CChhaaptpteerr

21
Respiration

What are the parts of the

human respiratory system?
What are respiratory diseases?
What are examples of
substances that are harmful
to the respiratory system?

Let’s study
Human respiratory system
Movement and exchange of gases in human body
Health of human respiratory system
Adaptations in respiratory systems
Gaseous exchange in plants

44
Science Gallery

(a) Running at high altitude (b) Running in a hypoxic training room

How can the above two locations increase the efficiency of an athlete’s respiration?
The higher the altitude, the lower the concentration of oxygen in the air. Therefore, less
oxygen is transported to the cells in the body. Shortage of oxygen in these cells will stimulate
the body to respond by:
• releasing red blood cells stored in the spleen
• increasing the production rate of red blood cells
• facilitating the decomposition of oxyhaemoglobin to release oxygen
All these responses will increase the efficiency of respiration. What is the importance of
this adaptation in human survival?

Keywords

Cell respiration
Intercostal muscles
Trachea Emphysema
Bronchus Lung cancer
Bronchiole Bronchitis
Alveolus Asthma Stoma
Diaphragm Osmosis
Oxyhaemoglobin Guard cell
Di usion

45
2.1 Human Respiratory System
Human Respiratory System
Breathing is the process of inhaling and What are the functions
of the human respiratory
exhaling air by the lungs. The system in the
system?
body that helps us to breathe is known as the
human respiratory system. The structure of
the human respiratory system is shown in
Figure 2.1.

Nasal I CAN
REMEMBER!
cavity The human respiratory system
Nostrils functions to supply oxygen and
removes carbon dioxide from
Larynx the body cells.
Pharynx
Bronchus
Intercostal
Epiglottis
muscles
Bronchiole
Trachea

Right
lung

Diaphragm

Le lung
Alveolus

Figure 2.1  Human respiratory system

46 2.1.1
Chapter 2: Respiration

Activity 2.1
To explain the structure of the human respiratory system
Instructions • ICS, ISS, CPS
• Technology-
1. Work in groups. based activity
2. Search the Internet for the structures of the human respiratory
system.
3. Create a multimedia presentation from the results of your search.

Breathing Mechanism
Inhale and exhale. Can you feel the air entering and leaving through your nose? Place your
hand on your chest. Do you realise that your chest rises and falls during breathing? The
direction of air from the nose to the lungs is as shown in Figure 2.2.

Nostrils Nasal cavity Pharynx Larynx

Trachea Bronchus Bronchiole Alveolus

Figure 2.2  Direction of air in breathing mechanism

SCIENCEINFO
Most people take
breathing for granted to
the extent of not realising
that they are breathing Inhalation and exhalation
right now! Are you C
AN
breathing? In this active S

world, the correct

technique of breathing AG
E

plays an important role

P
to ensure the physical
and mental health
of humans. Correct
breathing technique
will improve the
performance during exercise or sports events such
as weightlifting.

2.1.1 47
Inhalation
Pathway of air
Trachea

Lung Air is breathed

in
Intercostal Rib cage moves

muscles upwards and

outwards
Rib cage Volume of the

thoracic cavity
increases

Diaphragm contracts
Diaphragm and moves downwards

(a) Front view (b) Side view

Figure 2.3  Inhalation

When you inhale,

• intercostal muscles contract and pull the rib cage upwards and outwards as shown in
Figure 2.3.
• diaphragm muscles contract and pull the diaphragm to descend and become flat.
• movements of the rib cage and diaphragm make the thoracic cavity bigger and cause air
pressure in the thoracic cavity to decrease.
• the higher air pressure outside forces air to enter the lungs as shown in Figure 2.3 (b).

SCIENCEINFO
The action of epiglottis during swallowing of bolus and breathing
During swallowing of bolus During breathing
Bolus Epiglottis

Epiglottis is Bolus moves up

Epiglottis
upright
moves up

Epiglottis
Trachea Esophagus
drops down Trachea is opened Trachea
is opened is opened
Esophagus Trachea is closed
Epiglottis moves
Epiglottis drops down and closes the trachea when a bolus is swallowed up causing the
into the esophagus. trachea to open.

