Respiratory System

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Function of the Respiratory

 System
Oversees gas exchanges (oxygen
and carbon dioxide) between the
blood and external environment
 Exchange of gasses takes place
within the lungs in the alveoli(only
The Respiratory System site of gas exchange, other
structures passageways
 Passageways to the lungs purify, warm,
and humidify the incoming air
 Shares responsibility with
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cardiovascular system
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Slide 13.2

Organs of the Respiratory Upper Respiratory


Tract
system

 Nose
 Pharynx
 Larynx
 Trachea
 Bronchi
 Lungs
– Figure
13.2
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13.3b

Anatomy of the Nasal Anatomy of the Nasal


Cavity  Lateral
Cavitywalls have projections
 Olfactory receptors are located called
in the mucosa on the superior conchae
surface  Increases surface area
 The rest of the cavity is lined  Increases air turbulence within the
nasal cavity
with
respiratory mucosa  The nasal cavity is separated
from the oral cavity by the
 Moistens air palate
 Traps incoming foreign particles  Anterior hard palate (bone)
Slide Slide
13.4a  Posterior soft palate (muscle) 13.4b

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1
Paranasal Paranasal
Sinuses Sinuses
 Cavities within bones
surrounding the  Function of the sinuses
nasal cavity  Lighten the skull
 Frontal bone  Act as resonance chambers for speech
 Sphenoid bone  Produce mucus that drains into the
 Ethmoid bone nasal cavity

 Maxillary bone

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13.5a 13.5b

Pharynx Upper Respiratory


Tract
(Throat)
Muscular passage from nasal
cavity to larynx
 Three regions of the pharynx
 Nasopharynx – superior region
behind nasal cavity
 Oropharynx – middle region behind mouth
 Laryngopharynx – inferior region
attached to larynx
 The oropharynx and
laryngopharynx are common Figure

passageways for air and food 13.2

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13.3b

Structures of the Larynx (Voice


Pharynx Box)
 Auditory tubes enter the
nasopharynx  Routes air and food into
proper channels
 Tonsils of the pharynx
 Plays a role in speech
 Pharyngeal tonsil (adenoids) in the
nasopharynx  Made of eight rigid hyaline
cartilages and a spoon-shaped
 Palatine tonsils in the oropharynx
flap of elastic cartilage
 Lingual tonsils at the base of the (epiglottis)
tongue

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Structures of the Structures of the
Larynx Larynx
 Thyroid cartilage
 Largest hyaline cartilage  Vocal cords (vocal folds)
 Protrudes anteriorly (Adam’s apple)
 Vibrate with expelled air to create
 Epiglottis sound (speech)
 Superior opening of the larynx  Glottis – opening between vocal cords
 Routes food to the larynx and air
toward
the trachea

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13.9a 13.9b

Trachea Primary
(Windpipe) Bronchi
 Connects larynx with bronchi
 Formed by division of the trachea
 Lined with ciliated mucosa
 Enters the lung at the
 Beat continuously in the opposite hilus (medial
direction of depression)
incoming air
 Right bronchus is wider, shorter,
 Expel mucus loaded with dust and
other debris away from lungs and straighter than left
 Walls are reinforced with C-  Bronchi subdivide into
shaped hyaline cartilage smaller and smaller
branches
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13.10 13.11

Lung Lung
s s
 Occupy most of the thoracic
cavity
 Apex is near the clavicle (superior
portion)
 Base rests on the diaphragm
(inferior portion)
 Each lung is divided into lobes by
fissures
Figure 13.4b
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Slide Slide
 Right lung – three lobes

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13.12a 13.12b

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Coverings of the Respiratory Tree
Lungs Divisions
 Pulmonary (visceral) pleura  Primary bronchi
covers the
lung surface  Secondary bronchi
 Parietal pleura lines the walls  Tertiary bronchi
of the thoracic cavity  Bronchioli
 Pleural fluid fills the area between  Terminal bronchioli
layers of pleura to allow gliding

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13.13 13.14

Bronchiole Bronchiole
s s

 Smallest  All but the


branches smallest
of the branches have
bronchi reinforcing
Figure Figure
13.5a 13.5a
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13.15a 13.15b

Bronchiole
s Respiratory
Zone

 Structures
 Respiratory bronchioli
 Alveolar duct

 Terminal  Alveoli
bronchioles  Site of gas exchange
end in alveoli
Figure
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13.15c 13.16

