are recapitulated in Sect. 5.
2 Block Diagram
This petrochemical pumps [4] the liquid from tank to the process container by
utilizing an AC motor as shown in Fig. 1. The limits of these process containers are
up to 2000 litres. To fill the container, the motor takes more than one hour. An
operator has to check the level of petrochemical in the tank to avoid overflow. In this
project, magnetic sensors are used to notice the level of petrochemical in the tank.
These magnetic sensors [8] are fixed on the walls of the tank. A floating magnet floats
on the liquid and activates the magnetic sensors [11] one after the other based on the
liquid level. This magnetic sensor is monitored by microcontroller. If the liquid level
in the tank is maximum, it turns off the motor switch else waits for the fluid to be of
maximum level. Also, this microcontroller displays the level in the LCD.
The working of the system is as shown as above in the block diagram Fig. 1.
The driver circuit is activated by sensing “Level Full” and “Low Level” indicators
and operates the motor automatically [9, 10]. A buzzer is connected to the driver
circuit, and it is activated during “Level Full” and “Low Level” of the tank [11]. IR
sensors [6] are used to eliminate the problem of oxidization of level probes. This is
an advanced and automated approach for industrial applications. This project uses
regulated 5 V, 500 mA power supply. 7805 three-terminal voltage regulators are
used for voltage regulation. Bridge type full wave rectifier is used to rectify the AC
output of secondary of 230/12 V step-down transformer.
After successfully connection of kit as shown in block diagram, first, switch on
the power supply then bridge rectifier takes this 230 V AC supply and delivers the
circuit required power that is 12 V and it also converts AC to DC, and this is
because the kit can work only for DC power. After this process, LCD screen
displays the waiting for network. At that time of power supply, the Wi-Fi IoT
module in the kit automatically switches ON. It gives the Wi-Fi network with this
network which will connect the kit to our mobile through IP address and app name
is “Telnet”. After making of Wi-Fi connection, LCD displays “connected” message
Measurement of Fuel Level in Tank Using IR Sensors … 753
Fig. 1 Block diagram of fuel management using IR sensor
on its screen. Now, proceed to do the experiment. Now the IR sensors [5, 7] sense
the petrol flow from top to bottom and switch the motor ON and OFF through the
relay automatically. The filling percentage of the petrol tank is displayed on the
LCD screen like 15%, 50%, 75%, etc., and this filling percentage is also sent to our
mobile through IoT. By using this, petrol in the tank cannot be overflow and it
cannot be empty means that it saves the wastage of petrol and decreases the
manpower.
3 Software Details: Keil
Keil software development tools for the 8051 Microcontroller Architecture support
every level of software developer from the professional applications engineer to the
student just learning about embedded software development. The industry-standard
Keil C Compilers, Macro Assemblers, Debuggers, Real-time Kernels, Single-board
Computers, and Emulators support all 8051 derivatives to execute different appli-
cations (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2 On-board diagram
4 Results and Discussion of the System
After switches on the power supply, the Wi-Fi module also switches on and sends
the Wi-Fi signals to certain range. Using these signals, pair our mobile using Wi-Fi
network through the app named as Telnet. Now open the app it asks IP address
which is mentioned below after entering that click on connect then LCD shows
connected which means mobile is connected to the circuit. The output is shown in
Fig. 3. This procedure is explained below.
Now the fuel passing through the sensors, a beep sound will be occurred after
that the filling percentage of the tank is displayed like TANK 50% FULL, TANK
75% FULL which is shown in Fig. 4.
The output of this circuit has displayed on the LCD as well as in our mobile
through Wi-Fi IoT module and Telnet app downloaded in Play Store and paired to
the circuit using IP address 191.164.1.18.
The above results are the outputs of this circuit which will show in the mobile.
The liquid in the tank flows from bottom to top, and it crosses the IR sensors at the
particular level in the task as required. After giving the power, the LCD displayed
the fuel percentage in the tank, i.e. 15%, 50%, 75%, etc., which shows temporarily,
and the same output was displayed in paired mobile.
The output shown in our mobile was displayed until the Telnet app was closed.
This is shown in Fig. 4. By using this Wi-Fi module, there is no need to visit the
tank because the filling percentage of tank is displayed in mobile. By using this
technology, wastage of fuel is less; hence, it is mainly used in spinning mills to
clean the cotton.
Measurement of Fuel Level in Tank Using IR Sensors … 755
Fig. 3 On-board connections
Fig. 4 Output of the module

5 Conclusion
This paper improvement depends on fuel in the board frameworks to quantify the
tank’s fuel level, and it is to be shown through electronic application and structure
of a camera supervision framework for the station. The task is utilized to quantify
the oil level in the tank without the wastage of oil. It stores the data about filling the
level of the tank. It uses solar and nuclear power for the functioning of the system.
The charged power acquired from the board is given to the circuit. The power
stays for the duration of the day and even in overcast days moreover. The circuit or
framework will support various kinds of sensors, i.e. IR sensors just as well as
magnetic sensors because the operation is the same. In view of the application,
necessity one can choose the sensors. In spite of the fact that this is less expensive,
the yields delivered by the ultrasonic sensor experience the ill effects of defec-
tiveness brought about by the vapours of fuel. The synthetic ETAPA, being costly,
settles this brokenness and gives a higher resolution.
References
1. O. Bello, S. Zeadally, Intelligent Device-to-Device Communication in the Internet of Things,

Ieeexplore.Ieee.Org (2015), pp. 1–11
2. J. Carretero, J.D. García, The Internet of Things: Connecting the world. Personal Ubiquitous
Computing (2013)
3. D. Rountree, I. Castrillo, The Basics of Cloud Computing (2014), pp. 123–149
4. M. Saravanan, T. Krishna Priya, S.R. Lavanya, P. Karthikeyan, Fuel level indicator for petrol
bunk storage tanks/oil industries. Int. Res. J. Eng. Technol. (IRJET) 05(10). e-ISSN:
2395-0056, Oct 2018 p-ISSN: 2395-0072 (2018)
5. R. Gogawale, S. Sonawane, O. Swami, S.S. Nikam, Petrol level detection using ultrasonic
sensor. Int. Eng. Res. J. (IERJ) 2(2), 848–850 (2016). ISSN 2395-1621
6. P. Veenasheela Rao, S.B. Chaudhury, Smart active liquid level measurement using infrared
sensors suitable as consumer products. Int. J. Res. Eng. Technol. Sci. VII, Special Issue, Feb
2017, ISSN 2454-1915
7. T. Mohammad, Using ultrasonic and infrared sensors for distance measurement, in Int.
J. Mech. Aerosp. Ind. Mechatron. Manuf. Eng. 3(3) (2009)
8. H. Canbolat, A novel level measurement technique using three capacitive sensors for liquids.
IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meas. 58(10), 3762–3768 (2009)
9. A. Mane, R.C. Gadade, S. Gandhi, Smart fuel level indication system.GRD J. 2(6) (2017)
10. G. Ravichandran, V. Palanivel, A highly intelligent into system to monitor the petrol flow the
petrol tank. Int. J. Res. Appl. Sci. Eng. Technol. (IJRASET) 3(VIII), August 2015, IC Value:
13.98, ISSN: 2321-9653
11. O. Deokate, A. Kolekar, N. Shinde, A. Khanapure, Digital fuel level indicator system, in
National Conference on Information, Communication and Energy Systems and Technologies
2019, vol. 5, issue 7 (2019). Print ISSN: 2395-1990, Online ISSN: 2394-4099
12. Method for measuring fluid level, Dec 24, 2002, US 6,823,731B1, Liquid Level Sensing
Assembly and Method for Measuring Using Same (2004)
13. S. Kumari, G. Rathi, P. Attri, M. Kumar, Types of sensors and their applications. Int.
J. Eng.178 Res. Dev. 10(4), 72–85 (2014). e-ISSN: 2278067X, ISSN: 2278-800X, April 2014
Miscellaneous
Image Denoising Using Spatial
and Frequency Domain Filters: A Tool
for Image Quality Enhancement
Santhi Krishnamoorthi, Nirmala Madian

and Dhanasekaran Rajagopal
Abstract Image denoising plays a vital role in image analysis. Image denoising
helps in removing noise in the image by which the quality of the image is improved.
Image denoising is mainly used in photographic images for enhancing the quality,
medical image analysis where inbuilt noises are present due to images obtained
from various imaging modalities. These noises should be removed to get a better
understanding of medical images to detect tumor, cancer, and other diseases.
Denoising helps in improving the image fidelity in satellite images. This work
focuses on performing image denoising by various spatial and frequency domain
filters on photographic images to enhance the image quality. The comparative
analysis of all these filters is analyzed based on quality metrics like peak
signal-to-noise ratio (PSN)R and mean square error (MSE).
Keywords Image denoising Spatial and frequency filters PSNR MSE
1 Introduction
Image denoising helps in removing the noise and also helps in preserving the visual
quality of the image.
The noise in the image degrades the quality of the image; therefore, image
denoising plays a vital role for image quality improvement. Image denoising is a
pre-processing procedure which is used for filtering operation. The filtering can be
linear of nonlinear. Spatial and frequency domain filters are used for denoising and
frequency domain filters are more effective as they preserve the image information
better than the spatial filters.
S. Krishnamoorthi (&)
Guru Nanak Institutions Technical Campus, Hyderabad, India
N. Madian
Sri Shakthi Institute of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
D. Rajagopal
Guru Nanak Institute of Technology, Hyderabad, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_70
760 S. Krishnamoorthi et al.
Various denoising algorithms for removing the noise in the image are median
filter [1–7], wavelet decomposition [8–12], Complex wavelet transform [9], ani-
sotropic diffusion [10, 11], average homomorphic Wiener filter [3, 12], NLM filter
[13], waveshrink method with Bayesian map [14], adaptive denoising using wavelet
[15], curvelet transform [16, 17, 23], linear and nonlinear filters [19–21], soft
thresholding [22], and average filters [24].
The paper proposes a comparative analysis of image denoising using spatial and
frequency domain filters. This analysis will help the researchers to understand
relation between filters and noise model. Image denoising algorithms are to be
carefully reviewed based on the image type. Depending on the image type, the
algorithms are to be derived. Various image types include biomedical, photo-
graphic, satellite images, etc. Each image type requires specific algorithms for
removing noise in that image. The quality of the image is analyzed based on quality
metrics like PSNR and MSE.
2 Methodology
The input image considered is a photographic image. The noise is added to the
image. The filtering operation is applied to remove the noise. Spatial and frequency
domain filters are considered. The output obtained is the denoised image with
improved quality. The methodology is shown in Fig. 1.
The noise in the image is modeled based on histogram or probability density
function. The common noise models [18] used for the study are Gaussian, salt and
pepper, speckle, Poisson, and additive white Gaussian noises. Gaussian noise
model is used both in spatial and frequency domains due to its deterministic rep-
resentation. Salt and pepper noise have dark and bright pixel representation in
bright and dark regions, respectively. This noise is due to the error when converting
the analog function to digital function and bit errors during transmission. Speckle is
considered as manipulative noise due to which the interpretation of the image is
difficult and these types of noise are dominated in laser holography and ultrasound
image. Poisson noise is a form of electronic noise and is modeled using Poisson
process. An uncorrelated random value results in white noise in an image. These
noises in images are to be eliminated and this is done using spatial and frequency
domain filters.
Fig. 1 Work flow methodology

Image Denoising Using Spatial and Frequency Domain Filters… 761
Spatial domain filters considered for the study are mean, median, Wiener, and
Gaussian filters. Mean filters are called as average filter and it is a type of linear
filtering. Each pixel in the image is replaced with the average value of its neigh-
borhood pixels. The result of the filter is based on the window function. Larger the
window size smoother the image results in blurring of image. Another linear filter is
Wiener filter and works on statistical approach. Median filters are nonlinear filters
effectively remove noise and also preserves the edges in the image. The problem
associated with median filter is that it removes the fine details in the image.
Gaussian filter uses 2D convolution operation for filtering the noise in the image.
Gaussian kernel is used for convolution and the output is smoothened and blurred
image.
Frequency domain filters considered are wavelet and curvelet transforms and
filters like Lee, Kuan, and frost are also used for denoising image. Discrete wavelet
transform (DWT) analyzes the data using mathematical function based on the
resolution or scale of the input data. Initially, the wavelet coefficients are extracted
by decomposing the image using wavelet transform. The coefficients are called as
approximation and detailed coefficients. A proper threshold function is selected and
thresholding is performed on the detailed coefficients which gives a modified
coefficient. The original image is obtained by performing the inverse transform on
the modified coefficients. DWT obey multi-resolution analysis property which helps
in analyzing the images at various resolutions. This transform is implemented by
digital filters and decimators. A sub-band decomposition helps in decomposing the
data into low and high pass filter stages and the iteration of this process is per-
formed using the output of the low pass filter stage and can have many decom-
position levels. Each stage generates approximation and detailed coefficient of the
image. The complex valued extension to the standard DWT is the complex wavelet
transform (CWT). This transform helps in removing the problems associated with
phase information. The magnitude and the phase information are obtained using the
real and imaginary coefficient of the image after applying CWT. The CWT works
on dual-tree concept where one side of the tree deals with real values and other side
of the tree is the imaginary component. Dual-tree CWT is better as this gives a shift
invariant and directionally selective output. This is achieved using redundancy
factor 2d, where d is the dimension.
Curvelet transform is a multi-scale pyramid structure which holds many direc-
tions and position location and gives a needle-shaped foundation at the fine scale.
This transform gives the sparse representation of the image by computing the inner
product of the image and curvelet kernel. A trous algorithm is applied on the image
with J scale. The image is divided into sub-band with appropriate block size using
digital ridgelet transform on each block. The length of the kernel window is dou-
bled at every dyadic sub-band which helps in preserving the fundamental property
of curvelet transform. Thresholding and inverse curvelet are performed to obtain the
original denoised image.
Frost, lee, and Kuan filters help in removing the multiplicative noise in the
image. Frost filter is a linear convolution filter and it is also an exponentially
weighted averaging filter. The filter works based on the variation in the coefficient
obtained with respect to the ratio of standard deviation to mean of the noisy image.
The center pixel value of the filter kernel is replaced with weighted sum of the
neighboring pixel. The weight value decreases when moving away from the target
pixel which increases the variance. Lee filter works based on the variance value.
The filter helps in preserving the edges in the image and is adaptive in nature. Kuan
filter is a linear minimum mean-square-error filter. This filter also works on cal-
culating the standard deviance and variance in the image.
The noises considered for the analysis are salt and pepper, Poisson, Gaussian,
speckle, and white Gaussian noises as in Fig. 2.
The output of various filters is shown in Fig. 3.
The performance of the filters is analyzed based on the quality metrics like
PSNR and MSE. The PSNR is a measure of quality between the original and the
denoised image. Higher the PSNR, better the quality of the image and is given as
ð 2n 1Þ 2
PSNR ¼ 10 log10
MSE
where n is the number of bits in the image, MSE is the cumulative squared error
between the original and the denoised image and is given as
N 2
1 XM X
X
X
MSE ¼
MN j¼1 k¼1 j; k j; k
where x and x is the restored and original image, M and N are the number of rows
and columns in images. As MSE increases, PSNR decreases, respectively.
Fig. 2 Input images with noise

Fig. 3 Spatial and frequency domain filters
The comparative analysis of spatial and frequency domain filters are given in
Tables 1 and 2.
From the performance analysis based on PSNR and MSE, the following
observations are performed. For salt and pepper and Poisson noise, median filter
and curvelet transform are suitable for removing the noise. For Gaussian noise,
Gaussian and wavelet transform are preferred. For speckle and white Gaussian, the
suitable filters are Wiener and wavelet transform.
4 Conclusion
Image denoising helps in reducing the noise in the image and also improves the
quality of the image. The accuracy of the filter in denoising determined based on
quality metrics like PSNR and MSE. This paper helps in understanding the filter
performance for various noises. From the performance analysis, frequency domain
filters prove to be better compared to spatial filters. Among frequency domain
filters, wavelet and curvelet outperform compared to other filters. Future scope of
the work is to perform the performance analysis of spatial and frequency domain
filters on medical images and satellite images and also uses convolution neural
network for image denoising. Denoising is an important pre-processing method in
medical image processing as it helps in differentiating the normal and pathogenic
condition and in satellite, they are used for understanding the image fidelity.
764
Table 1 Performance analysis of spatial domain filters

Types of noise NV Quality metrics
PSNR MSE
Types of filters Types of filters
Mean Median Gaussian Weiner Mean Median Gaussian Weiner
Salt and pepper noise 0.01 30.78 38.81 32.37 31.13 54.26 8.56 37.71 50.10
0.04 26.49 38.40 27.19 26.69 145.4 9.40 124.16 139.44
0.08 22.89 38.05 23.51 22.94 334.3 10.20 289.93 329.72
0.1 21.34 37.80 22.71 21.40 476.55 10.78 348.13 471.03
Poisson noise 32.79 38.92 33.27 36.83 34.22 8.33 30.64 13.48
Gaussian noise 0.01 25.09 25.69 28.45 26.02 168.09 175.36 92.98 162.76
0.04 20.65 18.80 22.30 20.65 559.99 856.48 382.46 559.80
0.08 16.69 14.75 18.64 16.67 1393.5 2179.42 889.83 1401.4
0.1 15.41 13.68 17.26 15.36 1869.2 2786.26 1222.46 1892.9
Speckle noise 0.01 29.50 28.67 29.74 32.58 73.016 88.33 69.03 35.88
0.04 25.56 21.64 25.67 28.14 180.12 445.94 176.18 99.77
0.08 22.46 16.85 22.53 24.44 368.84 1342.77 361.15 233.82
0.1 21.23 15.51 21.28 22.13 490.21 1827.26 483.91 398.28
Additive white Gaussian noise 10 22.51 20.67 22.58 24.71 364.57 557.13 359.22 220.05
20 29.18 30.47 29.45 32.77 78.49 58.41 73.79 34.33
40 32.74 38.11 33.20 36.82 34.58 10.04 31.09 13.53
80 32.79 38.92 33.27 36.84 34.22 8.33 30.66 13.47
NV Noise variance
S. Krishnamoorthi et al.
Table 2 Performance analysis of frequency domain filters
Noise PSNR MSE
Types of filters Types of filters
Lee Kuan Frost Wavelet Curvelet Lee Kuan Frost Wavelet Curvelet
Salt and pepper 41.09 39.25 33.86 64.58 66.85 5.06 7.72 26.71 0.02 0.01
Poisson 31.85 32.76 36.31 64.53 78.02 42.47 34.45 15.18 0.02 0.01
Gaussian 28.79 29.21 34.51 63.93 62.32 86.01 77.94 23.01 0.03 0.04
Speckle 30.61 28.77 33.95 64.55 61.88 56.56 86.24 26.21 0.02 0.04
White Gaussian 24.08 24.08 24.08 64.07 63.60 254.06 254.06 254.06 0.02 0.03
Image Denoising Using Spatial and Frequency Domain Filters…
765
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Comparative Study and Analysis
of Human Knee Angle Measurement
System
S. Boobalan, K. Lakshmi and K. N. Thirukkuralkani
Abstract Human gait analysis is one of the most important tools to drive the
actuator of the bionic leg, which is designed and acts on the command received
from the gait system. In this article, we implemented the inertial measurement unit
(IMU) and image processing system using Kinovea software to measure the human
knee angle. A traditional tool called goniometer was used to measure the human
knee angle. An updated new modified goniometer is introduced in this project to
analyze the human gait system. IMU sensors are interfaced with Arduino, and the
data was acquired and stored in the PC for the purpose of further analysis. The
Kinovea is one the powerful sports analysis software, which was introduced here to
measure the human knee angle measuring in different lightening condition. The
comparative human knee angle measurement was studied, in that the acquired data
was compared with each other system.