48 2.1.1
Chapter 2: Respiration

Exhalation

Pathway of air

Lung Trachea Air is breathed

out

Rib cage moves

downwards and
inwards

Volume of the thoracic

cavity decreases
Rib cage
Diaphragm Diaphragm relaxes and

(a) Front view curves upwards

(b) Side view

Figure 2.4  Exhalation

When you exhale,

• intercostal muscles relax and the rib cage moves downwards and inwards as shown in
Figure 2.4.
• diaphragm muscles relax and curve upwards.
• movements of the rib cage and diaphragm make the thoracic cavity smaller and cause the
air pressure in the thoracic cavity to increase.
• the higher air pressure in the lungs pushes the air out as shown in Figure 2.4 (b).

Activity 2.2
To create a model or simulation to describe the breathing mechanism
• ICS, ISS
Instructions • Innovation-
1. Work in groups. based activity
2. Create a model or multimedia simulation to describe the actions of the diaphragm,
intercostal muscles, movement of the rib cage, changes in the volume and air pressure in
the thoracic cavity during inhalation and exhalation.
3. Present the breathing mechanism based on the model or simulation created.

2.1.1 49
Experiment 2.1
A Percentage of oxygen in inhaled and exhaled air
Aim
To study the difference in the percentage of oxygen in inhaled and exhaled air
Problem statement
What is the difference in the percentage of oxygen in inhaled and exhaled air?
Hypothesis
The percentage of oxygen in inhaled air is higher than the percentage of oxygen in
exhaled air.
Variables
(a) manipulated variable : Type of air in gas jar Safety
(b) responding variable : Final water level in gas jar Precaution
(c) constant variables : Air temperature and air Gas jar filled with exhaled air
pressure, volume of gas jar should be covered with a gas jar
cover while being transferred to
Materials
be inverted over a candle.
Candle, plasticine, matches, permanent marker, water,
inhaled air and exhaled air
Apparatus
Glass basin, gas jar, gas jar cover and gas jar stand
Procedure
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 2.5 (a) and (b).

Gas jar Gas jar

Volume of gas

jar is divided into

Water Candle ve equal parts
and marked using
level Glass basin the permanent
mark Water marker
Gas jar Water
level

stand Plasticine mark

(a) (b)

Figure 2.5
2. Light a candle and invert the gas jar filled
with air over the candle as shown in Figure
2.6.
3. Observe and record the final water
level (in units of the number of equal
parts marked on the gas jar) after the Candle
candle flame extinguishes. Estimate the
percentage of oxygen in the air in the
gas jar. Figure 2.6
50 2.1.2
Chapter 2: Respiration

4. Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 2.7 to collect exhaled air until the water level
mark.
5. Repeat steps 2 and 3.

Gas jar Collected

Exhaled air exhaled air

Water level
mark
Candle

Glass basin
Plasticine
Water
Gas jar stand
Figure 2.7
Results
Type of air in gas jar Final water level in gas jar Percentage of oxygen
(number of parts) in the air
Inhaled air
Exhaled air

Conclusion
Is the hypothesis of this experiment accepted? What is the conclusion of this experiment?
Question
In which gas jar does the water level rise higher? Explain your observation.

B Concentration of carbon dioxide in inhaled and exhaled air

Aim
To study the difference in concentration of carbon dioxide in inhaled and exhaled air
Problem statement
What is the difference in concentration of carbon dioxide in inhaled and exhaled air?
Hypothesis
Concentration of carbon dioxide in exhaled air is higher than concentration of carbon
dioxide in inhaled air.
Variables
(a) manipulated variable : Type of air passed through limewater
(b) responding variable : Condition of limewater
(c) constant variables : Concentration of limewater, volume of conical flask
Materials
Limewater, inhaled air and exhaled air
Apparatus
Conical flask, connecting tube, rubber tubing, glass tube and rubber stopper

2.1.2 51
Procedure
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in Figure 2.8.
2. Close clip A. Inhale and hold your breath. Then, close clip B and open clip A. After
that, exhale.