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Alveo
Respiratory
li
Structure of alveoli
Membrane (Air-
 Alveolar duct
Blood Barrier)
 Alveolar sac  Thin squamous epithelial layer
 Alveolus lining alveolar walls
 Gas exchange  Pulmonary capillaries cover
external surfaces of alveoli

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13.17 13.18a

Respiratory Membrane Gas


(Air-Blood Barrier) Exchange
 Gas crosses the respiratory
membrane by diffusion
 Oxygen enters the blood
 Carbon dioxide enters the alveoli
 Macrophages add protection
 Surfactant coats gas-exposed
alveolar surfaces
Figure 13.6

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13.18b 13.19

Events of Events of
Respiration Respiration

 Respiratory gas transport –


 Pulmonary ventilation – moving air
transport of oxygen and carbon
in and out of the lungs
dioxide via the bloodstream
 External respiration – gas
 Internal respiration – gas
exchange between pulmonary
exchange between blood and
blood and alveoli
tissue cells in systemic
capillaries

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13.20a 13.20b

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Mechanics of Mechanics of
Breathing (Pulmonary Breathing (Pulmonary
Ventilation)
 Completely mechanical process Ventilation)
 Depends on volume changes  Two phases
in the thoracic cavity  Inspiration – flow of air into lung
 Volume changes lead to  Expiration – air leaving lung
pressure changes, which lead
to the flow of gases to
equalize pressure

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13.21a 13.21b

Inspiratio Inspiratio
n n
 Diaphragm and intercostal muscles
contract
 The size of the thoracic cavity
increases
 External air is pulled into the lungs
due to an increase in
intrapulmonary volume
Figure 13.7a

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13.22a 13.22b

Exhalatio Exhalatio
n n
 Largely a passive process which
depends
on natural lung elasticity
 As muscles relax, air is pushed out
of the lungs
 Forced expiration can occur mostly
by contracting internal intercostal
muscles to depress the rib cage Figure 13.7b

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13.23a 13.23b

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Nonrespiratory Air Respiratory Volumes and
Movements Capacities
 Can be caused by reflexes or  Normal breathing moves about 500
voluntary ml of air with each breath (tidal
volume [TV])
actions
 Many factors that affect respiratory
 Examples capacity
 Cough and sneeze – clears lungs of  A person’s size
debris
 Sex
 Laughing
 Age
 Crying
 Physical condition
 Yawn
Slide
 Residual volume of air – after Slide
 Hiccup exhalation,
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings about 1200 ml of air remains in the
lungs
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13.25 13.26

Respiratory Volumes and Respiratory Volumes and


Capacities Capacities
 Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)
 Amount of air that can be taken in
forcibly over the tidal volume  Residual volume
 Usually between 2100 and 3200 ml  Air remaining in lung after expiration
 Expiratory reserve volume  About 1200 ml
(ERV)
 Amount of air that can be forcibly
exhaled
 Approximately 1200 ml

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13.27a 13.27b

Respiratory Volumes and Respiratory Volumes and


Capacities Capacities
 Vital capacity  Functional volume
 The total amount of exchangeable
air  Air that actually reaches the
respiratory zone
 Vital capacity = TV + IRV + ERV
 Usually about 350 ml
 Dead space volume
 Air that remains in conducting zone
 Respiratory capacities are
and never reaches alveoli measured with a spirometer
 About 150 ml
13.28
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Sl
id
e
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Respiratory
Respiratory
Capacities
Sounds
 Sounds are monitored with a
stethoscope
 Bronchial sounds – produced by
air rushing through trachea and
bronchi
 Vesicular breathing sounds – soft
sounds of air filling alveoli

Figure 13.9

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13.30 13.31

External External
Respiration Respiration
 Carbon dioxide movement out
 Oxygen movement into the blood of the blood
 The alveoli always has more  Blood returning from tissues has
oxygen than the blood higher concentrations of carbon
dioxide than air in the alveoli
 Oxygen moves by diffusion
towards the area of lower  Pulmonary capillary blood gives up
concentration carbon dioxide
 Pulmonary capillary blood gains  Blood leaving the lungs is
oxygen oxygen-rich and carbon dioxide-
Slide
poor Slide
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13.32a 13.32b

Gas Transport in the Gas Transport in the


Blood Blood
 Oxygen transport in the blood  Carbon dioxide transport in the blood
 Inside red blood cells attached
 Most is transported in the
to hemoglobin (oxyhemoglobin
plasma as bicarbonate ion
[HbO2]) 3
(HCO –)
 A small amount is carried dissolved
 A small amount is carried inside red
in the blood cells on hemoglobin, but at
plasma different binding sites than those of
oxygen