Keywords Human gait system Goniometer Inertial measurement unit

Kinovea sports software Image processing system Arduino
1 Introduction
For a normal human being, it is not a difficult thing to walk but incase of abnor-
malities like amputee lower limb person, affected by Parkinson’s disease (PD) and
Paralysis person, it is the very difficult job to do walk. In recent years, the devel-
opment of digital controller evolution plays a major in many different interdisci-
plinary areas [1, 2]. The contribution of digital controller in the domain of
S. Boobalan (&) K. Lakshmi

Department of Electrical and Electronics, Sri Krishna College
of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore, India
K. N. Thirukkuralkani
Department of Electronics and Instrumentation, Sri Ramakrishna Engineering College,
Coimbatore, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_71
770 S. Boobalan et al.
biotechnology and bionics engineering technology is more. If the control signal to

the controller is more than perfect means, the controller could able to achieve its
output without any lag. If the input is not up to the accuracy level means, the effect
of controller will not achieve its output. In recent years, many companies are
manufacturing and marketing the bionic leg for amputee person [3, 4]. The con-
trollers are used in that bionic leg is an intelligent controller, and its output passes to
the actuator driver circuit system. The input to the digital controller is received from
the muscle sensor, electrodes, IMU sensor. The acquired data is preamplified and
filtered, and then, the signals are classified using MATLAB. The human gait
analysis is the major work to copy the nature of human walking style [5, 6]. It
involves the study of locomotion of human walk. Human gait cycle involves the
major two phases like stance phase, swing phase (Fig. 1).
During stance phase, the human foot is always on the ground. During swing
phase, the human air is in always above the ground. The human gait cycle angle is
measured and calculated as follows (Table 1),
The bionic leg consists of DC servo motor, onboard controller, signal condi-
tioning circuit, battery, driving circuit, etc., and the motor is used to move the
artificial limb looks like normal human walking gait cycle [7–9]. So that it should
move forward and backward by the angle which is copied from the normal human
gait cycle. To capture the normal human gait cycle, there are more methods are
available to capture the human gait cycle. The various methods like digital
goniometer, IMU, vision system [10, 11]. These are all methods are considered and
Fig. 1 Human gait cycle pattern
Table 1 Human knee Movable joint range In degree

movable joint angle
Joint angle range Pitch Knee 0–90
Ankle −30 to 50
Comparative Study and Analysis of Human Knee Angle … 771
implemented and capture the human gait cycle. From the comparative analysis, it
has been concluded that the IMU-based capture system yields the good result. Even
though it has its own drawback.
2 Human Gait Cycle System
A. Goniometer
Goniometer is the one traditional method to measure inclined angle between any
two points. Nowadays, a digital goniometer is available in the market. The digital
goniometer will able to measure the angle, and it could be able to show the result as
digital data [3, 2]. The acquired digital data could be interfaced with the signal
condition system. The procedure follows, a ten normal human beings are trained in
the treadmill walking, and their human gait cycle captured. The trained subjects
were asked to walk on the treadmill, before that the cables and digital goniometer
were fixed accordingly do not get moved from fixed place. The data acquisition
card is placed inside the subject’s packet. The data logger is then communicated
with the controller, and data is stored in the laptop.
The trained subjects were asked to do walking on the treadmill in a normal
selected speed, the following functions carried out,
1. Heel Strike
2. Loading Response
3. Mid Stance
4. Unloading stance
5. Terminal Stance
6. Pre-Swing
7. Toe Off
8. Mid Swing
9. Terminal Swing.
These are all the above functions carried out while the trained subjects on the
treadmill walking period. Then, acquired data stored in the storage device for
further analysis.
B. Inertial Measurement Unit (IMU)
A micro-electro mechanical system (MEMS) is the combination of mechanical
system and electronic system. After the greater evolution of MEMS sensor, the
measurements of velocity, acceleration, angle and orientation are becoming more
easier than ever before. These MEMS device could easily interface with any kind of
external hardware like Arduino, Raspberry, etc., for further analysis [12, 13]. Once
the data acquired from the sensor through wired or wireless, then it could be sent to
preamplifier, filter and analog to digital conversion process (ADC).
The ten normal subjects were asked to wear the IMU sensor to each their right
leg thigh. In this article, the author implemented wireless communication between
IMU sensor to receiver. From the measurement side, IMU sensor is connected to
Nano Arduino board. The whole setup is packed and placed inside the subject’s
packet while the subject on the treadmill walking. On the other hand, receiving side
one Nano Arduino board is to receive the IMU signals. The receiving end Arduino
board is connected to external PC for further process [14, 15]. The communication
distance may vary about the environment condition, and under normal environ-
mental condition, the distance is about 500 meters. The gait cycle data was drawn
once the IMU sensor reads the angle of human knee. The same trained subjects are
asked to wear the IMU Sensor kits and follow the same functions carry out from the
goniometer process. Then, the data was acquired and stored in PC for further
process.
C. Kinovea Vision System—Image Processing Gait Analysis
Kinovea is one of the free open ware sports analysis software, which is available in
the market at free of cost. Kinovea software has the in-built feature of video
analysis tool in it [16, 17]. It can able to analyze the image at very low speed with
the high accuracy rate. The trained subjects were asked to walk on the treadmill
with the speed of 3.0 km per hour. Then, the video has been recorded, and the
captured videos are sent to Kinovea software system. Then, it could be processed
by frame per frame. The human gait cycle system is analyzed, and the knee angles
are measured clearly by using Kinovea software.
A. Goniometer Results
The traditional method is the goniometer method, which is the best conventional
method to measure angle by ourself. It is the purely conventional and off-line
method. The measured data could be tabulated in off-line mode only. From the data,
we can study the human gait cycle pattern only. We could not able to interpret the
measured data to any controller. So, goniometer methods have shown the better
results even though this method will not be applicable in digital controller circuit.
Because this conventional system could not able to communicate with the envi-
ronments itself.
B. Inertial Measurement Unit IMU Results
IMU sensor-based knee measurement system could able to measure the data
accurately. But IMU system will introduce the more artifact into the system. Due to
wired and wireless system, it could introduce the more artifact to the system. So, we
need to introduce the more filtering circuit to remove those artifacts. So, it would
get more complexity to readout the exact knee angle values from the sensors.
Fig. 2 Human gait cycle pattern analysis using IMU
But the response from the sensor is too high but the artifact introduces more
complexity to system. Trained subjects were asked to walk on the treadmill for
about 2 min. Then, the image processing has been on Kinovea software. The
following Fig shows the two-dimensional graph for the knee angle value about 4 s
of human gait cycle (Fig. 2).
C. Vision System based Image Processing System Results
The following Fig. shows the human gait cycle system with knee angle values. The
captured values are tabulated, and it will be stored in the storage devices for further
process (Fig. 3).
The following shows the knee angle values in degree by using Kinovea software.
The subject was trained, and treadmill speed was at 3.0 km per hour for 1 min. The
knee angle values are acquired at stored. The knee angles were acquired for all the
trained subjects. But the gait pattern or style of walking is different from one to
another person. Each and every person does have his/her own gait pattern or
walking style. The following table shows the knee angle values, which it could be
common to all type of normal people (Table 2).
4 Conclusion
In this article, the author implemented the various human knee angle measurement
system like digital goniometer system, IMU sensor-based measurement system and
vision system. From the results, it has been concluded that the above all methods
have its own advantage and disadvantages itself due its characteristics. Goniometer
has produced good results, but communication between external environments is
Fig. 3 Human gait cycle pattern analysis using Kinovea software
Table 2 Human gait cycle Gait state position Minimum Maximum

pattern analysis using
Kinovea software Heel strike 4 8
Loading response 8 12
Mid stance 13 17
Unloading stance 19 23
Terminal stance 26 31
Pre-swing 48 57
Toe off 55 62
Mid swing 60 66
Terminal swing 10 15
more difficult. So, the conventional measurement system is not worked in the entire
system of human gait cycle controller system. From the IMU sensor system, the
more artifacts are introduced to the controller circuit. The filtering circuits need to
introduce to remove those artifacts. Then, the complexity of the system gets
increased. Among the all three human gait cycle measurement system, the
vision-based system produces the good results because it could able to communi-
cate with external environmental system through computer. The vision-based sys-
tem could not introduce any artifacts to the system. Only the major difficulty is that
the image processing technique and environmental lightening condition alone. In
future, the author is used a deferent image processing analyze tool to improve the
accuracy of human gait cycle pattern.
Acknowledgements Ethical approval—The authors express their sincere thanks to the

Management and the Principal of Sri Krishna College of Engineering and Technology,
Coimbatore, for providing the necessary facilities for the completion of this paper. This study was
approved by the ethics committee of Institutional Human Ethics Committee (IHEC), PSGIMS&R
Coimbatore, India. The authors state that this study conforms to the ethical standards contribute to
human welfare by ensuring a research process that combines the highest integrity and safety of
human research participants.
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25(9), 1568–1580 (2017)
6. B. Koopman, E.H. van Asseldonk, H. van der Kooij, Estimation of human hip and knee
multi-joint dynamics using the lopes gait trainer. IEEE Trans. Rob. 32(4), 920–932 (2016)
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control of an active two degree of freedom transfemoral prosthesis. J. Neuro Eng. Rehabil. 15
(1), 3 (2018)
8. B. Hwang, D. Jeon, A method to accurately estimate the muscular torques of human wearing
exoskeletons by torque sensors. Sensors 15(4), 8337–8357 (2015)
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ARPN J. Eng. Appl. Sci. 10, 19 (2015)
10. A. Pagel et al., Bio-inspired adaptive control for active knee exoprosthetics. IEEE Trans.
Neural Syst. Rehabil. Eng. 25(12), 2355–2364 (2017)
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prostheses. IEEE/ASME Trans. Mechatron. 20(3), 1384–1394 (2014)
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(2014)
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e0135148 (2015)
16. H. Vallery et al., Complementary limb motion estimation for the control of active knee
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descent walking. Procedia Comput. Sci. 42, 336–344 (2014)
Voice and Image BER Analysis
of the OFDM System with MECCT
and MLNST Companding Techniques
Over Mobile Radio Channels
B. Sarala, M. Zaheer Ahamed, S. Sree Hari and V. Bhagya sree
Abstract In a single carrier system, a deep noise of fading can destroy the whole
link. However, for the multicarrier scheme, a minute proportion of subcarriers are
only being damaged. Using the multicarrier modulation overlapping technique, half
of the bandwidth can be saved. Orthogonal frequency-division multiplexing
(OFDM) is a multicarrier modulation and is widely used in broad band commu-
nications, 3rd to 5th generation networks, WLAN, WIMAX, multimedia trans-
mission, etc. The OFDM system minimizes multipath effects such as inter-symbol
interference (ISI) and inter-carrier interference (ICI) thereby increasing system
capacity to accommodate a higher number of users. The objective of this paper is to
improve the power efficiency (bit error rate (BER)) of the OFDM system using
companding techniques. The BER performance analysis of the OFDM system over
mobile radio channels, such as additive white Gaussian noise channel (AWGN) and
Rayleigh fading channels are studied, analyzed, and implemented using MATLAB
for voice and image. The bit error rate (BER) of the OFDM system with modified
exponential companding with clipping transform (MECCT) and also with modified
linear non-symmetrical transform (MLNST) companding techniques are compared
with that of the OFDM system and the OFDM system with linear non-symmetrical
transform (LNST) companding technique over AWGN and Rayleigh fading
channels. The MECCT-based system has less BER and it saves bandwidth of
2.0 dB over AWGN channel.
Keywords OFDM System BER Companding MECCT MLNST
1 Introduction
The OFDM is a type of frequency-division multiplexing (FDM) system. However,

it is resistant to multipath fading and has high spectral efficiency as compared to
other multiplexing techniques. It separates the assigned frequency spectrum into
B. Sarala M. Zaheer Ahamed (&) S. Sree Hari V. Bhagya sree

Maturi Venkata Subba Rao Engineering College (MVSREC), Nadergul, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_72
778 B. Sarala et al.
subchannels which are orthogonal to one another. This decreases the probability of
cross-channel interference (CCI), thereby permitting the subcarriers to intersect.
The OFDM system offers data rate up to 54 Mbps in a 20 MHz channel for IEEE
802.11a. Fifth-generation networks support OFDM system for very high-speed
broadband connectivity at affordable price. This decreases the total frequency
spectrum occupied, and therefore, capacity is increased. However, the OFDM
system is more sensitive to frequency offset and phase noise. There is a decrease in
the power efficiency of radio frequency amplifier due to the high PAPR [1].
Companding compresses the dynamic range of the input signal and expands the
dynamic range of the output signal so that the noise and distortion are suppressed
while the signal is maintained. Since the first patent by A.B Clark in 1928, com-
panding has different types of applications in analog and digital communications,
audio, image, and video compression in multimedia applications. The merits of the
companding have lesser BER, less distortion, and less complexity than clipping.
Companding increases the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) when the input signal is low
and therefore reduces the effect of a system’s noise and distortion [2].
The main objective of this paper is to reduce the BER and improve the power
efficiency of the OFDM system without additional bandwidth.
This paper is organized as follows: Sect. 1 describes the introduction of the
OFDM system and companding function. Section 2 describes the block diagram of
the OFDM system. Sect. 3 presented the MECCT and MLNST companding
techniques. Computer simulation results are presented in Sect. 4. Finally, the
conclusions are listed in Sect. 5.
2 OFDM System
The printing area is 122 mm 193 mm. The use of the IFFT in multicarrier
modulation (OFDM) transmitter is to convert the signal from frequency domain to
time domain signal. The IFFT can be expressed as
1XN 1
2pjkn
x ð nÞ ¼ X ðkÞe N ; n ¼ 0; . . .; N 1 ð1Þ
N k¼0
where xðnÞ describes the signal after subcarrier mapping and N is the IFFT length.
The fast Fourier transform (FFT) is given by
X
N 1
2pjkn
X ðK Þ ¼ xðnÞe N ; k ¼ 0; . . .; N 1 ð2Þ
n¼0
where n = 0, …, N − 1. The complex numbers xðnÞ distinguish the amplitude and

phase of the various sinusoidal components of input signal X ðkÞ. The FFT converts
xðnÞ to X ðkÞ and IFFT converts X ðkÞ to xðnÞ to compute xðnÞ as a sum of sinusoidal
Voice and Image BER Analysis of the OFDM System … 779
parts (1/N) X ðkÞe2pjkn=N with frequency K/N cycles per sample. The FFT at the
receiver converts the received signal to the frequency domain to pick up
N subcarriers [3].
The transceiver block diagram of the OFDM system with the MECCT and
MLNST companding techniques is shown in Fig. 1. The input information is voice
and image, and it is converted to the binary information.
A short algorithm description of the system is as follows
1. Consider speech/voice and image as the input signal.
2. Source encoding is employed to transmit the speech and image signals into its
respective information bits so as to signify the corresponding sequence in digital
form.
3. These bits have been modulated using BPSK modulation, fed to IFFT block,
and proposed MECCT and MLNST companding techniques.
4. Instigate noise to simulate channel errors. Signals are transmitted through
AWGN and Rayleigh fading channels.
5. At the receiver de-companding, FFT and demodulation techniques are employed
to recover the transmitted speech and image.
6. Calculate BER as a function against various values of SNR and plot it
accordingly [4].
IFFT, Add CT &

Data BPSK S/P
P/S CP DAC
De-CT ADC Channel HPA
S/P
BPSK Received
Remove , FFT/ Demodula
P/S data
CP DCT/ tor
DWT
Fig. 1 OFDM transceiver blocks diagram

3 Companding Techniques
The companding technique describes the compression in the transmitter and the
expansion at the receiver. The main objective of this study is to reduce the BER and
improve the power efficiency of the OFDM system without additional bandwidth
using MECCT and MLNST companding techniques [5].
3.1 MECCT Companding
The MECCT technique combines the clipping concept and the exponential concept.
It uses an algorithm known as modified exponential companding with clipping
transform (MECCT). The MECCT companding algorithm is explained below
xm ¼ xn when 0 jxn j T1
ð3Þ
¼ T1 þ logðjXn j T1 þ 1Þ when jXn j [ T
The final output is expressed as
Xmn ¼ jXm jeih ð4Þ

b
where h ¼ tan1 a and xn are in the form of axn þ jbxn , the threshold value at the
transmitter is calculated as T1 ¼ median rxn
ðjxn jÞ
, where rxn is the standard deviation,
jxn j is the modulus of the OFDM transmitted symbol, and T1 is the threshold value.
At the receiver, the de-companding transform operates on the received signal to
obtain an estimation of the transmitted signal. The MECCT de-companding algo-
rithm is as given below
The original received signal after de-companding is

^xn ¼ rn ejh ; when jrn j T2 ¼ T2 1 þ 10jrn jT2 ejh
ð5Þ
when jrn j [ T2
The threshold value at the receiver is given by
medianðjr n jÞ
T2 ¼
rr n
where rrn is the standard deviation and jrn j is the modulus of the MC-CDMA
received symbol.
3.2 The MLNST Companding
The modified linear non-symmetrical transform (MLNST) is an idea of the LNST

with phase angle, which can outperform the LNST companding. The MLNST
algorithm is as follows
1
Y ðnÞ ¼ X ðnÞejh ; when jX ðnÞj TM
l ð6Þ
¼ lX ðnÞejh ; when jX ðnÞj TM
where h ¼ tan1 ba, xðnÞ is in the form of axðnÞ þ jbxðnÞ, where the ranges of l and
TM are 0 l 1 and 0 TM maxfjX ðnÞjg:. Since X ðnÞ is complex valued, the
companding function should be applied to real and imaginary parts separately [5].
At the receiver, the unique signal can be recovered as stated by
^ ðnÞ ¼ lRðnÞejh ; when ne/1 ðTM Þ

X
1 ð7Þ
¼ RðnÞejh ; when ne/2 ðTM Þ
l
4 Results
The OFDM system with MECCT and MLNST companding schemes are applied in
MATLAB with the following specifications—128 IFFT size and 64 subcarriers and
the type of modulation used are BPSK with LNST and MLNST companding with
the µ value of 0.65. The designed method performance can be evaluated in terms of
the BER. The results are compared to OFDM system, OFDM system with LNST,
MECCT, and MLNST companding schemes. The BER performance is analyzed
over AWGN and Rayleigh fading channels.
Figure 2 shows the speech signal which is transmitted and received over OFDM
system with MECCT and MLNST companding techniques over AWGN and
Rayleigh fading channels. The speech BER performance of the OFDM system with
companding techniques are measured over AWGN and Rayleigh fading channels as
given in Figs. 3, 4 and 5.
Figures 3, 4, and 5 show the BER analysis of the speech signal which is
transmitted over the OFDM system with MECCT, and also with MLNST and
LNST companding techniques over AWGN channel. The OFDM system with
MECCT technique has less BER over AWGN channel as compared to OFDM
system and OFDM system with LNST and MLNST companding techniques.
MECCT-based system saves bandwidth (Eb/N0) of 2.0 dB and 4.0 dB, respectively,
as compared to the OFDM system with LNST and MLNST companding techniques
Fig. 2 Speech signal is original speech Signal

transmitted and received over 0.01 0.01
AWGN channel [5]
0.005 0.005
0 0
-0.005 -0.005
-0.01 -0.01
0 500 1000 0 500 1000
Fig. 3 BER analyses of the 10