Clip A Clip B
Air Air

breathed breathed
out in

Limewater

Figure 2.8
3. Observe and record if the limewater in the conical flasks where inhaled and exhaled air
passes through appears clear or cloudy.
Results

Type of air that passes through limewater Condition of limewater

Inhaled air

Exhaled air

Conclusion
Is the hypothesis of the experiment accepted? What is the conclusion of this experiment?
Question
In which conical flask does the limewater become cloudy? Explain your observation.

In theory,
Percentage/Concentration Inhaled air Exhaled air

Oxygen Higher Lower

Carbon dioxide Lower Higher

Do the results of Experiment 2.1 support this theory? Explain your answer.

52 2.1.2
Chapter 2: Respiration

Formative Practice 2.1

1. Complete the flow chart below which describes the direction of air during inhalation.

Nostrils Nasal cavity Pharynx Larynx

(a) (b) (c) Alveolus

2. Mark ‘•’ for the correct statemenand ‘ ×’ for the incorrect statemen on
breathing.
(a) Epiglottis is the structure that opens or closes the trachea.
(b) Exchange of gases in the body cells occurs in the bronchioles.
(c) The diaphragm moves downwards and flattens during exhalation.
(d) The percentage of carbon dioxide in exhaled air is less than inhaled air.

3. What is the importance of good ventilation in a class with many students?

4. Figure 1 shows a simple model used to show the breathing mechanism.

Y-shaped glass tube

Glass jar

Balloon

in rubber sheet
Figure 1

(a) Name the parts of the human respiratory system represented by the following parts:
(i) Glass jar
(ii) Thin rubber sheet
(iii) Y-shaped glass tube
(iv) Balloon
(b) Why is a thin rubber sheet used in the above model instead of a thick rubber
sheet?
(c) Name the breathing processes shown by the following actions performed on the thin
rubber sheet:
(i) Pulling the thin rubber sheet downwards.
(ii) Pushing the thin rubber sheet upwards.
(d) Why does the glass jar fail to function as a rib cage in the breathing mechanism using
the above model?

53
2.2 Movement and Exchange of Gases
in the Human Body
Movement and Exchange of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide in
the Human Body
Have you ever wondered about the process of movement of particles such as oxygen and carbon
dioxide molecules from an area of higher concentration to an area of lower concentration? What
is this process?
Observe the movement and exchange of oxygen and carbon
dioxide in the alveolus and blood capillaries as shown in Figure 2.9.

Blood with lower

concentration
of oxygen and
Inhaled higher
air concentration of
carbon dioxide

Exhaled
air
Alveolus Blood capillary
wall
3
Blood capillary

Red blood cell

Oxygen Carbon
Blood with 1 dioxide
KEY:
higher 2 Oxygen (O2)
concentration Carbon dioxide
of oxygen and
(CO2)
lower
concentration of
carbon dioxide
Blood capillary

Red blood
cell
4 6
O2

5
CO2
Body
cell
Figure 2.9  Movement and exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the human body
54 2.2.1
Chapter 2: Respiration

Activity 2.3

• ISS
• Innovation-
based activity
To create a presentation to show the movement and
exchange of gases in the human body
Instructions
1. Work in groups.
2. Each group needs to create a presentation showing the following:
• Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide due to the difference in concentration in the
alveolus and blood capillaries
• Process of diffusion of oxygen from the alveolus into the blood capillaries
• Formation of an unstable compound, that is oxyhaemoglobin
• Release of oxygen into the body cells
• Process of oxidation of food, that is, cellular respiration to produce energy
• Diffusion of carbon dioxide from the body cells into the blood capillaries and then into
the alveolus

1 2
The air inhaled into the In red blood cells, there is a dark red-coloured
alveolus has a higher compound known as haemoglobin. Haemoglobin
concentration of oxygen will combine with oxygen to form oxyhaemoglobin
compared to the concentration of which is an unstable compound and bright red in
oxygen in the blood. Therefore, colour.
oxygen will diffuse through the
wall of the alveolus into the walls
Haemoglobin + oxygen oxyhaemoglobin
of the capillaries and into the
blood.
5 In the body cells, the
diffused oxygen
oxidises glucose
molecules into carbon
4 dioxide, water and
energy through the
When the blood reaches the area around the body process of cellular
cells that has a low concentration of oxygen, the respiration as
oxyhaemoglobin being an unstable compound will summarised in the
decompose to release oxygen molecules and change following chemical
back into haemoglobin. equation.

