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http://krugman.blogs.nytimes.com/2014/04/28/a-monetary-puzzle/But it doesnât seem, in any important way, to be at odds with what Tobin wrote 50 years ago (pdf) — indeed, the BoE paper cites Tobin extensively. And I have always thought of money in Tobinesque terms, even if I sometimes use shorthand descriptions that can be misread if you take them out of context; the same is true of many economists.
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But the textbook description of multiple expansion of credit and deposits on a given reserve base is misleading even for regime of reserve requirements.
An individual bank is not constrained by any fixed quantum of reserves. It can obtain additional reserves to meet requirements by borrowing from the Federal Reserve, by buying âFederal Fundsâ from other banks, by selling or ârunning offâ short term securities. In short, reserves are available at the discount window and in the money market, at a price.ã¨ãªã£ã¦ãã¾ããã©ãè¦ã¦ããã¯ã«ã¼ã°ãã³ã®ã¢ãã«ã¨ã¯å¥ç©ã§ãã
クルーグマンの"Rethinking Japan"再考 - Think outside the box
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ãããªãã¨åè«æã«ä½ãæ¸ããã¦ããããå½ããã»ãã¯ãªããããIII. THE WIDOW'S CRUSEï¼å¯¡å©¦ã®å£ºï¼ãã¨é¡ãã3ç¯ã§ãã¼ãã³ã¯ãæºåé éã®è©±ãåããããèã«ç½®ããå ´åã®éè¡ã®è²¸ãåºãã¨é éã«ã¤ãã¦ä»¥ä¸ã®ããã«æ¸ãã¦ããã
Neither individually nor collectively do comercial banks possess a âwidows cruse." Quite apart from legal reserve requirements, commercial banks are limited in scale by the same kinds of economic processes that determine the aggregate size of other intermediaries.
...
The banking system can expand its assets either (a) by purchasing, or lending against, existing assets; or (b) by lending to finance new private investment in inventories or capital goods, or buying government securities financing new public deficits. In case (a) no increase in private wealth occurs in conjunction with the banks' expansion. There is no new private saving and investment. In case (b), new private saving occurs, matching dollar for dollar the private investments or government deficits financed by the banking system. In neither case will there automatically be an increase in savers' demand for bank deposits equal to the expansion in bank assets.
In the second case, it is true, there is an increase in private wealth. But even if we assume a closed economy in order to abstract from leakages of capital abroad, the community will not ordinarily wish to put 100 per cent of its new saving into bank deposits. Bank deposits are, after all, only about 15 per cent of total private wealth in the United States; other things equal, savers cannot be expected greatly to exceed this proportion in allocating new saving. So, if all new saving is to take the form of bank deposits, other things cannot stay equal. Specifically, the yields and other advantages of the competing assets into which new saving would otherwise flow will have to fall enough so that savers prefer bank deposits.
...
Clearly, then, there is at any moment a natural economic limit to the scale of the commercial banking industry. Given the wealth and the asset preferences of the community, the demand for bank deposits can increase only if the yields of other assets fall. The fall in these yields is bound to restrict the profitable lending and investment opportunities available to the banks themselves. Eventually the marginal returns on lending and investing, account taken of the risks and administrative costs involved, will not exceed the marginal cost to the banks of attracting and holding additional deposits. At this point the widow's cruse has run dry.
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ããã¦ããVI. THE ROLE OF RESERVE REQUIREMENTSï¼æºåçã®å½¹å²ï¼ãã¨é¡ãã6ç¯ã§ãæºåé éã®è©±ãæã¡è¾¼ãã å ´åã«ä¸è¨ã®è©±ãã©ã®ããã«å¤ãããã«ã¤ãã¦èª¬æãã¦ããã
Without reserve requirements, expansion of credit and deposits by the commercial banking system would be limited by the availability of assets at yields sufficient to compensate banks for the costs of attracting and holding the corresponding deposits. In a regime of reserve requirements, the limit which they impose normally cuts the expansion short of this competitive equilibrium. When reserve requirements and deposit interest rate ceilings are effective, the marginal yield of bank loans and investments exceeds the marginal cost of deposits to the banking system. In these circumstances additional reserves make it possible and profitable for banks to acquire additional earning assets. The expansion process lowers interest rates generally--enough to induce the public to hold additional deposits but ordinarily not enough to wipe out the banks' margin between the value and cost of additional deposits.
It is the existence of this margin--not the monetary nature of bank liabilities--which makes it possible for the economics teacher to say that additional loans permitted by new reserves will generate their own deposits. The same proposition would be true of any other system of financial institutions subject to similar reserve constraints and similar interest rate ceilings. In this sense it is more accurate to attribute the special place of banks among intermediaries to the legal restrictions to which banks alone are subjected than to attribute these restrictions to the special character of bank liabilities.
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But the textbook description of multiple expansion of credit and deposits on a given reserve base is misleading even for a regime of reserve requirements, There is more to the determination of the volume of bank deposits than the arithmetic of reserve supplies and reserve ratios. The redundant reserves of the thirties are a dramatic reminder that economic opportunities sometimes prevail over reserve calculations. But the significance of that experience is not correctly appreciated if it is regarded simply as an aberration from a normal state of affairs in which banks are fully "loaned up" and total deposits are tightly linked to the volume of reserves, The thirties exemplify in extreme form a phenomenon which is always in some degree present: The use to which commercial banks put the reserves made available to the system is an economic variable depending on lending opportunities and interest rates.
An individual bank is not constrained by any fixed quantum of reserves. It can obtain additional reserves to meet requirements by borrowing from the Federal Reserve, by buying "Federal Funds" from other banks, by selling or ârunning offâ short term securities. In short, reserves are available at the discount window and in the money market, at a price. This cost the bank must compare with available yields on loans and investments. If those yields are low relative to the cost of reserves, the bank will seek to avoid borrowing reserves and perhaps hold excess reserves instead. If those yields are high relative to the cost of borrowing reserves, the bank will shun excess reserves and borrow reserves occasionally or even regularly. For the banking system as a whole the Federal Reserve's quantitative controls determine the supply of unborrowed reserves. But the extent to which this supply is left unused, or supplemented by borrowing at the discount window, depends on the economic circumstances confronting the banks--on available lending opportunities and on the whole structure of interest rates from the Fed's discount rate through the rates on mortgages and long term securities,
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