0
speech signal over AWGN OFDM

channel OFDM+LNST µ=0.65
-1
10 OFDM+ MLNST µ=0.65
OFDM+ MECCT
-2
10
BER
-3
10
-4
10
-5
10
0 5 10 15 20
Eb/No (dB)
at µ = 0.65 and 0.5 over AWGN channel. The MLNST is LNST with phase.
The BER of the LNST based system is equal to that of the MLNST based system.
The OFDM system with LNST companding requires more bandwidth at µ = 0.5
as shown in Fig. 4. The µ value of the LNST companding-based system decreases
which requires more bandwidth.
Figure 5 shows the BER analysis of the speech signal which is transmitted to the
OFDM system with MECCT and MLNST companding techniques over Rayleigh
fading channel. The OFDM system with MECCT algorithm has less BER over
Rayleigh fading channel as compared to the OFDM system and OFDM system with
MLNST companding and slightly higher BER than that of the OFDM with LNST
companding technique.
Figure 6 shows the image which is transmitted and received over OFDM system
with MECCT and MLNST companding techniques over AWGN channel. The image
BER performance of the OFDM system with MECCT, LNST and also MLNST
companding techniques are measured over AWGN and Rayleigh fading channels.
Fig. 4 BER analyses of the 10

0
speech signal over AWGN OFDM

channel OFDM+LNST µ=0.5
-1 OFDM+ MLNST µ=0.5
10
OFDM+ MECCT
-2
10
BER
-3
10
-4
10
-5
10
0 5 10 15 20
Eb/No
Fig. 5 BER analyses of the 0.52

OFDM
speech signal over Rayleigh OFDM+LNST µ=0.65
fading channel OFDM+ MLNST µ=0.65
OFDM+ MECCT
0.5
0.48
BER
0.46
0.44
0.42
0 5 10 15 20
Eb/No (dB)
Fig. 6 Image is transmitted source image output image

and received over AWGN
channel [6, 7]
Figure 7 demonstrates the BER analysis of the image that is transmitted with the
OFDM system with MECCT, LNST, and MLNST companding techniques over
AWGN channel. OFDM system with MECCT algorithm has less BER over
AWGN channel as compared to the OFDM system and OFDM system with LNST
and MLNST companding techniques.
Figure 8 shows the image BER (linear scale) analysis over Rayleigh fading
channel, and the BER values are equal for all the companding-based systems.
Fig. 7 BER analysis of the 10

0
image with AWGN channel OFDM
OFDM + MECCT
-1 OFDM+LNST µ=0.65
10
OFDM+ MLNST µ=0.65
BER
-2
10
-3
10
-4
10
0 5 10 15
Eb/No (dB)
Fig. 8 Image BER analyses

over Rayleigh fading channel 0.5
0.48
BER
0.46
OFDM
0.44 OFDM+ MECCT
OFDM+LNST µ=0.65
OFDM+proposed MLNST µ=0.65
0.42
0 5 10 15 20
Eb/No (dB)
5 Conclusion
The major global demand intended to have high speed and high data mobile and
personal communications which is quickly expanding OFDM technology also
assures to be a key technique for acquiring the high data capability and high
spectral efficiency requisites for high-speed wireless systems of the present and
future development. Consequently, the effect of the companding scheme on con-
sidered OFDM system in AWGN and Rayleigh fading channels has been exam-
ined. The BER performance can be increased by applying MECCT companding to
OFDM system. It is seen that MECCT-based OFDM system counters the noise in
channels to attain improved BER for AWGN and Rayleigh fading channels. Based
on simulation results, it is examined that MECCT companding scheme with OFDM
system outperforms the LNST and MLNST companding-based OFDM system for
speech and image signals.
References
1. T.F. Smith, M. Waterman, Identification of common molecular subsequences. J. Mol. Biol.

147, 195–197 (1981)
2. A. Deshmukh, S. Bodhe, Comparison of DCT and wavelet based OFDM system working in
OFDM signals. Int. J. Adv. Technol. 3(2), 74 (2012)
3. B. Sarala, D. S. Venketeswarlu, B. N. Bhandari, MC-CDMA PAPR reduction using a modified
exponential companding transform with clipping. Global J. Res. Eng. 13(10), version 1.0
(2013)
4. A.A. Suleiman, E.F. Bardan, D.A.E. Mohamed, Linear companding transform for the reduction
of peak-to-average power ratio of OFDM signals. IEEE Trans. Broadcast 55(1), 155–160
(2009)
5. Md. Golam Rashed, M. Hasnat Kabir, Md. Selim Reza et.al, Transmission of voice signal:
BER performance analysis of different FEC schemes based OFDM system over various
channels. IJAST 34(89–99) (2011)
6. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/wav
7. R.C. Gonzalez, R.E. Woods, Digital image processing, 2nd edn. (2005), p. 362
8. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/file:lenna.png
Enhancement of Performance
and PAPR Reduction Using
Combination of PTS and SLM
Scheme with Opposition-Based GWO
in MIMO–OFDM
K. Aruna Kumari and K. Sri Rama Krishna
Abstract Among various PAPR decrease systems, picked mapping (SLM) is a

complimented methodology that achieves exceptional PAPR decay execution
without sign mutilation. Furthermore, partial transmit sequence (PTS) is other than
single incredible frameworks diminish the PAPR of OFDM. Regardless, an ideal
region in PTS framework is surveyed to be an essential disquiet. To move the current
PAPR decrease technique, we have consolidated perfect SLM and PTS-based PAPR
decay methodology in analogous. Using, the OGWO figuring spread development
was picked by slightest PAPR correspondence gathering gadgets. The anticipated
PAPR decrease advance is related autonomously on each transmitted receiving wire,
in this manner, the PAPR can be extraordinarily diminished. What is more, OGWO
streamlining PAPR decay strategy give enhanced execution advanced unfussy path
PAPR decrease. The anticipated methodology investigated by different narrative
PAPR reducing means to demonstrate the plentifulness.
Keywords MIMO–OFDM PAPR SLM PTS GWO
1 Introduction
Symmetrical repeat (OFDM) is routinely utilized high-order pace remote exchanges

of inborn screwup power in a multipath space. [1]. Combination of MIMO system
with OFDM has a major consideration for the subsequently making broadband uti-
lization suitable to their probable of provide soaring data rate, toughness to desertion
channels and consistent communication. Place up in different isolated values, for
K. Aruna Kumari (&)

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, PVP Siddhartha Institute
of Technology, Kanuru, Vijayawada, Krishna, A.P, India
K. Sri Rama Krishna
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, VR Siddhartha Engineering
College, Kanuru, Vijayawada, Krishna, A.P, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_73
788 K. Aruna Kumari and K. Sri Rama Krishna
example, remote urban systems, as a rule, perability for wave get to (WiMAX), and
3GPP fruition [2]. Control profitability canister is recovered by boosting variety. By
shifting a repeat specific MIMO conduit keen on a great deal of equivalent repeat level
MIMO, OFDM lessens the multifaceted [3]. The disaster of raised common control
extent to result in the accepted on development at lifted control [4]. The source holder
of run of the mill control which is in essence decreased, with location to a fixed
submersion manage. In these cutting edge business remote structures, the PAPR issue
is huger in uplink [5] in light of the fast that this is the limiting association to the extent
extention and range [6], and as the portable terminal is compelled in battery control,
the adequacy of the power enhancer is basic.
2 Proposed Methodology
The major challenging concern in MIMO-OFDM system is the high PAPR to limit
this problem different reduction algorithms were proposed. Selective mapping SLM
and Partial Transmit Sequence (PTS) are the most efficient technique used to reduce
the PAPR in multicarrier transmissions without causing distortion in the signal.
SLM and PTS techniques parallel in MIMO-OFDM system to reduce the PAPR
proposed. Framework, in which its sections the trade speed into different bearers;
everyone is adjusted. OFDM resembles FDMA, by subdividing the accessible
transmission limit into different channels that the unmistakable customer access is
drilled and a short time later allotted to customers. OFDM utilizes the range alto-
gether more beneficially by isolating the channels a great deal closer together.
Peak-to-conventional power degree (PAPR) decrease in various remote structures
the degree between run of the mill power and pinnacle lively power is used. High
top-to-normal power degree certified testing. There are three basic solicitations to
be explicit coding, standard distortion and flag scrambling in the PAPR dimin-
ishment. Fundamental framework found Straight Square coding in any case to
process a significant number of sub-transporters this strategy is not appropriate.
The PAPR decay methodologies are likewise used to lessen the power use and keep
away from the nonlinear bowing impacts appear in the fundamental flag. Much
advancement is done in PAPR diminishing frameworks recently. With high PAPR,
OFDM flag has wide assortment of amplitudes. In any case, PTS and SLM for
PAPR diminishment process are altogether related to MIMO–OFDM structure.
max0 t T jxðtÞj2
PAPR ¼ h i ð1Þ
E xðtÞ2
That authentic and dream regards in beyond what many would consider possible
theory state of is ordinarily scattered. The arrangement of PAPR condition CCDF
work, Nyquist inspecting speed preserve be unmistakable for apiece PAPR of
measurements obstruct as takes after
Enhancement of Performance and PAPR Reduction Using … 789
N
P ¼ Pr ðPAPRðxðnÞÞÞ [ PAPR0 ¼ 1 ePAPR0 ð2Þ
Consequently, much emphasis on finest likelihood appropriation. The CCDF is

characterized by,
N
Pr ðPAPR [ PAPR0 Þ ¼ 1 ePAPR0 ð3Þ
PAPRMIMO ¼ max PAPRi ; =; i ¼ 1; 2; . . .; NT ð4Þ
where NT is the number of transmission antennas.

Thus, the segment of banner tops happens which conveys in-band and
out-of-band twisting in this manner the Q-manage pushes toward the inundation
territory in light of the high PAPR. So to remain the Q-signal in the immediate area
the vibrant degree of the power intensifier ought to be lingering which again lessens
its practicality and updates the expense.
3 PAPR Reduction Technology
For PAPR, an extensive proportion of methodologies has been presented under-

neath (Fig. 1).
The principal data discourage different choice OFDM sign is banner least sig-
nificant thought of this system. This is a convincing and turning less methodology
utilized diminishing. The name of this strategy demonstrates that one gathering
must be chosen of various plans. As per the likelihood of discrete-time OFDM
transmission we should affect a data square considering number of pictures from the
star gathering plot.
X1
IFFT
b1l
S/P X2
Serial data IFFT + X’l(opti)
‘X’ Converter b2l
XM
IFFT
bM l
Grey Wolf optimization
Fig. 1 Block diagram of PTS

PAPR reduction by optimum PTS and SLM

Both the PTS and SLM are the promising strategy for abatement of the PAPR.
Midway transmit sequences (PTS) conveys a banner. The computational multi-
faceted nature of PTS procedure depends upon the amount of stage turn elements
allowed and consequently achieve the OFDM signals with low PAPR. Picked
mapping (SLM) is used to make different self-governing OFDM blocks from a lone
data square and after that select one having PAPR. The free OFDM strategies can be
found with discovering self-sufficient stage game plans. The underneath figure
shows the square diagram of MIMO–OFDM structure using PTS and SLM com-
putations for PAPR diminishment. The serialized information is changed over into
parallel information squares, which are tweaked by utilizing any regular regulation
plans. The resulted symbols are allocated to orthogonal sub carrier mapping. And
after that they are gone parallel through PTS and SLM strategies to diminish the
PAPR for MIMO–OFDM structure. PTS and SLM are various strategies connected
in parallel structure. Along these lines, PTS transmits the square, which is the
summation of the duplicated sub-hinders by ideal stage factors in time area to
acquire a limited PAPR. SLM selects the block, which is the resulting of multiply the
copies of original signal with different phase sequence in frequency domain and has
the lowest PAPR. Since the stage factor is an irregular worth comprise of 1 or −1.
Proposed Gray Wolf Optimizer (GWO) algorithm-based opposition method
The GWO count, proposed is cheerful with the pursuing behavior and social
organization of diminish frauds. It takes after other metaheuristics, and in GWO
count the interest starts by a people of discretionarily made wolves (contender
courses of action). The social overwhelming movement is instanced as in Fig. 4.
The chasing (improvement) is guided by a, b and d in this calculation. The x
wolves are required to encompass a, b and d to discover upgraded arrangements.
From the above chain of importance, the prevailing pioneers are named alpha (a),
which is generally responsible for making choices about chasing, dozing spot, etc.
Alpha passes on its choices to the pack. In choice creating, betas are subordinate
wolves and are consultants to alpha.
Representation of GWO algorithm-based opposition
The fundamental portions of GWO are encompassing, chasing and attacking the
prey. The algorithmic steps of GWO are presented in this section. Optimization
algorithm-based opposition instating both the populace and parameters (a, b, d) of
quest operators for OGWO calculation, at that point ascertain the wellness esteem
for each hunt specialists and update its position appropriately. For each refreshed
hunt specialists, process the wellness esteem. Presently, update the last estimations
of a, b and d to supplant the most exceedingly awful wolf and after that compute.
When the end criteria get fulfilled, show the best arrangement. Something else, if
the condition is not satisfied recurrent the means until the rule has been resolved.
Steps in GWO-based Opposition

The various steps involved in GWO-based opposition are described briefly with the
following equations;
Step 1 Initialization
The initial population of search agents is produced randomly.
Stage 2 Generate inverse arrangement
According to restriction-based GWO, at the same time, to hint at upgrade
figure for introduce wolves’ answer the adjacent wolves and its converse
wolves are considered. It is given that an opposite wolf’s answer has a
superior chance to be closer to the worldwide ideal arrangement than
discretionary wolf’s answer. Each arrangement has a selective inverse
arrangement. The contrary arrangement is ascertained in light of the
condition; every solution Yi has an exclusive opposite Yopi solution. The
opposite solution OPðY1 ; Y2 ; . . .Yn Þ is calculated based on the equation;
Yij0 ¼ ai þ bi Yi ; i 2 1; 2; . . .; n ð5Þ
Stage 3 Fitness figuring

Once the fundamental course of action is delivered, the wellness esti-
mation of each individual is surveyed and secured for future reference.
The wellness work is portrayed as the going with enunciation;
Fitness ¼ MinimumðPAPRÞ ð6Þ
Step 4 Calculating a, b, d and x

We find a, b, d and x after the wellness calculation. Here, while con-
sidering the OGWO the alpha (a) is viewed as the most sensible course
of action with a perspective to recreating soundly the social pecking
request of wolves. Give the primary best wellness arrangements a chance
to be Fa, the second-best wellness arrangements Fb and the third-best
wellness arrangements Fd.
Step 5 Encircling the prey
The gray wolves encompassing activities to hunt for a prey can be
expressed as

T ¼ ~
~ A~ PðuÞ
Px ðuÞ ~ ð7Þ
~ Px ðuÞ ~
Pðu þ 1Þ ¼ ~ C ~
T ð8Þ
C and ~
The vectors ~ A are computed by:
C ¼ 2~
~ r1 ~
b ~ b ð9Þ
~
A ¼ 2 ~
r2 ð10Þ
Step 6 Hunting
Once the prey has been surrounded, the dim wolves center around
chasing. The alpha (a) will manage this method. Sometimes beta (b) and
delta (d) may moreover participate. There is no plan about the area of the
ideal incentive if there should be an occurrence of inquiry space. Thus,
to start the chasing strategy of dim wolves, the alpha (best hopeful
arrangement), beta and delta have transcendent data regarding the area of
the prey. So keep the underlying three best arrangements found and after
that oblige the other hunt specialists to refresh their situations as indi-
cated by the situation of the best inquiry operators.
This area contains result and exchange about PAPR reduction utilizing parallel PTS
and SLM conspire with MIMO-OFDM. Both the techniques SLM and PTS have
been clubbed to attain better performance. The proposed calculation utilizing
MATLAB programming completed utilizing an arrangement. This region shows
relevant ramifications of introduced system. The contrasted our displayed frame-
work OGWO and GWO and AABC methods.
In this segment, the mistake procured is least for our proposed technique than the
current strategies. Obviously, the mistake accomplished is less for the proposed
philosophies (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2 BER methodologies

Fig. 3 SER methodologies
Fig. 4 PAPR versus CCDF methodologies
It can note from the above chart that the bit blunder proportion for the proposed
system is significantly lower than existing strategies. Bit mistake proportion speaks
to the yield restorative dimension, consequently the through for proposed strategy is
better as far as BER (Fig. 3).
It tends to be seen above assume that image blunder proportion for the proposed
strategy is diminishing extensively quicker than existing strategies. Besides, the
proposed strategy demonstrated preferable outcomes over existing system.
The anticipated PAPR versus CCDF chart in Fig. 4.
It can be noted from Fig. 4, PAPR reduction takes place in every technique but
for the proposed technique PAPR takes place in short period of time. Moreover, the
PAPR has been reduced whereas, it is more in the existing technique. The man
motive of the work was to attain less PAPR as much as possible, which proves the
efficiency of the technique.
5 Conclusion
OFDM is an uncommonly appealing procedure in light of its range efficiency and

channel power. The transmitted banner demonstrates data-related critical drawbacks
MIMO–OFDM structures. The near vocation, two disparate PAPR methodologies,
SLM and PTS contain the MIMO–OFDM contrive and the PAPR reducing stricture
analyzed. The outcome exhibits that equally the SLM chart and PTS contrive are all
the convincing to diminish PAPR in MIMO–OFDM systems. By propagation
considers, shown anticipated figuring decrease PAPR common present systems.
A parallel fake bumble bee settlement (P-ABC) estimation has made by Necmi
Taspinar [7] in context of interest framework. PTS conspire relies upon a
two-organize enhancement of the stage weighting factors for the parallel IFFT
squares and the stage weighting factors for the information images before the
summation errand have been created by Siming Peng [8]. However this PTS design
could acquire considerable PAPR decrease execution change than customary PTS
conspire still many-sided quality exists. A section based T1 ( Tone infusion) plot
have been exhibited by Jun Hou [9] to diminish computational multifaceted nature
and improve PAPR execution of OFDM signals. In OFDM systems,
low-many-sided quality engineering for PAPR decrease in OFDM structures have
actualized by Sen-Hung Wang [10]. Two fractional transmit arrangement
(PTS) plans without side data(SI) have presented by Hyun-Seung. Joo [11] for
lessening top to normal power proportion of orthogonal recurrence division mul-
tiplexing signals. The Euclidean separation between the given flag froup of starts
and flag [12] turned by the stage balance.
References
1. S. Zid, R. Bouallegue, Low-complexity PAPR reduction schemes using SLM and PTS
approaches for interleaved OFDMA. IEEE Commun. Surv. Tutor. 15(4) (2013)
2. H. Yang, A.S. Bell, A road to future broadband wireless access: MIMO-OFDM-based air
interface. IEEE Commun. Mag. 43(1) (2005)
3. F. Sandoval, G. Poitau, F. Gagnon, Hybrid peak-to-average power ratio reduction techniques:
review and performance comparison. IEEE Access, vol. 5 (2017)
4. S. Singh, A. Kumar, Performance analysis of adaptive clipping technique for reduction of
PAPR in alamouti coded MIMO-OFDM systems. Int. Conf. Adv. Comput. Commun. ICACC
(2016)
5. K. Anon, C. Turnover, B. Adobes, on the optimization of iterative clipping and filtering for
PAPR reduction in OFDM systems. IEEE Access 5, 12004–12013 (2017)
6. M.V.R. Vital, K. Rama Naidu, A novel reduced complexity optimized PTS technique for
PAPR reduction in wireless OFDM systems. Egypt. Inf. J. 18(2), 123–131 (2017)
7. M.V.R. Vital, K. Rama Naidu, A novel parallel artificial bee colony algorithm and its PAPR
reduction performance using SLM scheme in OFDM and MIMO-OFDM systems. IEEE
Commun. Lett. 19(10) (2015)
8. S. Peng, A. Liu, K. Wang, X. Liang, PAPR reduction of multicarrier faster-than-nyquist
Signals with partial transmit sequence. IEEE Access, vol. 5 (2017)
9. X. Zhao, F. Gong, J. Ge, PAPR and PICR reduction of OFDM signals with clipping
noise-based tone injection scheme. IEEE Trans. Vehicular Technol. 66(1) (2017)
10. S.H. Wang, K.C. Lee, C.P. Li, Low-complexity architecture for PAPR reduction in OFDM
systems with near-optimal performance. IEEE Trans. Vehicular Technol. 65(1) (2016)
11. H.S. Joo, K. Kim, J.S. No, D.J. Shin, New PTS schemes for PAPR reduction of OFDM
signals without side information. IEEE Trans. Broadcast. 63(3) (2017)
12. D. Kumutha, N. Martha Piranha, Hybrid STBC-PTS with enhanced artificial bee colony
algorithm for PAPR reduction in MIMO–OFDM system. J. Ambient Intell. Human. Comput.,
pp. 1–17 (2017)
Women Safety Device with GPS
Tracking and Alerts
A. Ranganadh
Abstract Nowadays, women’s safety in India has become concerning issues

against women growing at an important stage. They are facing problems like
kidnaping, and sexual harassment toward kids and young girls has been reached
uncomfortable levels. This paper presents a women safety device based on the alerts
of the global position systems and GSM module devices. This detection alert
system consists of GPS, Arduino Uno microcontroller, and GSM modem. GPS
tracks the exact location of where the women are facing problems and this infor-
mation is given to the microcontroller. Microcontroller processes the information
and sends the same thing to the user through GSM modem. GSM sends the
information in the form of SMS to the predefined mobile number. When a woman
is in danger position, she can press the button through which the system is activated
and sends the emergency alerts. This paper presents the design and implementation
of a system which gives information about the safety and security of women against
danger situations like kidnaping and some other harassment.
Keywords Women safety and security Global positioning system module