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13.33a 13.33b

9
Internal
Internal Respiration
Respiration
 Exchange of gases between blood
and body cells
 An opposite reaction to what
occurs in the lungs
 Carbon dioxide diffuses out of tissue to
blood
 Oxygen diffuses from blood into tissue

Figure
13.11
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13.34a 13.34b

External Neural Regulation of


Respiration, Gas

Respiration
Activity of respiratory muscles is
Transport, and transmitted to the brain by the
Internal phrenic and intercostal nerves
 Neural centers that control rate and
depth are located in the medulla
 The pons appears to smooth out
respiratory rate
 Normal respiratory rate (eupnea) is 12–15
respirations per minute
 Hypernia is increased respiratory
Figure
rate often due to extra oxygen needs
13.10
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13.35 13.36

Neural Regulation of Factors Influencing


Respiration
Respiratory Rate
and Depth
 Physical factors
 Increased body temperature
 Exercise
 Talking
 Coughing
 Volition (conscious control)
 Emotional factors
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13.12
13.37 13.38

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Factors Influencing Factors Influencing
Respiratory Rate Respiratory Rate
 Chemicaland Depth
factors and Depth
 Carbon dioxide levels  Chemical factors (continued)
 Level of carbon dioxide in the blood  Oxygen levels
is the main regulatory chemical for
 Changes in oxygen concentration in
respiration
the blood are detected by
 Increased carbon dioxide increases chemoreceptors in the aorta and
respiration carotid artery
 Changes in carbon dioxide act  Information is sent to the medulla oblongata
directly on the medulla oblongata
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13.39a 13.39b

Respiratory Disorders: Respiratory Disorders:


Chronic Obstructive Chronic Obstructive
Pulmonary Disease (COPD) Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
 Features of these diseases
 Exemplified by chronic
 Patients almost always have a
bronchitis and emphysema history of smoking
 Major causes of death and  Labored breathing (dyspnea)
disability in the United States becomes progressively more
severe
 Coughing and frequent
pulmonary infections are
common
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13.40a 13.40b

Respiratory Disorders: Emphysem


Chronic Obstructive a
 Alveoli enlarge as adjacent chambers
Pulmonary Disease (COPD) break through
 Chronic inflammation promotes lung fibrosis
 Features of these diseases
 Airways collapse during expiration
(continued)
 Patients use a large amount of energy to
 Most victimes retain carbon exhale
dioxide, are hypoxic and have
respiratory acidosis  Overinflation of the lungs
leads to a permanently
 Those infected will ultimately expanded barrel chest
develop respiratory failure  Cyanosis appears late in the disease

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13.40c 13.41

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Chronic Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary
Bronchitis Disease (COPD)
 Mucosa of the lower respiratory
passages becomes severely
inflamed
 Mucus production increases
 Pooled mucus impairs
ventilation and gas exchange
 Risk of lung infection increases
 Pneumonia is common
 Hypoxia and cyanosis occur early Figure
13.13

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13.42 13.43

Lung Sudden Infant Death


Cancer
 Accounts for 1/3 of all cancer
syndrome
deaths in the United States (SIDS)
 Apparently healthy infant
 Increased incidence associated stops breathing and dies
with during sleep
smoking
 Three common types  Some cases are thought to be a
problem of the neural respiratory
 Squamous cell carcinoma control center
 Adenocarcinoma
 One third of cases appear to be
 Small cell carcinoma due to heart rhythm
abnormalities
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13.44 13.45

Asthm Developmental Aspects of


a the Respiratory
System
 Lungs are filled with fluid in the fetus
 Chronic inflamed
hypersensitive bronchiole  Lungs are not fully inflated with
passages air until two weeks after birth
 Response to irritants with  Surfactant that lowers alveolar
dyspnea, coughing, and surface tension is not present until
wheezing late in fetal development and may
not be present in premature
babies
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13.46 13.47a

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Developmental Aspects of Aging
the Respiratory Effects
System  Elasticity of lungs decreases
 Important birth defects  Vital capacity decreases
 Cystic fibrosis – oversecretion of  Blood oxygen levels decrease
thick mucus clogs the
respiratory system  Stimulating effects of carbon dioxide
 Cleft palate decreases
 More risks of respiratory tract infection

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13.47b 13.48

Respiratory Rate
Changes
 Newborns – 40 to 80 respirations per
minute
 Infants – 30 respirations per minute
 Age 5 – 25 respirations per minute
 Adults – 12 to 18
respirations per minute
 Rate often increases somewhat with old
age
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