Global service technology
1 Introduction
Women’s safety in India has become a concerning issue since 2012 with issues
against women growing at animportant stage. They are facing problems like kid-
naping; sexual harassment toward kids and young girls has been reached uncom-
fortable levels. According to NCRB in the year 2015, opinion at the rate of reported
crimes across the women in India is less than 22%. Cases of crimes counter to
women were promoted to 327.394, as recorded in 2015 [1]. Current statistics show
a decrease of 3.1% compared to 2014. The highest conviction rate that has ever
been reported was under the Immoral Traffic Prevention Act (49%) [2]. It was
A. Ranganadh (&)
Department of EEE, Guru Nanak Institute of Technology, Hyderabad, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_74
798 A. Ranganadh
followed by the Protection of Women from Domestic Violence Act (47.8%).

Abetment to suicide and cruelty by husband and his relatives was reported to have
the lowest conviction rate.
According to the above figure, crime against women has increased every year.
From 2012 to 2013, the cases increased from 2,44,270 to 3,09,546. Often the work
of race, religion, political, cultural, and tearing promotes peace. It should be noted
that the safety of all hands down in the women is properly respected.
The body of the brave men and women as a helping hand at that time was a
relief. The best way to reduce your chances of being the victim of violent crime
(robbery, sexual assault, rape, domestic violence) is to identify and to apply
resources to help you out of dangerous situations. The best way to minimize your
chances of becoming a victim of violent crime (robbery, sexual assault, rape,
domestic violence) is to identify and call on resources to help you out of dangerous
situations. Although several were originally developed for students to reduce the
risk of sexual assault on campus, they are suitable for all women In the light of
recent outrage in Delhi which shook the nation and woke us to the safety issues for
our daughters, people are gearing up in different ways to fight back.
A series of new applications has been provided to women to provide surveillance
systems on their phones. Here, we present an application that guarantees the pro-
tection of women. This helps in identifying resources and helping them out of
dangerous situations. These reduce risks and provide support when we need it and
help us to identify the place.
The outline of this paper is as follows: Sect. 2 discusses the Internet of things
(IoT); Sect. 3 discusses the components used and its brief description; Sect. 4
discusses the block diagram and its implementation; Sect. 5 discusses the working
and results; and Sect. 6 gives the completion of paper.
2 Internet of Things
The latest advance technology in IT sector nowadays is the Internet of things (IoT).
As the number of internetworking provides optimal PLCs, sensors, actuators, and
other consumer electronic devices, the network integrates with the teachings of the
IoT and rules and provides interactions that are found between many of the con-
figurations, and we are discussing information by means of exchange. In the year
1995, Bill Gates proposed “thing to thing” say that “IoT interconnects the thing to
human and between any one of the transfer.” The IoT brings out a huge network by
connecting different types of devices [3]. IOT targets three aspects: cost saving in a
system, communication, and automation. It allows people to carry out their daily
and routine activities using the Internet and saves time, making them more fertile
[4]. Recent progress in the expansion of cyber-physical systems, the IoT Claudio
computing model essentially provides a great contribution to the preparation and
management views the parameters of Web pages. Nowadays, IOT is the most
Women Safety Device with GPS Tracking and Alerts 799
advanced, cost-less technological solution, and efficient, which encompasses the

hardware and software resources, and allows remotely connected sensing devices to
sense with more capabilities. And it could be monitored and controlled through
existing systems, resulting in the real-time world integration with computer
controllers.
3 Components and Its Description
A. ARDUINO
Arduino is an open-source platform. It recycled for the purpose of electronic pro-
jects. Arduino is a microcontroller-based system, and it is easily programmed by
using a bunch of instructions. These Arduinos are easily coordinated with computer
and other microcontroller devices, which are represented in Fig. 2. Atmel
Corporation is developed microcontroller. It is placed on Arduino boards. Arduinos
are generally of 8-bit, 16-bit, and 32-bit AVR-based architecture microcontrollers.
There are many Arduino boards such as Arduino Uno, Arduino Mini, Arduino
Mega, Arduino Nano, LillyPad. In this system, we have used Arduino UNO board
(ATMEGA 328). Arduino UNO consists of 8 bit microcontroller board.
The ATMEGA 328P uses serial communication with the help of serial pins Tx(0)
and Rx (1). The Uno board has voltage regulators of 5 and 3.3 V which can be used
for power supply to LEDs.
Arduino Uno consists of 14 binary input/outputs; out of those 14 pins, six pins
are used for PWM and six analog pins. It also has USB connection, power jack, and
reset button. Serial pin 0 and pin 1 are used for receiving and transmitting data. Pin
2 and pin 3 are used for triggering an interrupt. Pins 3, 5, 6, 9, and 11 provide 8-bit
PWM output—Arduino board can be programmed by using Arduino IDE software.
By the use of receiver and transmitter pins, serial communication can be achieved.
In order to get continuous glow of receiver and transmitter pins of LED, Arduino
board is connected through USB cable. Arduino is the IDE serial monitor software,
which allows to move the board information out. Software is needed for the library
in digital serial communication pins (Fig. 1).
B. GPS
Global positioning system is a satellite navigation system, according to the time and
place through the steps. It consists of 24 satellites around the earth [2]. It is a global
navigation system which provides the geolocation and time information to the user
anywhere on the earth. GPS working depends on the principle of “Trilateration.”
According to this principle, four satellites are required to determine the receiver
position [5]. Among these four satellites, fourth satellite is used to confirm the target
location of each of three space vehicles, and other three satellites are used to point
out the location (Fig. 2).
800 A. Ranganadh
Fig. 1 Ardunio Uno pin diagram
Fig. 2 GPS module
In this system, we are using UBLOX NEO 6M GPS module because of its small
size and accurate location tracking. This unit has the latest technology of UBLOX
to get the accurate positioning information of the user. NEO 6M global position
system module has a built-in GPS antenna and a battery for backup power when the
supply is interrupted and also for the faster GPS signal. This module has four pins,
i.e. RX, TX, VCC, and GND, and serial TTL output.
C. GSM
GSM stands for global system for mobile communication. In Bell laboratories,
GSM has developed in the year 1970. It is greatly used mobile communication in
the world. It transmits data and operates at the frequency of 850, 900, 1800, and
1900 MHz. It is most widely used mobile communication in the world. It transmits
data and operates at a frequency of 850, 900, 1800, 1900 MHZ. GSM module is
designed as digital system by using time division multiple access technique. At the
same time to the celebration of the art of data implementation for language users
assign different types of openings of 120 Mbps 64 kbps.
GSM network consists of three components: 1. mobile station, 2. base station
subsystem, and 3. network subsystem. Mobile station consists of transmitters and
displays, and it is controlled by the SIM card. Base station subsystem acts as channel
formed between the mobile system and network subsystem. Network subsystem
provides connection to mobile stations [5]. It uses a SIM card which operates over a
large range of control network subscribed by operator. GSM modem is associated
with the computer through USB port or serial communication connection.
In this system, we have used SIM 800A module. SIM 800A supports quad-band
of 850/900/1800/1900 MHz and transmits SMS, data with less power utilization.
SIM 800A modem consists of GSM chip and an RS 232 interface which makes
easy connection to laptop/computer through USB. GSM works on 9600 baud rate
which is the default rate. In order to make LED glow, continuous supply is given by
GSM. In order to connect GSM to the network, LED should glow each and every
3 s. By the use of the AT commands, we can send and receive SMS (Fig. 3).
D. LCD
LCD stands for liquid crystal display. It consists of 16 pins if the backlight is built
in the module. In this system, we are using 16 2 LCD Module. A 16 2 LCD has
two registers, i.e., command and data registers [5]. Register select is pre-owned for
the purpose of switching from one register to another. RS = 0 is also recycled for
command register and RS = 1 for data register (Fig. 4).
Fig. 3 GSM module

802 A. Ranganadh
Fig. 4 LCD display
4 Block Diagram and Its Implementation
From Fig. 5, the hardware is associated with smartphone through IoT. The device
communicates with smartphone by using Arduino IDE software. The software is
programmed in such a way that the GPS tracks the coordinates so that we can track
it easily. The required data message is sent to family members and nearest police
station using IoT [4].
A. INTERFACING GPS WITH ARDUINO
GPS has four pins, namely RX, TX, VCC, and GND. Here, TX of GPS is linked to
D10 pin of Arduino. By using “Software serial library,” we establish serial
Fig. 5 Block diagram of hardware implementation

communication on D10, D11 Pins and made them TX, RX and we have left RX
open [1]. We have pin 0 and pin 1 for serial communication as default, but by using
software serial library we can have serial communication on any of the digital pins
of Arduino. Here, GPS is powered up by 12 V supply [3].
B. INTERFACING GSM WITH ARDUINO
In GSM module, we use only four pins for interfacing with Arduino [6], i.e., TX,
RX, VCC, and GND. TX and RX of GSM modem are joined with receiver and
transmitter of the Arduino. GSM is powered up by giving 12 V supply.
C. INTERFACING LCD WITH ARDUINO
For the interfacing of LCD with Arduino, we need a breadboard. LCD has 16 pins.
In those pins, we can use 12 pins only. LCD data pins D4–D7 are linked with
Arduino D5–D2 pins. Command pins, reset and enable of LCD, are banded
together with D2 and D3 pins of Arduino, and RW is coupled to ground. VEE pin
of LCD is combined with 10 K potentiometer. Voltage divider is used for the
adjustment of contrast of LCD.
5 Working and Results
In this paper, Arduino plays a vital role in regulating the process [5]. When the push
key is pressed the system gets activated. Then, the GPS module tracks the location
information in the form of latitude and longitude from the satellites. This infor-
mation is given to the Arduino. Arduino processes this information and sends this
information to GSM module [2]. GSM module sends the information to the user in
the form of SMS to predefined mobile number.
Before Execution
After interfacing all components with Arduino, the corresponding system is shown
in Fig. 6.
Fig. 6 Before execution

804 A. Ranganadh
After Execution
If any person facing problem regarding harassments, the LCD display will show the
longitudinal and latitudinal values of the corresponding person location.
GSM module will send the message to the registered mobile number, and then,
the user will know about the exact location where women are facing problems.
Those corresponding figures are shown in Figs. 7 and 8.
Fig. 7 Exact location of where women are facing problem
Fig. 8 Message information

6 Conclusion
This article ensures the proper safety of women, thereby providing a safety envi-
ronment. As reported by the survey, many women are facing problems such as
eve-teasing, robbery, and harassment. This device can play an important role by
providing safe environment to women against all situations which are mentioned
above. By implementing this idea in real-life situation, we may solve the harass-
ment against women to a certain extent.
References
1. P.M. Tuan, MQTT client library of ESP8266 module

2. B. Benchoff, An SDK for the ESP8266 Wi-Fi chip. Hackaday
3. S. Sinha, Introduction to internet of things
4. Geeksforgeeks-IOT
5. Vowstar, NodeMCU Devkit. GitHub. NodeMCU team. Retrieved 2 Apr 2015
6. Zeroday, A Lua Based Firmware for WIFI-SOC ESP8266. GitHub. Retrieved 2 Apr 2015
7. A. Kumar, A. Sharma, Internet of Life (IOL) (2015)
A Smart Machine for Fitness Care
Scrutinizing Technique—A Review
N. Pooranam, M. Diwakaran, A. Archana, S. Agalya, A. Anindhitha

and E. GokulaPriya
Abstract In the modern era, monitoring a person’s health is a too high process.
To manage and maintain the entire document related to a particular person becomes
tough. To reduce this difficulty, some of the recent IoT technology plays a major
role. In this paper, a review is made on person’s healthcare system. The data
maintained in hospital or clinic should be examined by their relatives and nearby
inhabitants. To reduce human achieve some intelligent method are generated to
maintain and relocate data throughout Raspberry pi, RFID and other component are
used to build the effective automated system using IOT sensors, controllers.
A novel machine can help a person in usual intake of medicine and other treatment.
A hardware and software system is built with low-cost effective components. IoT
works on the cloud to store, retrieve, and process data from sensors and controllers.
Cloud infrastructures reduce the cost of resource maintenance and resource
utilization process. An effective method is generated to process each individual data
in a secure way.
Keywords IoT RFID Raspberry Pi Cloud infrastructure
1 Introduction
The inter-component device can be connected through network objects which can
collect and exchange information which is nowadays termed as IoT. The infor-
mation is now available in the collective devices which can send data and receive
the information from the surroundings. Here, in this paper, IoT is used in health
monitoring system such as (1) rural health care, (2) heart disease monitoring sys-
tem, (3) diabetes, and (4) health monitoring system for soldiers. Development
of technology was useful in various categories of different fields [1]. All these
N. Pooranam (&) M. Diwakaran A. Archana S. Agalya

A. Anindhitha E. GokulaPriya

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_75
808 N. Pooranam et al.
technologies are based on Internet of Things (IoT). One of the specific areas is the
physical condition examining method that can examine the patient’s health using
sensors. These sensors examine the patient’s physical condition and give report by
measuring patient’s blood pressure, glucose level (too high or too low), and energy
efficiency (high or low) [2].
2 Rural Health Care
2.1 Health Care Monitoring System
The development of health monitoring system is more useful in rural areas where
the hospitals are not available as like cities. In this proposed system, the instrument
is made in which one end acts as sensors which collect the patient’s details and send
the information to the doctors available in cities so that the doctors check the report
and prescribe the medicines via SMS to the patient’s caretaker or to relatives or to
nearby people [3]. This technology is also very useful for the pregnant ladies living
in remote areas; the monitoring device gives report of blood pressure and blood rate
of the women, and also the blood rate and movements of fetal were monitored just
to control the women’s health condition. This would be highly useful for them
during their child birth (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1 Flowchart of medicine remainder

A Smart Machine for Fitness Care Scrutinizing Technique—A Review 809
2.2 Solution to Chronical Disease
In this article, the author inflates more recent developments in deep learning. The
article consists of the algorithm, applications, and the history of deep learning
research. Deep learning a class of machine learning techniques includes three
classes: generative, discriminative, and hybrid. The author selected some of the
applications such as neural networks, information processing including audio/
speech, image/vision, language representation, natural language processing (NLP),
and data recovery. Each application has a special feature that is illustrated with its
architecture, and classes are been classified directly for the visible data. In this
application, signal processing areas defined by the matrix with the two axes of
signal and processing analyze the scheme using the deep learning algorithm. The
main advantage in deep learning is to scale the CPU clustering by means of very
high training data.
3 Heart Disease
3.1 Heart Disease Monitoring System
Currently, heart disease is the most important reason for deaths. In China, more than
1,500,000 deaths are due to heart diseases each year. People with heart diseases stay
at home when they feel sick. Mostly, the patient will not feel anything until they
feel the pain so the pain gets increased and they might die due to the late process of
diagnosis. Since there are some solutions that can help in curing of diseases which
can also help in improving the process of reducing the death rate that helps in
providing health care and physical status [4, 5] of the patient is evaluated and
examined by the doctors and the patients are treated as their genuine instance
through some conditions.
3.2 Data Acquisition Part
• With the help of Internet connective devices and techniques, it is easy for
evaluating through some methods, and the human will do things by their own
matters. When acquired, the information is transferred and received through
physical components with less cost. The machine evaluates the patient sign
through some environmental indicators and balance models and transfers the
information in different modes which include blood pressure, ECG, Spo2, etc.,
and strain for transmission, resource model.
• The architecture, inter-component device, can be connected through network

objects which can collect and exchange information which is nowadays termed
as IoT which is going to evaluate the heart disease by evaluating each parts of
the body and divide them into layer by layer. The way an architecture works is
based on the evaluation process and acquires knowledge from different mod-
eling techniques, each part will give different model inputs and outputs; the
transmission of information is based on the two main processes [6]. The one is
based on different features which evaluate differently. Another is based on the
sampling frequency for each layer.
• There are four operating models for evaluating the machine, or the devices with
some real-world input can be sequential and process the information generated
by the device which is connected by the modeling different transmission pro-
cesses on the patients.
3.3 Architecture Based on Heart Disease
• The investigation made a study on the health issues and divides the several
inputs into different forms such as evaluating the different process and tech-
niques to which the information is exactly based on the patient’s data from the
devices connected in the network pattern. The other investigators considered the
machine with wide area of data control and such area like hospital environment.
• Each of their aims was to evaluating the information and maintaining the dif-
ferent models with different modes that can be elaborated in such a way that it
does not be a distinct [7]. With this aspect, the evaluating model will definitely
measure the data on recent topics.
• In the signs of patient’s information, the evaluated data can be less or more, but
still some different processes can be made when it affects the system by only
paying attention to one definite sign, such as heart rate, ECG, or blood pressure.
• The non-phycological features provide different background information of
patients which may help the distant investigation or assist context-based
servicers.
• The architecture of the inter-component device can be connected through net-
work objects which can collect and exchange information which is nowadays
termed as IoT which is going to evaluate the heart disease by evaluating each
part of the body and divide them into layer by layer.
• The kind of architecture which the evaluating system is clear and flexible
enough for the monitoring system.
4 Diabetes
4.1 A Metabolic Disorder—Diabetes
Diabetes is one of the most common diseases which affects the parts and produce
some useful information. It is a metabolic disorder and leads to heart disease,
stroke, kidney disease, and blindness. About 350 million of people suffered from
diabetes globally. It will lead to death when there is no proper health care. The
glucose level, blood pressure, and temperature should be monitored every day.
Common diabetic test is done completely on patient’s condition by testing the parts
level by level. However, there are different techniques for different persons who go
to hospital and test the diabetes condition. With the help of sensors, the glucose
level, temperature, and pressure of the patient are recorded [8]. The sensors are
connected to an Arduino Nano Microcontroller to convert the analog signal to
digital signal. The patient’s data are transmitted to Raspberry Pi by UART USB and
then the data are stored in cloud storage. The data stored in cloud can be monitored
by both the doctors and patient’s relatives [9].
SENDER SIDE
See Fig. 2.
RECEIVER SIDE
See Fig. 3.
Fig. 2 Data acquisition from the sensor
Fig. 3 Data retrieving from the cloud storage

4.2 Glucose Monitoring Sensor
Blood glucose-level monitoring is an important part of diabetes care, and

inter-component device can be connected through network objects which can
collect and exchange information which is nowadays termed as IoT and is based on
continuous glucose monitor (CGM) which is an existing model, which is used to
track the glucose level automatically. The CGM system is made of sensors,
transmitters, and monitor. The sensor is placed on the skin, and so it is in contact
with the interstitial fluid between the cells [9]. The sensor measures the glucose
level in the fluid and the transmitter transmits the analog value from the sensor to
the Arduino [10]. The Arduino is then converted into the digital value and stored in
the cloud storage. The transmitter then wirelessly sends the status to the monitor.
The patient can also view their glucose level in the monitor (Fig. 4).
4.3 Pressure Monitoring Sensor
Diabetes and high blood pressure are closely related disease. High blood pressure
makes diabetes more dangerous. The device placed on the human is sensed and
detect some systolic diastolic force and convert into a analog electrical sign whose
size which depends on pressure applied [11]. The several detectors include sensor
such as LCD which displays systolic and diastolic pressure. The patient can also
view their blood pressure level in the LCD display (Fig. 5).
Fig. 4 Glucose sensor which measures the glucose level from the interstitial fluid
Fig. 5 Diagram of pressure sensor
4.4 Temperature Monitoring Sensor
Body temperature can have a profound impact on diabetes patients. The tempera-
ture of the patients should be monitored continuously [12]. The measurement of
body temperature is done by the mistor-type sensor. The common negative tem-
perature coefficient (NTC) is used to measure the body temperature.
5 Health Monitoring System for Soldiers
5.1 Biosensor System
Warfare becomes most important thing for nation’s security and protection. Soldiers
play the vital roles in army of the nation. There are many instruments and biosensor
systems for the safety of soldiers. Thus, the sensor systems consist of physiological
monitoring, transmission module, processing capabilities, etc. [13]. This paper is about
to give the health status of the soldiers in battlefield in order to rescue in emergency
situations and to path and the position of the military officials who uses GPS unit and
other sensor devices which is connected to the network models. It reduces some process
of searching and modeling each method by some efforts of information model [14].
5.2 Advanced Medical Care Monitoring System
The soldiers were integrated with advanced medical care monitoring and GPS, data
communication in order to transmit data to the control unit and also the co-military
persons. The mechanism should be less weighted with needed power source. The
location of the soldiers is monitored by control unit to direct the warrior right path is
warfield or in special mission [15]. Biomedical sensors were integrated into the
jacket of soldiers with entire mobility property. This structure connects all the base
stations where data are collected for future prediction.
Methods Usage Advantages Disadvantage

Continuous To measure CGM used to track the The reading from the sensor
glucose the glucose glucose level automatically is not accurate because the
monitoring level in the and track historical data sensor measures the
system blood glucose level from the
interstitial fluid and not
from the blood stream
Pressure To measure The sensor can take The sensor is not always
monitoring the blood multiple readings over an 100% accurate
system pressure extended period of time
Temperature To measure Temperature measurement Limited temperature range
monitoring the body becomes more stable to use
system temperature
Soldier To monitor a It will reduce/minimize the The integrated components
health human time, search, recue effort of can make the jacket weight/
monitoring soldier in control unit when soldier in heavy
system conflict Iill/emergency
References
1. Rane, D.B. et al., Soldier tracking and health indication system using arm processor. Int.
J. Emerg. Trends Sci. Technol. 2(05) (2015)
2. E. Madhyan, K. Mahesh, A unique health care monitoring system using sensors and zigbee
technology. Int. J. Adv. Res. Comput. Sci. Softw. Eng. 4(6), 183–189 (2014)
3. K.A.M. Zeinab, S.A.A. Elmustafa, Internet of things applications, challenges and related
future technologies. World Scientif. News 2(67), 126–148 (2017)
4. L. Khuon, et al, Contrasting blood pressure measurement approaches in a freshman
engineering design project (2012)
5. S. Biruntha, S. Dinesh, K.S. Ganesh, V. Priyadharsini, Artificial neural networks and their
appliance to civil engineering—a review. Int. J. Pure Appl. Math. (2018)
6. R. Archana, S. Indira, Soldier monitoring and health indication system. Int. J. Sci. Res. (IJSR)
ISSN (Online), 2319–7064 (2013)
7. M. Parida, et al., Application of RFID technology for in-house drug management system. in
2012 15th International Conference on Network-Based Information Systems (NBiS), IEEE
(2012)
8. H.B. Lim, et al, A soldier health monitoring system for military applications. in 2010
International Conference on Body Sensor Networks (BSN). IEEE (2010)
9. T.N. Gia, et al., IoT-based continuous glucose monitoring system: a feasibility study. Proc.
Comput. Sci. 109, 327–334 (2017)
10. K. Devipriya, D. Prabha, B. Sophia, B.P.U. Ivy, A survey on deep learning based
recommender system using sentiment analysis. Int. J. Pure Appl. Math. 119(12)
11. A. Abdelgawad, K. Yelamarthi, A. Khattab, IoT-based health monitoring system for active
and assisted living. in International Conference on Smart Objects and Technologies for Social
Good. Springer, Cham (2016)
12. G. Muhammad, et al., Smart health solution integrating IoT and cloud: a case study of voice
pathology monitoring. IEEE Commun. Mag. 55(1), 69–73 (2017)
13. A. Murakami, et al, A continuous glucose monitoring system in critical cardiac patients in the
intensive care unit. in Computers in Cardiology, 2006. IEEE (2006)
14. D.A. Clifton et al., A large-scale clinical validation of an integrated monitoring system in the
emergency department. IEEE J. Biomed. Health Inf. 17(4), 835–842 (2013)
15. H. Azath, P. Amudhavalli, S. Rajalakshmi, M. Marikannan, A novel regression neural
network based optimized algorithm for software development cost and effort estimation.
J. Web Eng. 17(6), 3095–3125 (2018)
16. A. Sawand, et al., Multidisciplinary approaches to achieving efficient and trustworthy eHealth
monitoring systems. in 2014 IEEE/CIC International Conference on Communications in
China (ICCC), IEEE (2014)
17. L. Ilkko, J. Karppinen, UbiPILL a medicine dose controller of ubiquitous home environment.
in UBICOMM’09. Third International Conference on Mobile Ubiquitous Computing,
Systems, Services and Technologies, IEEE (2009)
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diagnosis system. in 13th IEEE International Conference on BioInformatics and
BioEngineering. IEEE (2013)
Configuring MPLS Cloud Providers
with Virtual Private Network
M. L. S. N. S. Lakshmi and Naga Venkata Sai Sudheer Bandaru
Abstract In the fast-growing business world, networking has a vital role to play.
The organizations are spread all over the world. The connectivity between these
organizations has become somewhat typical with old traditional ways. To overcome
them a new technology called multiprotocol label switching (MPLS) is being used.
It has become very popular industry solutions. MPLS at present has more advan-
tages than any other technologies like ATM, FR, Ethernet and SONET. VPN
additionally takes part in security. Therefore, this MPLS network with VPN gives a
good network connection. In this project, MPLS-based VPN is implemented in a
collaborative environment. Three regional offices of an organization are connected
with the central Web site through MPLS-based ISP’s network. The connectivity
among the sites is established and further resolutions are made on the basis of
MPLS labels instead of IP addresses. Moreover, it is also observable in that MPLS
does not need any other tunneling protocol unlike traditional VPN’s. It builds
tunnels based on labels.
Keywords MPLS VPN IPv4 address VRF Routing protocols GNS3

software
1 Introduction
Networking is a process of creating and connecting different systems under a

network. In networking, the important aspect is to know about IP and routing. From
these, one can learn about protocols for routing. The basic routing protocols are
static routing and dynamic routing. Static routing is a bit complex method to
connect the hosts under it. But by dynamic routing, it became easier. In dynamic
M. L. S. N. S.Lakshmi (&) N. V. S. S. Bandaru

Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, QIS College
of Engineering and Technology, Ongole, Andhra Pradesh, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_76
818 M. L. S. N. S. Lakshmi and N. V. S. S. Bandaru
routing, there are three types of routings namely RIP, OSPF, EIGRP. All these three
are used in different circumstances. Each protocol has its advantages over the other.
MPLS [1] is label-based fast data transfer technology, which is reliable in large
distance communications. MPLS contains ingress and egress routers, which are
responsible to convert the packet data into labels and labels into packets. Every time
packet passes through the ingress router it converts packets into labels, while egress
again converts them into packets and deliver to destination. VPN [2] refers to
virtual private network. VPN [3] is a client-server architecture. It securely connects
using public infrastructure. VPN allows computers on networks to connect securely
over the Internet. VRF [4] is a technology which allows different instances of
routing tables. VRF’s [5] are like VLAN’s for the routers.
OSPF refers to Open Shortest Path First and EIGRP refers to Enhanced Interior
Gateway Routing Protocol. OSPF [6] is a bit slower and heavier than
EIGRP. EIGRP is lighter and faster due to its feasible successor. It contains backup
and standby. OSPF contains equal load sharing while EIGRP has unequal sharing
of loads. BGP [7] refers to Border Gateway Protocol it is an important protocol in
MPLS. As BGP [8] is path-vector protocol it creates loop-free paths and transfers
information to routers.
As there are many network protocols to connect devices across the globe, like
SONET, ATM, FR, etc. There are many disadvantages regarding these protocols.
To overcome these disadvantages, they have come up with a technology called
multiprotocol label switching (MPLS).MPLS with VPN [9] is to consider the
customers’ security. In MPLS [10] network, each locations router with their loca-
tion’s ISP. In MPLS, routing is done based on the labels therefore it is called as
label switching; it makes faster to transfer data. The routers present in between the
MPLS [11] topology is responsible for switching the labels used to route packets. It
is called MPLS cloud because an ISP provider can easily provide connectivity
option between two or more offices for an organization using MPLS backbone.
2 Basic Topology
The basic topology of MPLS cloud providers with VPN contains a minimum five
routers. Two of the routers act as headquarters and branch of a corporate organi-
zation. Another two of the routers are service provider1 router and service provi-
der2 router, these are ingress router and egress router. The final router is a service
provider router. This is topology is as shown in below Fig. 1.
Here router1 indicates the headquarters router from which the data to be
transferred. Next, router2 indicates branch office routers which receive data from
headquarters routers. Routers3&4 are the provider edge routers which are ingress
and egress routers. Router5 is service provider router. Ingress and egress routers
with this service provider act as the backbone of MPLS network.
Configuring MPLS Cloud Providers with Virtual Private Network 819
Router5
Router3 Router4
Router1 Router2
Fig. 1 MPLS cloud connectivity
3 Implementation of MPLS Cloud Network
This network is achieved by performing the following steps:

(i) Configuring IPv4 addresses to all the routers.
(ii) Configuring IGP inside SP core.
(iii) Configuring MPLS LDP inside the SP core.
(iv) Configuring VRF, RD and route target.
(v) Configure VPNV4 through BGP between both the SP1 and SP2 routers.
(vi) Configuring routing between CE routers, Static/default, RIPv2, OSPF,
EIGRP.
(vii) Redistributing the routes in SP routers.
3.1 Configuring IPv4 Addresses to All the Routers
First, to continue with any routing protocol IP addresses should be configured on

every router along with loopback ID. The IP address should be assigned on
interfaces along with interface numbers. After configuring the IP’s, routers state
should be changed to up. The command used to configure IPv4 address is:
#configure terminal
#int l0
#ip address 3.3.3.3 255.255.255.255
#interface f0/0
#ip address 192.168.23.3 255.255.255.255.0
3.2 Configuring IGP Inside0 SP Core
In Interior Gateway Protocol (IGP), the basic protocols are RIP, OSPF, EIGRP. In
this context, OSPF protocol is used for Internet service provider routers. As OSPF
is used for large and hierarchical networks one can choose it for ISP routers.
The command for OSPF configuration is:
#router ospf 1
#network 192.168.23.0 0.0.0.255 area 0
3.3 Configuring MPLS LDP Inside the SP Core
LDP means Label Distribution Protocol. LDP is used to transfer labels between
routers. For every router MPLS LDP is configured using this command:
#mpls ldp autoconfig
This command will automatically enable LDP for all OSPF router interfaces.
To verify if the ISP routers relate to each other, try to ping the router with
loopback address of one end with the router of another end. To ping the routers, one
must exit from configuration mode. The commands used to ping the routers is
#ping 2.2.2.2
To check the connections and routes:
#show ip int brief
Or
#show ip route
3.4 Configuring VRF, RD and Route Target
Next our target is to configure VRFs [12], RD (route distinguisher) and route target
to SP1 and SP3 routers. Name should be assigned to the VRF. This can be done by
#ip vrf CUSTOMER

#rd 100:1
#route-target both 1:100
VRF is assigned to the router using their interface numbers and IP addresses.
VRFs state should be changed to up.
#int f0/1
#ip vrf forwarding CUSTOMER
#ip address 192.168.12.2 225.255.255.0
#no shut
3.5 Configure VPNv4 Peering Between Both the SP1

and SP2 Routers
Next step is to configure the VPNv4 to the SP1 and SP3 routers because these
routers are provider edge routers. To configure VPN [13], Border Gateway Protocol
(BGP) [14] protocol is to be configured to the routers. These are configured using
the following commands:
#router bgp 234
#neighbor 2.2.2.2 remote-as 234
#neighbor 2.2.2.2 update-source loopback 0
#address-family vpnv4
#neighbor 2.2.2.2 activate
3.6 Configuring Routing Between CE Routers, Static/

Default, RIPv2, OSPF, EIGRP
Now configure the routing protocols for CE routers. Here, EIGRP is configured to
connect these routers. This EIGRP will establish neighborly relation between CE
routers.
#router eigrp 1
#network 192.168.12.0
#network 2.2.2.2 0.0.0.0
#no auto-summary
Next, use address-family ipv4 command to tell the router which its neighbor is.
This is done in SP routers.
#router eigrp 1
#address-family ipv4 vrf CUSTOMER
#network 192.168.12.0
#no auto-summary
3.7 Redistributing the Routes in SP Routers
Finally, this has come to an end. Now routes should be distributed. This redistri-
bution establishes the closed path for required network.
#router bgp 234
#redistribute eigrp 1
#router eigrp 1
#redistribute bgp 234 metric 11111
Here, the metric command determines the best path to network destination.
4 Verification of Network
These are the commands will tell you how far you are correctly configured your
network.
SP1#show ip route
The output must include all routes in your network which you are connected.
Example: This my network route Fig. 2.
SP1#show ip route vrf CUSTOMER
This command shows the routing table of routes connected.
Fig. 2 Network route

Fig. 3 VRF routing table
SP1#show ip bgp vpnv4 all
Fig. 4 BGP configuration with VPN
SP1#show ip eigrp vrf CUSTOMER neighbors
Fig. 5 EIGRP VRF neighbors
HQ#show ip route
Fig. 6 Network configurations in headquarters routers
BRANCH#show ip route
Fig. 7 Network configurations in branch routers

HQ#ping 5.5.5.5
Fig. 8 Pinging branch from headquarters
BRANCH#ping 1.1.1.1
Fig. 9 Pinging headquarters from branch
5 Advantages
• Quality of service.
• Scalable.
• Service level agreement.
• Enhanced bandwidth.
6 Conclusion
In the fast-growing world, the business organizations growth is frequent. The

requirement of communication between headquarters and branch is essential. To
establish such communications MPLS cloud providers with VPN are used. This
provides the fastest way of data transfer by forwarding labels to egress router from
ingress router. The MPLS backbone network transfers the label based on traffic on
the route. At the ingress router labels are formed, and at the egress router labels will
be removed and transferred in the form of normal packets. One can also migrate
from FR to MPLS. MPLS is more reliable [15, 16] than Frame Relay and ATM.
Through this WAN technology interconnection between site offices is easy and one
can access data like voice and video.
This network has enhanced bandwidth which is a major advantage compared to
older protocols. But this type of bandwidth costs higher. To overcome this there is
an upgrading technology known as SD-WAN technology. As MPLS technology is
used by 84% of companies, it is the best way of connecting companies.
Traffic engineering is an important application of MPLS. Using these mpls cloud

providers with vpn one can route packets faster than traditional processes.
The future scope of these MPLS cloud providers with VPN is continued using
IPV6 addresses. Due to shortage of IPV4 addresses, IPV6 addresses came into
extent, up to now IPV6 is used for basic routing protocols like dynamic and static.
Tunneling process is used between IPV4 address assigned devices to communicate
with IPV6 address devices. In that area, one can also implement this technology to
achieve data transferring to IPV6 addressed devices.
References
1. I. Azher, M. Aurengzeb, K. Masood, Virtual private network implementation over

multiprotocol label switching. 2005 Student Conference on Engineering Sciences and
Technology (2005). https://doi.org/10.1109/sconest.2005.4382902
2. B. Daugherty, C. Metz. Multiprotocol label switching and IP. Part I. MPLS VPNs over IP
tunnels. IEEE Internet Comput. 9(3), 6 June 2005. https://doi.org/10.1109/mic.2005.61
3. O.J. Salcedo Parra, G.L. Rubio, L. Castellanos, MPLS/VPN/BGP networks evaluation
techniques. 2012 Workshop on Engineering Applications (2012). https://doi.org/10.1109/wea.
2012.6220066
4. J.A. Pico, J.O. Fajardo, A. Munoz, A. Ferro, MPLS-VRF Integration: forwarding capabilities
of BGP/MPLS IP VPN in GNU/Linux. 2008 International Conference on Optical Network
Design and Modeling (2008). https://doi.org/10.1109/ondm.2008.4578412
5. S. Mehraban, K.B. Vora, D. Upadhyay, Deploy Multi-Protocol Label Switching (MPLS)
Using Virtual Routing and Forwarding (VRF). 2018 2nd International Conference on Trends
in Electronics and Informatics (ICOEI) (2018). https://doi.org/10.1109/icoei.2018.8553949
6. C. Metz, Multiprotocol label switching and IP. Part 2. Multicast virtual private networks.
IEEE Internet Comput. 10(1), 76–81 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1109/mic.2006.14
7. C.T. Chou, Traffic engineering for MPLS-based virtual private networks. Proceedings.
Eleventh International Conference on Computer Communications and Networks (n.d.).
https://doi.org/10.1109/icccn.2002.1043054
8. J.O. Fajardo, J.A. Pic, A. Mu, New tunneling capabilities for BGP/MPLS IP VPN in GNU/
Linux. Seventh International Conference on Networking (icn 2008) (2008). https://doi.org/10.
1109/icn.2008.105
9. A. Bahnasse, M. Talea, A. Badri, F.E. Louhab, New smart platform for automating MPLS
virtual private network simulation. 2018 International Conference on Advanced
Communication Technologies and Networking (CommNet) (2018). https://doi.org/10.1109/
commnet.2018.8360268
10. T.M. Almandhari, F.A. Shiginah, A performance study framework for Multi-protocol Label
Switching (MPLS) Networks. 2015 IEEE 8th GCC Conference & Exhibition (2015). https://
doi.org/10.1109/ieeegcc.2015.7060069
11. C. Jacquenet, G. Bourdon, M. Boucadair, Automated production of BGP/MPLS-Based VPN
networks. Service Automation and Dynamic Provisioning Techniques in IP/MPLS
Environments (2008), pp. 211–225. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470035146.ch10
12. J.A. Pico, J.O. Fajardo, A. Munoz, A. Ferro, MPLS-VRF integration: forwarding capabilities
of BGP/MPLS IP VPN in GNU/Linux. International Conference on Optical Network Design
and Modeling, 2008. ONDM 2008, 12–14 March 2008, pp. 1–6. https://doi.org/10.1109/
ondm.2008.4578412
13. E. Rosen, Y. Rekhter, BGP/MPLS VPNs, Request for Comments 2547, Internet Engineering
Task Force (IETF) (1999)
14. P. Marques et al., Constrained Route Distribution for Border Gateway Protocol/MultiProtocol
Label Switching (BGP/MPLS) Internet Protocol (IP) Virtual Private Networks (VPNs),
RFC 4684
15. G. Liu, X. Lin. MPLS performance evaluation in backbone network. 2002 IEEE International
Conference on Communications. Conference Proceedings. ICC 2002 (Cat. No.02CH37333)
(n.d.). https://doi.org/10.1109/icc.2002.997036
16. Y. Qiu, H. Zhu, Y. Zhou, J. Gu, A Research of MPLS-based network fault recovery. 2010
Third International Conference on Intelligent Networks and Intelligent Systems (2010).
https://doi.org/10.1109/icinis.2010.120
A Prototype Development
of Digirail-Ticket Verification
and Seat Allocation
S. Gobhinath, S. Karthikeyan, A. Guru Prakash, B. Balamurugan

and N. Gokul
Abstract Indian Railway is the world largest transport system which is currently
facing a lot of human-related errors and problems. This paper tries to address the
problems associated with manual system of ticket verification and seat allocation.
This investigation presents an automated biometric system for use in Indian
Railway for ticket verification, which verifies passenger’s ticket through the bio-
metric input (fingerprint). This minimizes the work of ticket collector in rail
transportation. As in India, Aadhaar card is mandatory for all, it used as a tool for
the project. The module installed in each compartment gets the passenger’s fin-
gerprint and authentication is done using the information linked with Aadhaar id.
Additionally, using GSM, information regarding berth confirmation will be
immediately sent to the reservation against cancellation (RAC) passengers through
SMS. By digitalizing the ticket verifying process, human errors can be highly
reduced and verification process time can be minimized. And also, RAC passengers
do not need to wait for travelling ticket examiner (TTE) approval.
Keywords Fingerprint Rail transport system Biometric GSM RAC
1 Introduction
Before dwelling on the current project, a handsome knowledge about the prevailing
system of railway booking is essential right from allotment of ticket with berth
number to reservation against cancellation to the role of travelling ticket, this
section deals conservatively. It will help to understand the problem tackled by the
Indian Railway and the solution this project provides for the impediment [1].
Passengers with an established reservation are allotted berths at the time of booking,
S. Gobhinath (&) A. Guru Prakash B. Balamurugan N. Gokul

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Sri Krishna College
of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
S. Karthikeyan
Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, SKI, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_77
and berth numbers are specified on the ticket, except the case of first-class AC and
first-class coaches. The compartment/cabin/coupe numbers for first class and first
ACC are allotted the time preparation of chart. [2].
2 Hardware Details
(i) Fingerprint Sensor

The growth of biometrics system nowadays has been phenomenal around the world
and its application ranges from safety to privacy and confidentiality. So, there is
made rush among the business organizations to grasp this technology to its fullest
magnitude [3]. This technology boasts of its salient features such as immune to
fraud and eliminates security problems by identifying the unique person. Another
advantage of biometric technology is cannot be breached by fraudsters and cheaters
as it is tightly bound to the individual.
Using the fingerprint as security and identification process, fingerprint technol-
ogy becomes foolproof system and it is becoming synonymous with biometric
systems [4]. Moreover, fingerprints are distinctive and permanent even if they
temporarily cut. For criminal investigation, the department relies ultimately on
fingerprinting. Using a scanner, the inked impression of fingerprint can capture can
take instantly and quickly (Figs. 1 and 2).
(ii) GSM Module
Global system for mobile module is used to communicate among a personal
computer and a global system of mobile, global packet radio service system. Global
system for mobile module communicates is an architecture uses for mobile com-
munication at worldwide (Fig. 3).
Fig. 1 Pixel image of human

fingerprint of the participant
name called
Mr. R. Guruprasath
A Prototype Development of Digirail-Ticket Verification … 829
Fig. 2 Fingerprint sensor module
Fig. 3 GSM module

3 Proposed System—Block Diagram
Reservation is done using Aadhaar or any proof linked with Aadhaar. Roping in
UIDAI, a database of fingerprint of every person of India who is going to board the
train is easy to develop [5]. The fingerprint of person booking ticket in Indian
Railway is taken from the server by using Aadhaar card number, and a database of
the particular train is created. Any cancellation of ticket should be done before 4 h
from the departure time. A fingerprint sensor module(R-308) is placed in every
compartment of the train. The passenger should check in to the train by placing his
finger in the module [6]. If the fingerprint matches with the database of the par-
ticular train, the module will authorize him to claim his seat/berth. When the
module fails to identify a reserved passenger due to technical or other problems, a
“HELP” button pressed will send a message to the TTE for verifying the passenger
reservation ticket manually. LCD will display the authentication message as
“verification successful,” if the fingerprint matches with the UIDAI information else
the LCD displays “not verified” then the user has to press help button so that he will
be aided by the TTE’s HELP personally (Fig. 4).
The HELP button placed integral with every module will send message to the
TTE about the hitches and the exact location of the help required (compartment
number) using GSM module (SIM 900a) [5, 6]. Finally, if the passenger does not
show up or forgets to keep the fingerprint for verification to claim his/her berth
within 10 min after departure of train will be alerted through a SMS. After that
10 min, the GSM module will send a berth confirmation to the first RAC passenger
(priority-based).
Fig. 4 Proposed system—block diagram

A Prototype Development of Digirail-Ticket Verification … 831
4 Conclusion
By employing this application in Indian Railway for ticket verification, the pro-
cessing time taken for ticket verifying and seat allocation will be reduced and seat
allocation for RAC is made faster than usual. This project aims at controlling
fraudulence and improving transparency, errorless ticket verification and seat
allocation process. As all the fields in world employing technology for the better-
ment of the people, this Digirail application will be a huge success for India because
we have the world’s largest railway transport system. So, the work of the travelling
ticket examiner (TTE) will be minimized on the whole and his role can be defined
for the betterment of the railway.
Acknowledgements Ethics approval—The authors express their sincere thanks to the Management
of Sri Krishna College of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore, for providing the necessary
facilities for the completion of this paper. The author’s state that this study conforms to the ethical
standards contributes to human welfare by ensuring a research process that combines highest
integrity and safety of human research participants.
References
1. S. Patil, S. Desurkar, Ticket Checker Application for Train QR Code-NCACIT-2016

2. A. Alam, A.M. Ansari, Next generation E-ticketing system. Int. J. Emerging Res. Manag.
Technol. 2(12), 22787–29359 (2013)
3. A.I. Wuryandari, S.M. Nasution, Prototype of train application using NFC technology on
android device. IEEE International Conference on Engineering and Technology, vol. 6. issue
no. 7 (2016)
4. S. Gobhinath, V. Aparna, R. Azhagunacchiya, An automatic driver drowsiness alter system
by using GSM. IEEE Explore ISCO Conference Publication (2017), pp. 125–128
5. S. Gobhinath, K. Muthukumar, S. Poorani, Hand features for ISL using combined
DWT-DCT, local binary pattern. Int. J. Eng. Tech. (UAE) 7(2), 316–320 (2018, April)
6. S. Gobhinath, P. Gowthami, N. Guna Sundari, Internet of things (IOT) based energy meter.
Int. Res. J. Eng. Technol. (IRJET) 3(4), 1266–1269 (2016)
7. S. Shaikh, M. Potghan, T. Shaikh, R. Suryawanshi, Urban railway ticketing application. Int.
J. Adv. Comput. Sci. Softw. Eng. 4(1), 130–132 (2016)
8. S. Gobhinath, A. Ram, G. Vijayaraj, S. Lokesh, MPPT based photovoltaic charging system.
Int. J. Eng. Manag. Res. (IJEMR) 6(2), 139–143 (2016, April)
9. S.I. Karthick, Velmurugan, Android s railway ticket with GPS as ticket checker. IEEE 1–4
(2016)
10. C. Sonkar, M. Swarup, A QR code processing for transparent and dynamic seat allocation in
Indian Railway (2017)
Performance Analysis of Thyroid
Tumor Detection and Segmentation
Using PCA-Based Random
Classification Method
B. Shankarlal and P. D. Sathya
Abstract In this paper, the tumor regions in source thyroid image are detected and
segmented using machine learning approach. The noises in the source thyroid
image are detected and removed using mean filter, and then, dual-tree complex
wavelet (DTCW) transform is applied on the noise-reduced image for obtaining the
coefficients. The features are computed from these transformed coefficients of
transform, and then, principal component analysis (PCA) is used to select the
optimum set of features. The principal component features are now classified by
random forest (RF) approach.
Keywords Thyroid Tumor Transform Features Classifications
1 Introduction
The neck in the human body has a gland which is having butterfly-shaped size and
responsible for many functionalities of organ in human body. The abnormality in
thyroid gland leads to the formation of hypothyroid or hyperthyroid based on its
instability. If this abnormal level is crucial, then it damages the internal architecture
of each cell in thyroid gland and forms the thyroid cancer. The thyroid cancer has
two stages as initial and severe. During initial stage of this cancer, it does not show
any noticeable symptoms on human body. Hence, it cannot be detected at the initial
stage of this cancer in present method. During the severe stage of this cancer, it
shows many symptoms on body, especially growing the gland in very large manner,
vomiting and severe pain in neck region. The thyroid cancer can be categorized into
papillary cancer, follicular cancer and medullary thyroid cancer. The papillary
thyroid cancer starts from papillary regions of the thyroid gland, and it is one of the
common forms of cancer in thyroid. It mainly affects the person aging between 30
and 60. Follicular thyroid cancer starts from the follicular cells in the thyroid gland,
B. Shankarlal (&) P. D. Sathya

Department of ECE, Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar 608002, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_78
834 B. Shankarlal and P. D. Sathya
Fig. 1 Thyroid cancer at severe stage
and it mainly affects the old age persons. It causes severe pain in neck region. The
medullary thyroid cancer is the genetic disorder in thyroid gland and leads to the
death in severe case.
The severe case thyroid gland (as depicted in Fig. 1) is detected using scanning
techniques in present scenario, and it is removed through surgery process. If this
gland is removed from the human body, then the thyroid hormone instability is
occurred which degrades the immunity system of the human body. Hence, the
person whose thyroid gland is removed after surgery is advised to take the hormone
medicine throughout his life period. If this cancer is found in its initial stage, then it
can be curable by taking proper medications. Hence, there is a requirement for
detecting this cancer cells at an earlier stage. This paper develops an efficient
methodology to detect this cancer region in thyroid images.
2 Literature Survey
Xia et al. [1] designed a novel technique and developed a machine vision-based
mathematical model for classifying the pixels in thyroid image. The authors used
robust training algorithm for differentiating the malignant pixel from the benign
pixels in thyroid image. The authors reached 89.6% of classification rate by
implementing their proposed thyroid cancer detection methodology on a large set of
ultrasound thyroid images.
Sokouti et al. [2] constructed a linear approach for detecting and diagnosing the
papillary thyroid cancer. The authors applied discrete wavelet transform (DWT) for
the decomposition of thyroid image, and then, each decomposed sub-band is
diagnosed at various level set methods. The authors reached 89.6% of classification
rate by implementing their proposed thyroid cancer detection methodology on a
large set of ultrasound thyroid images.
Performance Analysis of Thyroid Tumor Detection … 835
A multi-classifier system was used to distinguish between benign and malignant

thyroid nodules. It used a combination of classifiers like support vector machine
(SVM), Bayesian, K-nearest neighbor, probabilistic neural networks and linear least
squares minimum distance. Multi-classifier systems are useful when the combined
performance of the classifiers exceeds their best individual performances [3].
Devi et al. [4] used neural network classification methodology on the ultra sound
thyroid images for the detection and classifications of tumor regions. The authors
used radial neural networks and feed-forward neural networks for the abnormal
pattern classifications. The authors achieved 87.8% of sensitivity, 92.1% of
specificity and 98.1% of tumor region segmentation accuracy. Sokouti et al. [5]
developed thyroid tumor detection framework for segmenting the abnormal tumor
regions in ultrasound thyroid images. The authors used feed-forward back propa-
gation neural network classification algorithm for differentiating the abnormal
thyroid images from normal thyroid images in this method. The authors achieved
72% of sensitivity, 82.1% of specificity and 96.6% of tumor region segmentation
accuracy.
3 Proposed Methodology
In this paper, the tumor regions in source thyroid image are detected and segmented
using random forest (RF) classification method. The noises in the source thyroid
image are detected and removed using mean filter, and then, dual-tree complex
wavelet (DTCW) transform is applied on the noise-reduced image for obtaining the
coefficients. The features are computed from these transformed coefficients of
transform, and then, principal component analysis (PCA) is used to select the
optimum set of features. These optimum features are then classified using random
forest (RF) classifier. This classifier classifies the source thyroid image into either
tumor or non-tumor images. Then, morphological elements are applied on the
classified abnormal thyroid image to segment the tumor regions. Figure 2 shows the
proposed thyroid tumor detection flow using classification method.
3.1 Noise Reduction
The noises in the thyroid image are detected and removed using mean filter. This
filter smoothes the pixels in the thyroid image and produces the noise-reduced
image. In this method, a 3 * 3 filter is applied on the source thyroid image, and the
mean value of the center pixel is computed with respect to its surrounding pixels in
3 * 3 windows. This will reduce the noise content in the pixels of the source
thyroid image. Then, the window is moved from top position to the bottom position
and applies the same procedure. Figure 3 shows the noise-reduced thyroid image.
Fig. 2 Proposed thyroid tumor detection flow using classification method
Fig. 3 Noise-reduced thyroid

image
3.2 Dual-Tree Complex Wavelet Transform
The spatial domain pixels in the noise removed thyroid image are converted into
frequency and time domain using DTCWT. In this paper, this transform decom-
poses the noise-reduced thyroid image into number of sub-bands. These sub-bands
Fig. 4 Four-level DTCWT architecture
are classified into approximate and detailed sub-bands. The approximate sub-band
is again decomposed into approximate and details sub-bands at level 2. This pro-
cedure is repeated till level 4. This paper uses four-level DTCWT for decomposing
the noise-reduced thyroid image into approximate and detailed sub-band. Figure 4
shows the architecture of the DTCWT at four levels. Each level of this architecture
contains low- and high-frequency filters and the noise-reduced thyroid image is
passed through these set of low- and high-frequency filters at each level. Each level
of this architecture produces the coefficients.
3.3 Feature Extraction
The features are computed from the decomposed coefficients of the dual-tree
transform. In this paper, gray level co-occurrence matrix (GLCM) features and local
binary pattern (LBP) features are extracted from the set of decomposed coefficients.
LBP feature computation process is illustrated in following section.
In this computing procedure of LBP feature in thyroid image, a 3 * 3 sub-mask
window is placed over the image. The intensity of the center pixel is compared by
its other nearby pixels in the same mask window region. Each pixel in thyroid
image has its own feature value which ranges either low or high. The low value
indicates by black and high value indices by white. The size of the extracted feature
image is equal to the size of the source thyroid image. Hence, the feature pixel
count correlates every pixel point in source thyroid image. The extracted LBP
image features are shown in Fig. 5.
Fig. 5 Extracted LBP image
3.4 GLCM Features
The gray level co-occurrence matrix (GLCM) method is a way of extracting

second-order statistical texture features considering the spatial relationship of pix-
els. GLCM features are computed with respect to different angle aspects and four
distances (1, 2, 3, 4). Four statistical measures such as contrast, correlation, energy,
entropy are computed based on GLCM, as explained in Eqs. (1)–(4).
X
Contrast ¼ ji jj2 pði; jÞ ð1Þ
X
Energy ¼ pði; jÞ2 ð2Þ
X
Entropy ¼ pði; jÞ½log2 pði; jÞ ð3Þ
X pði; jÞ
Correlation ¼ ði liÞðj ljÞ ð4Þ
½ri:rj
where ‘i’ and ‘j’ indicate the rows and columns in GLCM matrix, respectively. The
termp (i, j) depicts the values in GLCM matrix with respect to the matrix index ‘i’
and ‘j.’ The mean of the GLCM matrix is noted as ‘µ,’ and its variance is noted as
‘r.’
3.5 PCA
In this paper, PCA is used to select the best features from the set of computed
features in thyroid images. This algorithm can be explained in the following steps.
Step 1: Calculate the mean and standard deviation of each extracted features in the
mammogram image.
Step 2: Subtract the sample mean from each observation, then dividing by the
sample standard deviation.
Step 3: Determine the coefficients from derived principal feature set and also find
its corresponding Eigen factors.
Step 4: Find the variance of each principal features which is corresponding to its
Eigen factors.
Step 5: The maximum variance in data results in maximum information content
which is required for better classification.
These optimized set of extracted features are further trained and classified using
random forest classification algorithm.
3.6 Classifications and Segmentation
In this paper, random forest (RF) classification algorithm is applied on the com-
puted set of features for classifying the source thyroid image into either tumor free
or tumor-affected thyroid image. This RF classifier can be operated in two distinct
modes, as training and testing. The training mode of this RF classifier trains the
features which are computed from the normal and abnormal thyroid image. Then,
the testing mode of this RF classifier classifies the extracted set of features from the
source thyroid image into either tumor or non-tumor image based on the trained
feature set. Further, the morphological elements are used in this paper to detect and
segment the cancer regions in the classified abnormal thyroid image. This paper
uses morphological opening and closing elements in order to segment the cancer
regions in the classified thyroid image. Figure 6a shows the source thyroid image,
and Fig. 6b shows the tumor region segmented image.
The performance of the proposed thyroid tumor segmentation system is analyzed in

terms of the following parameters as described in the following equations.
Fig. 6 a Source thyroid image. b Tumor region segmented image
Sensitivity ðSeÞ ¼ TP/ðTP þ FNÞ ð5Þ
Specificity ðSpÞ ¼ TN/ðTN þ FPÞ ð6Þ
Accuracy ðAccÞ ¼ ðTP þ TNÞ=ðTP þ FN þ TN þ FPÞ ð7Þ
where TP is true positive, TN is true negative, FP is false positive, and FN is false

negative. The number of correctly identified cancer pixels is noted as TP, and the
number of correctly identified non-cancer pixels is noted as TN. The number of
wrongly identified cancer pixels is noted as FP, and the number of wrongly iden-
tified non-cancer pixels is noted as FN. The performance evaluation parameters
sensitivity, specificity and accuracy are computed over the set of colon images
available in the dataset and illustrated in Table 1.
The performance of the proposed thyroid tumor segmentation methodology is
computed with respect to the ground truth images obtained from expert radiologist.
Table 2 shows the performance comparisons of the proposed thyroid cancer
detection method with conventional methods.
Table 1 Performance Parameters Experimental results (%)

analysis
Sensitivity 98.7
Specificity 99.1
Accuracy 98.9
Table 2 Performance comparisons

Methodology Sensitivity (%) Specificity (%) Accuracy (%)
Proposed work 98.7 99.1 98.9
Sokouti et al. [2] 80.0 99.7 98.1
Singh and Jindal [6] 81.8 84.3 83.1
Xia et al. [1] 87.6 97.1 96.6
5 Conclusions
This paper uses DTCWT for transforming the pixels belonging to spatial domain
into multi-class pixels in thyroid image for further processing. The features from the
thyroid images are used to differentiate the normal thyroid images from abnormal
tumor-affected thyroid images. In this paper, GLCM along with LBP features are
extracted for the tumor detection process. In this paper, RF classifier can be used as
classification algorithm. This classification algorithm differentiates the ultrasound
thyroid image belonging to abnormal pattern set from the ultrasound thyroid image
belonging to normal pattern set.
Acknowledgements The images used in this paper are obtained from open access dataset http://
wilmingtonendo.com/image-gallery/.
References
1. J. Xia, H. Chen, Q. Li, M. Zhou, L. Chen, Z. Cai, Y. Fang, H. Zhou, Ultrasound-based

differentiation of malignant and benign thyroid Nodules: an extreme learning machine
approach. Comput. Methods and programs in biomedicine (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
cmpb.2017.06.005
2. M. Sokouti, M. Sokouti, B. Sokouti, Computer aided diagnosis of thyroid cancer using image
processing techniques. Int. J. Comput. Sci. Netw. Secur. 18(4) (2018)
3. V.A.S. Vaz, Diagnosis of hypo and hyperthyroid using MLPN network. Int. J. Innovative Res.
Sci. Eng. Technol. 3(7), 14314–14323 (2014)
4. M.A. Devi, S. Ravi, J. Vaishnavi, S. Punitha, classification of cervical cancer using artificial
neural networks. Procedia Comput. Sci. (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2016.06.105
5. B. Sokouti, S. Haghipour, A.D. Tabrizi, A framework for diagnosing cervical cancer disease
based on feed forward MLP neural network and ThinPrep histopathological cell image
features. Neural Comput. Appl. (2014). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00521-012-1220-y
6. N. Singh, A. Jindal, A segmentation method and classification of diagnosis for thyroid nodules.
IOSR J. Comput. Eng. 1(6), 22–27 (2012)
7. http://wilmingtonendo.com/image-gallery/
Factors Influencing the Success
of Recommendations in E-Commerce
K. Srihari, K. Moorthi and S. Karthik
Abstract Nowadays, in e-commerce, item recommendation to the buyers is one of

the key promotional activities followed by all the e-commerce companies. While
the users navigating the site, the recommendation systems help them to pick the
items that they recently interested or that they recently viewed that are currently
discounted. This article narrates various factors that are influencing the factors for
the development of business in e-commerce using data analytics. Our analysis is
performed based on log data of Flipkart; it is one of the large e-commerce sites in
India. From our analysis, it shows that before selecting an item for recommenda-
tion, we have to consider various factors in parallel. The factors include as follows:
item should match with the customers’ shopping interest in the previous session,
discount information for the product, and recent popular items.
Keywords Recommendations Data analytics E-commerce Factors
1 Introduction
Due to increase in the usage of the Internet, there has been an increase in the online
shopping. So many companies started their business in online through various
e-commerce portals. Nowadays, people are shopping their products through online
based on comparing the same product in different e-commerce sites or different
sellers on the same site. If the customer willing to buy a product first, he or she
K. Srihari (&)
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, SNS College of Engineering, Coimbatore,
Tamil Nadu, India
K. Moorthi
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Jansons Institute of Technology,
Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India
S. Karthik
Department of Computer Science and Engineering, SNS College of Technology, Coimbatore,
Tamil Nadu, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_79
844 K. Srihari et al.
compares the price of the product, check the offers given to the product and the
usefulness of the product. So we can track the customer’s interest based on these
factors. Automated personalized item recommendation helps customers to discover
additional items based on their interest [1].
E-commerce business today operates in a dynamic and competitive environment.
E-commerce companies compete with other e-commerce companies by offering
discounts to their product cost and giving better qualities [2]. Due to the
advancement of technologies, data science sellers need to adapt business intelli-
gence based on customer needs through data analytics [3]. It is more receptive to
take better decisions in the competitive market world.
It is necessary to understand the knowledge about the factors that influence
user’s decision to buy their product [4]. Also, they want to know what factors that
influence the satisfaction and customer spending in e-commerce [5].
2 Related Work
Many e-commerce Web sites provide extra recommendations to their customers

while searching items in the site. These online automated recommendation systems
will provide additional benefits for both customers and sellers.
Scholz et al. [6] proposed a new recommender system to overcome the issues of
changing preference and cold start problem with the existing recommender system.
The new recommender system is called multi-attribute value theory (MAVT); the
main idea behind this is configuration process which allows customers to learn
about the attributes naturally. The result of using this method gives more accuracy
compared to existing recommendation methods.
Jiao et al. [7] tell how to create optimized product recommendation system in
e-commerce using customer trade behavior information. To analyze user behavior,
the authors used fuzzy theory, the customer comments are transformed into fuzzy
quantitative data; then, two types of indexing method is applied—first includes
product quality, service quality, and users’ feeling, and second index is based on
sub index of first one, that is product size, color, packaging, logistics, and return
policy. From their findings, the accuracy of recommendation is improved.
Victor et al. [8] developed a hybrid approach for e-commerce recommendation
—they proposed two methods: First one is item-item which groups the products’
information like goods service and activities based on similar ratings by the users.
The principle behind item-item method is that if user gives good ratings to item
X, which has high rating given by other users those who gave good ratings to item
X. It eliminates cold start problem in recommendation. The second method is
user-user, which employs ruling the comparison among users by constructing
matrix based on user activities. The items liked by one user are recommended to
other users those who have similar interest.
Chen [9] developed a text matching algorithm for providing recommendation,
and also search keywords were applied to determine the items based on the
Factors Influencing the Success of Recommendations … 845
keyword similar items proposed. The functions used here are webpage extraction:
getting enough information about users, feature analysis: clustering the data,
behavior record, and user interest modeling followed by recommendation.
He et al. [10] studied the challenges in various existing recommendations sys-
tems and its future research directions. From their analysis, the challenges found are
cold start problem, diversity, novelty, and level of control. The authors also pro-
posed a dynamic revelation structure for human–recommender interaction; it inte-
grates suggestion system with visualization for improving accuracy of
recommendation system.
3 Factors Influencing the Success of Recommendations
The main idea of our analysis is to better understanding of the factors that influence
our recommendations to the customers who were successful. In this section, we
summarize the key insights that we obtained through our analysis.
3.1 The Effectiveness of Recommending Already Viewed

Products
From the analysis, it is observed that around 15–20% of the recommendations were
done using the items that are viewed by the user in previous sessions at least once.
Usually, customers searched some products which they want or interested to buy.
Due to some reasons like time constraint, financial situations, technical difficulties,
etc., they postpone the shopping. Such products are identified, and the same has
been recommended to the customers on the front page when they come online next
time.
The attractive part here is nearly half of the recommendations become successful
based on this method. That is approximately 50% of the items led to purchase by
the customers not to the new visitors. Actually, we do not know whether the
customer bought the items because of recommendations, anyhow it helps the
customers by navigating into the products that they have shown interest already.
3.2 The Role of Discounts
The next factor influencing recommendation is discount. The recommendation is

given based on the products that are in discount. While doing online shopping, the
first thing comes into e-commerce users’ mind is the cost of the product. Nowadays,
people are having very much awareness in comparing the cost of the same product
in various e-commerce sites. The recommendation is only useful for already visited
customers not for first-time visitors. To overcome that and to give item recom-
mendations to new visitors, we can use these discounts.
For both new and already visited customers, the information about the dis-
counted products is shown on the front page. It attracts the customers to see the
products that are in discount and led to purchase.
3.3 The Effect of Limited Period Offer
The limited period offer is extended version of discount. Here the product is in
discount in terms of cost, free delivery, combo offer, buy this get this free offer, etc.
The main aim of limited period offer is to make customers to finish the order soon
that is the offer validity is for a few hours only. The customers are attracted by
providing the offers and showing the countdown in which the offer period will get
over. This can change the customers’ mindset to finish the order in time, i.e., before
ending of the offer period. From the analysis, it clearly shows around 25% of the
customers are finished their order before ending the offer period.
3.4 The Effect of Considering Popularity of the Products
The next factor causal to the achievement of proposal is popularity. Here the
products which are more popular are identified and recommended to customers. It is
one of the safe strategies in the recommendation. As the product was already
popular among the customers, it can be easy to convert the customers’ mindset to
finish the purchase. The products which are bought by maximum customers and
have good feedback are identified as popular products. The reason to consider
feedback is to prove the quality of the products.
Compared to limited period offer, the products recommended under popularity
increased the sales. Customers easily get trust on the popular products because it
was bought and used by many customers.
3.5 The Effect of Introducing Current Trends
The last factor contributing to the success of recommendation system is recom-

mending the products which are new to the market based on current trends. In
fashion e-commerce, day-to-day new style and trend becomes popular. Products in
latest trend are recommended to customers. It makes the customers feel proud that
they are updated with the current fashion. Also, customers like to purchase newly
available products in market for showing their uniqueness.
Factors Influencing the Success of Recommendations … 847
4 Conclusion
This paper aims to improve the business process of e-commerce companies by

providing better recommendations. Form our study, the factors contributing suc-
cessful recommendation are the effectiveness of recommending already viewed
products, the role of discounts, the effect of limited period offer, the effect of
considering popularity of the products, and the effect of introducing current trends.
From the study, we concluded that while providing recommendations, the
e-commerce companies should consider the above-said factors for successful rec-
ommendation and improving business. Also, our recommendations give a clear idea
to the customers and the manufacturers for effective decision making and to face the
competitive environment by keeping track of the customer behavior and making
them to be a frequent customer and giving ideas for promotional marketing.
References
1. D. Jannach, M. Ludewig, L. Lerche, Session-based item recommendation in e-commerce: on

short-term intents, reminders, trends and discounts. User Model. User-Adap. Inter. 27, 351–
392 (2017)
2. A.Y.L. Chong, E. Ch’ng, M.J. Liu, B. Li, Predicting consumer product demands via big data:
the roles of online promotional marketing and online reviews. Int. J. Prod. Res. 55, 5142–
5156 (2017)
3. K. Moorthi, K. Srihari, S. Karthik, A survey on impact of big data in E-Commerce. Int. J. Pure
Appl. Math. 116, 183–188 (2017)
4. T. Escobar-Rodrıguez, R. Bonson-Fernández, Analyzing online purchase intention in Spain:
fashion e-commerce. Inf. Syst. E-Bus Manage. 15, 599–622 (2017)
5. T.M. Nisara, G. Prabhakar, What factors determine e-satisfaction and consumer spending in
e-commerce retailing? J. Retail. Consum. Serv. 39, 135–144 (2017)
6. M. Scholz, V. Dorner, G. Schryen, A. Benlian, A configuration-based recommender system
for supporting e-commerce decisions. Eur. J. Oper. Res. 259, 205–215 (2017)
7. M.H. Jiao, X.F. Chen, Z.H. Su, X. Chen, Research on personalized recommendation
optimization of E-commerce system based on customer trade behaviour data, in 2016 28th
Chinese Control and Decision Conference (2016)
8. V.N. Zakharov, S.A. Philippov, Clustering of goods and user profiles for personalizing in
E-commerce recommender systems based on real implicit data, in Data Analytics and
Management in Data Intensive Domains: XVIII International Conference, pp. 178–191, 2017
9. H. Chen, Personalized recommendation system of ecommerce based on big data analysis.
J. Interdisc. Math. 21, 1243–1247 (2018)
10. C. He, D. Parra, K. Verbert, Interactive recommender systems: a survey of the state of the art
and future research challenges and opportunities. Expert Syst. Appl. 56, 9–27 (2016)
Implementation of Alexa-Based
Intelligent Voice Response System
for Smart Campus
K. Srihari, V. Sakthivel, G. Venkata Koti Reddy, S. Subhasree,

P. Sankavi and E. Udayakumar
Abstract Retrieving information from a source is one of the hassle works to do in

this world. Right from the manual intervention to computer world, information
retrieval is known for its trouble factors. Conveying rightful information to the
rightful person may be a guideline to face consequences. Though the information
retrieval was changed digitally, it also requires a manual intervention to take look at
that information. Our idea was to retrieve information of students through virtual
voice assistant where it requires zero manual intervention except for asking a query.
There are various virtual voice assistants in the market like Google Assistant,
Cortana, Alexa, and Siri. In this, the Alexa can be chosen for a specific reason as it
works with voice processing cloud, and it has scalable database. Amazon Developer
helps the developers to customize the Alexa device by creating a new skill sets
according to the need. Alexa works with three different devices, and they are
Amazon’s Echo Dot, Echo, and Echo Plus. The skill set that is developed is
compatible in all three devices, and Echo Dot is compact and portable for testing.
Therefore, users can ask Alexa for specific information, and Alexa would reply
them at ease. The following paper consists of development of skill set for the Alexa
device that would retrieve information about the students if it is properly fed in its
database.
Keywords Alexa Cloud computing AVS Echo Dot Skill set
K. Srihari (&) G. V. K. Reddy

Department of CSE, SNS College of Engineering, Coimbatore, India
V. Sakthivel S. Subhasree P. Sankavi
Department of CSE, KPR Institute of Engineering and Technology, Coimbatore, India
E. Udayakumar
Department of ECE, Kalaignar Karunanidhi Institute of Technology, Coimbatore, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_80
1 Introduction
The Alexa is the application program that runs on the Amazon Echo devices such as
Echo, Echo Dot, Echo Plus, and the recently launched Amazon Echo 2. Alexa
works as an Intelligent Personal Voice Assistant (IPVA) that has the capability to
perform various tasks using voice commands. It can perform tasks such as control
audio, play music, book food online, book tickets online, control smart homes,
deliver daily news, and weather updates. As mentioned above, its applications are
limitless. The Alexa is a software program that can be modified and developed to
meet various human needs. The device itself recognizes human voice efficiently and
adapts to various persons interacting with it. Also, since the voice processing is
done in cloud servers, the applications of the Echo devices are not restricted to a
particular field. This project is concerned with the application of the Alexa device in
every field. The details of the students are maintained in spreadsheet. Amazon’s
Alexa can be the solution with its cloud database and NLP capabilities.
2 Motivation
Digital Voice Assistants (DVAs) or Personal Voice Assistants (PVAs) are

becoming popular in today’s smart modern world. People everywhere started using
these devices in their lifestyle. DVAs nowadays control smart homes and offices,
which ease the work done by humans. These devices work based on Natural
Language Processing (NLP) algorithms. This project is inspired by getting wrong
information about a student in campus and on the motivation to conserve human
resource. In campus, multiple copies of the same document for each individual may
be maintained, which increases both the physical storage space and the paper
resources. It is also a very time-consuming process to search and acquire the patient
details from the physical repository. To overcome these difficulties, Alexa Voice
Service (AVS) provides a solution that involves the application of voice commands
that simplify the task of storing and retrieving the data. There is most of the time a
long queue, and sometimes, there is a process that involves human resource to book
an appointment at the reception. Alexa device can be placed at the reception to ease
the task of getting information about a student. The parents can either give voice
commands or type their ID into a keypad to book appointments stating their ID and
the doctor name that they prefer to consult.
3 Background: Amazon Alexa
In this section, types of devices used in Alexa and voice user interface model are
discussed.
Implementation of Alexa-Based Intelligent Voice Response … 851
3.1 Alexa Devices
Alexa and its types will have Echo, Echo Plus, and Echo Dot. The commands are
given to Alexa by the AVS. The AVS will have voice service support using cloud.
First, the device called Echo was implemented for the voice service. The modes of
Alexa will have listening and wakeup modes. Second, it listens the user commands
and gives response only if the user told “Alexa.” After that, it goes to the listen
mode. The Alexa will have 360% listening beam and responds to the user within
the short time. The Echo Dot is a new device with inbuilt audio speaker. The Echo
and Echo Dot will be connected through the normal power. In this paper, the Echo
Dot is used for the implementation.
3.2 Service Model
AVS accepts the commands received from Echo Dot. Figure 1 represents the ser-
vice model of Echo Dot. The device can be regulated by using the voice, and the
based on the skill set in the device, it responds to the user. The device can be
connected using Wi-Fi network. The commands are stored in the cloud, and
responses will be sent based on the skills in the cloud. Alexa regulates the valid
commands only for the processing of user query. The command is sent to the cloud
for processing.
Fig. 1 Service model

4 Modules
4.1 User Module
The user module consists of an Alexa device of user’s choice (Echo or Echo Dot),
in which the user interacts with the AVS through voice commands. The response or
feedback is delivered to the user through the Alexa device or a display. The user can
perform various tasks such as schedule appointments, ask query about a student,
and can also view the student history in that particular institution. Furthermore,
from the view of the experts, they can view the behavioral history of each student
individually, so that they can get accurate description of the student’s character and
diagnose efficiently. The faculty end access point is similar to that of the student’s,
i.e., either a voice response or video response using a monitor. Another interesting
use of the Alexa device is to monitor the status of the fee balance of the student. The
Alexa device can be used to keep track of the personal biodata administered to the
admitted students. The administrator can just simply make an entry about the
updated status of the students. Now referring to the proposed model as shown in
Fig. 3, the user gives a voice command; this command is translated by the AVS
using Lambda cloud processing to an AI machine-readable format. The
machine-readable format is processed using AVS cloud service, and the result of
the query is displayed as either voice or visual.
4.2 Administrator Module
The admin module or the backend module is the core of the Alexa device. The AVS
is the heart of the Alexa system. This is where the developer codes the intents and
the responses to the user queries in the Amazon Web Developer console, provided
by AWS to build Alexa skills. The front end of the Alexa or the interface consists of
the set of static dynamic commands to respond to various queries by the end user.
The backend or the database connectivity is given to the Alexa device to store the
details of the students. The database can be made by the managing person via a
database console, or the inputs can be obtained dynamically from the users by the
Q&A session to fill in the values in predefined fields. For example, admin can
register every student details to an institution by stating his personal details via
voice commands when the Echo device asks for each detail such as first name, last
name, and DOB. The database used here is DynamoDB, and the JSON script is
used to transfer information between the device and the database (Fig. 2).
Fig. 2 Proposed model
The information is parsed using the JSON script from the database with respect
to the user’s query, or the information obtained during the user registration process
is entered into the respective fields in the database using the GET and POST
methods in the JSON script. The DynamoDB is an unstructured database; this helps
us to store various details in the different formats such as images of the patients,
text, videos of surgeries, and prescription images in JPEG format.
5 Result Analysis and Study
The Alexa skill set developed in this project has been tested successfully, and the
following results have been obtained. As shown in Fig. 3, the Alexa skill sets were
earlier developed for various applications such as entertainment, news and weather
updates, controlling certain applications in smart phones, and for a variety of
purposes. But, its implementation in the campus management sector is very limited
and has only a few applications. This project intends to provide a major boost for
the campus management sector in the Amazon Alexa’s skill sets. The impact of this
project can be seen in Fig. 4. Further when compared to previous healthcare
response systems developed, the features included and the performance outcome of
this project has increased by a tremendous amount. The performance improvement
is depicted in the graphs shown in Fig. 5 respectively.
11% Entertainment
9% News
42%
ApplicaƟon Control
17%
Campus Management
21% Others
Fig. 3 Alexa skill development ratio (before)
Entertainment
9%
News
35%
24%
ApplicaƟon Control
Campus Management
14% 18%
Others
Fig. 4 Alexa voice process mechanism
12
10
8
6
4 ExisƟng Model
2
0 Proposed Model
Fig. 5 Existing performance versus proposed performance
6 Conclusion and Future Work
Voice assistants are used for the easy processing, and manual typing work is
avoided. The response system works only for the smart campuses. Because in this
work, the skills are created for the smart campuses and the student information can
be retrieved spontaneously through voice. The AI-related algorithms are used for
retrieving the user commands. The parents can retrieve their ward information by
asking the query using Alexa. The live assistance is provided to all the users, and
response time is faster in the voice user interface. In the future work, deep learning
algorithms may be used for faster response, and the emotions of the students can be
identified.
Synthesis of Visual Attention-Based
Robotic System and Its Present
Utilization in Engineering
Sridhar Prattipati, Vasimalla Ashok and N. Praneeth
Abstract In the field of robotics, individual visual attention is used to illustrate the
current huge interest of robots on the vision-guided side. This functionality is
commonly called Vision Guided Robotics (VGR). It is a technology that is
developing at a fast pace and underlines the high costs of production and the
difficulties that countries face in order to reduce labor and save production. The
vision guide is applied in dynamic areas such as a medical robot, industrial robot,
agricultural robot, mobile robot, telebot, and service robot, and the list goes on and
on. In this article, we illustrate the approach to the design of a robotic system,
focusing on the camera vision. Tasks are as follows: (1) development of a visual
attention-based robotic system, (2) preparation of a vision-based system, and
(3) preparation of a hardware application. We have developed and implemented a
robotic system that recognizes different colors and follows the assigned paths.

Keywords Machine visualisation Global machine vision market Vision guided

robot Movement of robot Matlab DC motor Hardware Research report on
vision guided robots
1 Introduction
In the field of robotics, the current view of robots can be shown on one side [1]. This
functionality is usually called robotic powered by vision (VGR). Research reports
that the machine market in the world market considers the market that describes the
scope of the project. According to the report “The Mechanism and Market Robotics
(2010–2015),” the global mechanical vision system and segmental total market are
S. Prattipati
EEE Department, GNIT, Hyderabad, India
V. Ashok
ECE Department, URCE, Guntur, India
N. Praneeth (&)
EEE Department, ABIT, Khammam, India

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7_81
858 S. Prattipati et al.
likely to reach $15.3 billion by 2015 [1]. The total market for income, cameras and
smartphones will be around 27.3%. It is expected that from 2010 to 2015, the market
for mechanical extension systems and companies will grow at a speed of 9.3%. The
market has improved rapidly for machine visualization systems and companies to
meet growing demand for traditional and non-traditional applications [2]. Mechanical
extension systems have recently become effective with the development of innovative
interface and smartphone capabilities and the ability to present them. As a result of
recent advancements, problems of tasks decreased and costs and process strength
increased. In this way, the use of machine vision technology has been increased for a
broader application [3, 4].
2 Our Design and Implementation
From the earlier chapters, we have seen the different perspectives in the designing
of the vision-guided robots [2]. Based on that knowledge, we have designed and
implemented a vision-guided robot, which recognizes the red, blue, and green
colors and takes the direction as forward, right, and back, respectively [5].
In this section, we will discuss the designing of robot and detailed explanation of
each and every component and their functions by considering the neighboring
components of the particular component. First of all, let us see the overview of the
implemented design which gives information about the components and signal flow
[2, 6] (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1 Block diagram representing various components and the signal flow
Synthesis of Visual Attention-Based Robotic System … 859
CONFONT NEED
REQUIREMENTS
PROPOSE
CONCEPT
REDESIGN DESIGN SYSTEM
ANALYZE
SYSTEM
REFINE DESIGN FABRICATE

PROTOTYPE
TEST
PROTOTYPE
PRODUCTION
PLANNING
PRODUCTION
END
Fig. 2 Sequential design process
3 Explanation of Each Part and Its Output
See Fig. 2.
Camera
We used an iBall Face2Face C8.0 camera with interpolar-based 8.0 mega pixel
static image resolution, 4 mega pixel video resolution, and 5G lenses with wide
angle provision provides smooth video and clarity. And its specifications are given
below [7].
Software Tool MATLAB
The information gathered by the camera is fed to PC. MATLAB program is used to
detect which color is having highest proportionality in the image grabbed by the
camera [8].
In the image captured by the camera, if the proportion of red is greater than the
blue and green, then red color wins and the signal “R” is fed to the microcontroller
through MAX232 IC. In the similar manner, when the green color is having the
higher proportion when compared to the others, then the signal “G” is the output
and when the blue signal is having highest proportion, then the signal “B” will be
the output. In that manner, in order to find out the highest proportionate color or
winning color, the robot takes direction accordingly [9]. The program for our
implementation is given in the program sheet which is on page number. Whenever
these three colors are in same proportion, then no signal will be fed to the
microcontroller, and then the robot will be in STOP position [10].
RS232
The RS-232 signal is an address (activated or deactivated), depending on whether
the DEE OR the DEE signal [11].
MAX232
MAX232 is an IC that switches the RS-232 serial port signals into the correct
indications for use in a digital logic circuit compatible with TLL. The MAX232 is a
controller/receiver and generally converts the signals, such as TX, RX, RTS, and
CTS, and provides RS-232 voltage level output (approximately ± 7.5 V) [11].
Microcontroller
We use the AT89S52, a low-power, high-performance 8-bit CMOS microcontroller
with 8 bytes of programmable flash memory in the system. This integrated circuit is
manufactured using ethelle’s non-memory diversity high-density technology and is
having compatibility with the standard Indscore 80C51 input set and the peanut
[12]. The Flash on-chip program is supported by the memory reprogramming
system or by a conventional nanolateral memory program. The AT89S52 is a
high-performance microcontroller that provides economical and high-resolution
solutions for many integrated control applications [13].
DC Motor
Industrial Use: Drills, lathes, shapers, spinning and weaving machines, boring mills,
electric traction, brands, air compressors, elevators, vacuum cleaners, sewing machines,
presses, shears, hair drier, and reciprocating machines [13].
In our project, we used two small DC motors. They receive signals from L293D
and acts accordingly. The below section explains crystal clearly about mechanism
of L293D and how the ROBOT is taking diversions [12].
L293D
L293D is a two-motor controller so that we can integrate two DC motors with a
single microchip which can be controlled in the direction of clock, and clock and
can be a controlled control motor [9].
You can use all four inputs/outputs to connect four depot motors. L293D has
600 MW output and a circle output current 1.2 per channel. In addition, the safety of
the reverse voltage eff circuit has been included in the circuit. Output voltage (VCC2)
has a wide range of 4.5–36 V, making L293D a good choice for a DC motor [11].
Using two motors, we can run our robots in any direction. This robot man-
agement method is called “differential drive” [14] (Figs. 3 and 4).
Our total equipment are robot connected to the laptop and a camera of laptop
which recognizes the red color, and the motor takes right turn. The experiment is
done with blue and green colors also.
Synthesis of Visual Attention-Based Robotic System … 861
Fig. 3 H-bridge circuit diagram
Reverse Side Of Robot
Left DC Motor
Right DC Motor Castor Wheel
RS232
Fig. 4 Hardware, its parts, and our testing images
4 Conclusion
From unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV) to toy, laparoscopic surgery to the industrial
sewing machine, addition of vision guidance to the systems increases the reliability,
efficiency, and flexibility of the particular system. Vision-guided robotics extremely
increases the performance of the system, highly increases flexibility, and reduces
manual work efficiency and reliability. From the Research Report on
Vision-Guided Robotics, [8] gives us the information on how the vision-guided
technology is having its great impact on the era of technology in the upcoming
years. As the cost of production of vision-guided systems is decreased drastically, it

can be suited for all the classes of industries or in any field of working [15].
Security and traffic are the two application areas with high growth potential. The
applications such as traffic flow monitoring, automatic number plate recognition,
traffic surveillance, and other related areas are witnessing more utilization and
integration of machine vision systems. In the recent economic turmoil, badly hit
application areas such as semiconductors and automotive are witnessing less
demand, while infrastructure industries and medical are witnessing steady growth.
Therefore, undoubtedly, we can proclaim that vision-guided robotics is the
technology which is going to be ruling the whole world.
References
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(IFS Pub. Ltd., Bedford, UK, 1983)
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visual feedback. IEEE J. Robot. Autom. RA-3(5), 404–417 (1987)
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mechanisms, Robot Vision, (IFS Pub. Ltd., Bedford, UK, 1983)
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of pseudorandomly oriented parts. J. Rob. Syst. 1(2), 195–204 (1984)
5. B. Skaar, W.H. Brockman, R. Hanson, Camera-space manipulation. Int. J. Robot. Res. 6(4),
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Robot Vision and Sensory Controls (1985)
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library. Int. J. Robot. Res. 5(4), 94–111 (1986)
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Research (1985)
Author Index
A Chatterjee, Sayanti, 693

Agalya, S., 807 Chenchireddy, Kalagotla, 35
Ajay Sai Kiran, P., 625 Chiranjeevi, M., 145
Ajith, Athira, 13
Anandraj, P., 269, 281 D
Anil Kumar, S., 417 Das, Mrutyunjay, 579
Anindhitha, A., 807 Deepak, Karanam, 203
Aravind, K.V.G., 255 Diggavi, Krishna Chaitanya, 569
Archana, A., 807 Diwakaran, M., 807
Arul Praveen, T., 281
Arumugam, Prakash, 381 G
Aruna Kumari, K., 787 Gadgune, S.Y., 463
Arvin Tony, A., 321 Ganapathi, A., 405
Ashok Kumar, L., 35 Ganesh, G., 473
Ashok, V., 449 Gauthami, R., 543
Ashok, Vasimalla, 857 Gobhinath, S., 321, 601, 827
Ashraf, Syed Aqeel, 349 GokulaPriya, E., 807
Ashwin, R., 601 Gokul, N., 827
Gunalan, K., 639
B Guru Prakash, A., 827
Balakishan, P., 235
Balamurugan, B., 827 H
Bandaru, Naga Venkata Sai Sudheer, 817 Harshavardhan Reddy, C.V., 357
Bhagya sree, V., 777
Bhanu, C.V.K., 339 I
Bogaraj, T., 515 Ilango, K., 13, 661
Bomma, Rama Rao, 515 Ilango, Karuppasamy, 543
Boobalan, S., 601, 769 Ilangovan, S.A., 543
Boppa, Madhu, 417 Indragandhi, V., 331
C J
Chalamalla, Srinivas Reddy, 215 Jayakumar, J., 515
Chander, R., 195 Jayalaxmi, A., 3
Chandragupta Mauryan, K.S., 65 Jayanthy, S., 609
Chandrika, Basagonda, 503 Jaya Sree, K., 203

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-15-2256-7
864 Author Index
Jegathesan, V., 35 Narasimha Rao, Mucherla, 311

Jeylani, A. Maideen Abdhulkader, 91 Naresh Kumar, A., 673
Naveen Kumar, D., 81, 291
K Niveditha, N., 65
Kalaivani, M., 739
Kanagavel, Rameshkumar, 331 P
Kanakaraj, J., 91 Padmavathi, S. Venkata, 3
Kangale, Shubhangi, 683 Pakkiraiah, B., 569
Karthikeyan, S., 827 Palisetti, Anusha, 103
Karthik, S., 843 Pandi, V. Ravikumar, 661
Kashoob, Mohammed, 349 Partha Saradhi Reddy, P., 203
Kavya Santhoshi, B., 561 Parthasaradhy, P., 723
Khatun, Koyelia, 45 Pavan Kumar, Chillappagiri, 311
Kiranmayee, V., 161 Pooranam, N., 807
Kishore, Muppalla N.R., 439 Potdar, Ashwini V., 27
Kishore, P. V., 81, 291 Prabhu, V., 729
Kota, Venkata Reddy, 103 Prakash, J., 639
Krishnamoorthi, Santhi, 759 Prakash, Vodapalli, 311
Krishnaveni, V., 715 Praneeth, N., 449, 857
Kumar, Ajay, 181 Prasanna, T.S., 181
Kumar, Velakurthi Mahesh, 55 Prattipati, Sridhar, 857
Praveen, T. Arul, 269
L Praveen Kumar, T., 235
Lakshmi, K., 769 Preeti, 429
Lakshmi, M. L. S. N. S., 751, 817 Priyadarshini, M.S., 225
Laxmi, Ch., 579 Pulluri, Harish, 417, 429
Likhitha Reddy, M., 255 Punidha, R., 729
Loganathan, N., 321
Loveswara Rao, B., 625 R
Rafi, Shaik, 243
M Rajagopal, Dhanasekaran, 759
Madhankumar, S., 269, 281 Rajasree, S.R., 661
Madhusudan, Ravilla, 473 Rajendran, Anand, 381
Madian, Nirmala, 759 Rajesh, S., 269
Mahaboob Subhani, A., 91 Rajkumar, K., 601
Mahesh, Thati, 673 Rama Prasad Reddy, M., 203
Maheswari, K., 255 Ramesh Babu, V., 405
Malini, T., 321 Rami Reddy, Ch., 587
Mallareddy, Ch., 27 Ramya, CH., 339, 349
Malleswa Rao, A.N., 255 Ranganadh, A., 145, 797
Manitha, P. V., 13 Ranga Purushotham, G., 395
Manjunathachari, K., 723 Ranjan Mohanty, Pratap, 357
Mannam, Praveen, 617 Ranjithkumar, G., 739
Meshach, Jan, 601 Rathore, Akshay Kumar, 45
Mohana Sundaram, K., 117, 561, 639 Raut Mrunmayi, N., 683
Moorthi, K., 843 Ravindra, M., 449
Mummadi, Teja Sree, 367 Raviprabhakaran, Vijay, 367
Muralidhar Goud, K., 705 Reddy, Chandrasekhar, 751
Reddy, G. Venkata Koti, 849
N Rekha, R., 587
Naga Jyothi, M., 339
Nagi Reddy, B., 587 S
Nair, Vineeth V., 543 Sahu, Sarat Kumar, 3
Nanda, Haresh, 215 Saibabu, Ch., 395
Author Index 865
Sai Priya, B., 429 Suman, M., 485

Sai Varun, N.R., 653 Sumithra, M., 173
Sajan, Ch., 235 Suresh, D., 195
Sakthidhasan, K., 117 Suresh Babu, G., 653
Sakthivel, S., 729 Suryanarayana, C.H.V., 349
Sakthivel, V., 849 Sushama, M., 225
Sakthivel, V.P., 485 Swain, Nibedita, 129
Sambasiva Rao, B., 473 Swathy, S., 65
Sampathkumar, B., 683
Sankavi, P., 849 T
Sarala, B., 777 Thirukkuralkani, K.N., 769
Saravanakumar, R., 55 Thula, Manidhar, 569
Sathish, Aswin, 543
Sathya, P. D., 485, 833 U
Satyanarayana, S., 395 Udayakumar, E., 715, 849
Selvanayakam, A., 739
Shaikh, Nurul Hasan, 349 V
Shankarlal, B., 833 Vamsi Narasimha, L., 473
Sharath Kumar, A., 161 Varadarajan, Anirudh, 269, 281
Shiva Kumar, P., 673 Varishnee, A.C., 739
Shraddha, Patange, 429 Veeramani, C., 255
Singh, Kuldip, 579 Veerlapati, Ramaiah, 305
Singh, R.P., 617 Venkateswara Rao, Ch., 349
Sirisha, Simhadri Lakshmi, 243 Vignesh, T., 269, 281
Sophia, S., 609 Vineeth, V.V., 609
Sree Hari, S., 777 Vinnakoti, Sudheer, 103
Sreelekshmi, R.S., 543 Vinoth Kumar, K., 55
Srihari, K., 843, 849 Vipin Krishna, M., 255
Sri Hari, T., 417, 429 Vishnu Soureesh, K., 543
Srikanth Goud, B., 587 Vodapalli, Prakash, 305
Srikanth, Ravipati, 243 Vyshnavi, M., 429
Srinivasa Rao, R., 449
Srinivasa Rao, V., 449 Y
Sri Rama Krishna, K., 787 Yadav, Poonam M., 463
Sriram, Cholleti, 439
Srisailam, C., 705 Z
Subhasree, S., 849 Zaheer Ahamed, M., 777
Sujatha, B.C., 173, 503
Sujatha, S., 543

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Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering 626

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/7818

ISSN 1876-1100 ISSN 1876-1119 (electronic)

Editorial Board Members

International Advisory Board

National Advisory Board

Dr. K. Manjunathachari, GITAM University, Hyderabad

Conference Committee Members

S. Name of Committee Coordinator Co-coordinator

Dr. R. Maheswar, Professor, VIT Bhopal University, Madhya Pradesh

Dr. R. Anand, Assistant Professor, Amrita Vishwa Vidyapeetham, Bengaluru

Prof. P. Parthasaradhy, Associate Director, GNITC

Dr. Jeyanthi, Professor, GNIT

The Fourth International Conference on Innovation in Electrical and Electronics

Hyderabad, India Dr. H. S. Saini

Power Quality Enhancement Using DSTATCOM with Reduced

Enhanced Optimal Control Scheme for Attaining Improved Efﬁciency

Optimal Scheme and Power Controlling aspects in Shipboard

Power Quality Analysis for Brushless DC Motor Drive Fed

Voice and Image BER Analysis of the OFDM System

Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 863

Dr. H. S. Saini is a Managing Director for Guru Nanak

Dr. T. Srinivas, Dean, Department of Electronics &

abroad IEEE conference papers as TPC member. He has

Dr. D. M. Vinod Kumar joined at National Institute of

restructuring and smart grid technologies, multi-

Dr. K. S. Chandragupta Mauryan is working as a

S. Venkata Padmavathi, A. Jayalaxmi and Sarat Kumar Sahu

Abstract Power system security issue is a severe concern in restructured power

Keywords DEPSO FAGSA FACTS TCSC SVC UPFC

© Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2020 3

Evolutionary and fuzzy adaptive methodologies are well-liked in current years.

2 FACTS Device Modelling

ðiÞ 0:8XL XTCSC 0:2XL P:u ð1Þ

ðiiÞ 100 MVAR QSVC 100MVAR

3 Power System Security

where i, j: node numbers

Objfn ¼ F ¼ a1 ðJS Þ þ a2 ðJv Þ þ a3 ðTotal Investment CostÞ þ a4 ðLossesÞ ð5Þ

The cost functions in (US$/KVAR) of devices are expressed in Eqs. (6)–(8).

CTCSC ¼ 0:0015S2 0:713S þ 153:75 ð6Þ

CSVC ¼ 0:0003S2 0:3051S þ 127:38 ð7Þ

CUPFC ¼ 0:0003S2 0:2691S þ 188: ð8Þ

5 Overview of Algorithms and Its Implementation

5.1 Hybrid Differential Evolution (DEPSO)

5.2 Fuzzy Adaptive Gravitational Search Algorithm

Using the algorithms, the primary particles’ population is produced haphazardly

6 Results and Discussion

Table 1 Fuzzy rules

Table 2 Parameters of PSO

Table 4 GSA parameters

Table 5 Security objectives under 40% light load at bus 7

Table 6 FACTS placement and the ratings

Table 8 FACTS placement and the ratings

In this work, placement of FACTS apparatus is inexorable, because the utmost

1. N.G. Hingorani, L. Gyugyi, Understanding FACTS: Concepts & Technology of Flexible AC