Oxyhaemoglobin → haemoglobin + oxygen Glucose + oxygen → carbon

dioxide + water + energy
3 6 Carbon dioxide released by
Blood with oxyhaemoglobin is transported from the lungs to the cells diffuses into the
the heart and pumped to the other parts of the body. blood capillaries and is
transported to the alveolus to
be removed during exhalation.

2.2.1 55
Importance of the Adaptations of the Alveolar Structure
The adaptations of the alveolar structure increase the efficiency and maximise the exchange of
gases in the human body. Among the adaptations of the alveolar structure are as shown in
Figure 2.10.

Thickness of the walls of alveolus and blood Moist wall of alveolus

capillaries
The moist wall of alveolus allows
The alveolus and blood capillaries have thin respiratory gases to dissolve and diffuse
walls which are made up of only one layer of into the blood capillaries.
cells. This structure facilitates and increases
the rate of diffusion of gases across the walls
of the alveolus and blood capillaries. Adaptations
of the
alveolar
structure

Surface area of alveolus Network of capillaries covering the

alveolus
The lungs contain millions of alveoli
which provide a large surface area for The alveolus is covered by a compact
the exchange of gases. network of capillaries which increases
the rate of gaseous exchange between
the alveolus and the blood capillaries.

Figure 2.10  Adaptations of the alveolar structure to increase efficiency in the exchange of gases

SCIENCEINFO
Other than the alveolar structure, another factor that can increase the exchange of gases in the
human body is the difference in concentration of gases in the alveoli and blood capillaries. The
greater the difference in concentration of a gas in the alveoli and blood capillaries, the higher
the rate of diffusion of the gas between the alveoli and the blood capillaries.

Formative Practice 2.2

1. What factor determines the rate of exchange of oxygen between the alveolus and blood
capillaries?
2. Describe the conditions in the following processes:
(a) Haemoglobin changes into oxyhaemoglobin
(b) Oxyhaemoglobin decomposes into haemoglobin
3. Write a chemical equation to describe cellular respiration
4. What happens to the efficiency of the exchange of oxygen in the human body at a high
altitude? Explain your answer
5. State four adaptations that influence the efficiency of the alveolus to maximise the
exchange of gases in the body

56 2.2.2
Chapter 2: Respiration

Health of Human Respiratory System

2.3

What is the importance

Substances that are Harmful
to the Human Respiratory of forest reserves to
the health of the
System respiratory system?
The air that we inhale during breathing AIN

LIM

may contain substances that can be

harmful to the respiratory system. Examples
of such substances are as follow: Forest reserves can

• Cigarette tar reduce the substances

that can be harmful to the
• Carbon monoxide respiratory system.
• Sulphur dioxide
• Nitrogen dioxide
• Haze, dust and BRAIN
pollen TEASER
Why are forests SCIENCEINFO
commonly known as
Cigarette tar and tar used in
Cigarette Tar ‘green lungs’?
making roads are different
substances. Cigarette tar is
normally labelled as ‘tar’ which
is the acronym for ‘total aerosol
residue’.
Cigarette tar is one of the toxic substances found in
cigarette smoke. Cigarette tar in inhaled air sticks to and
kills cells in the air passage such as the thorax, pharynx,
epiglottis, larynx, bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli. Cigarette tar also increases the production of
mucus and phlegm in the lungs. Why do smokers often cough or have flu?
Based on the data of lung cancer patients, most of them are smokers. Cigarette tar is an
example of a substance in cigarette smoke that can cause lung cancer.

Cadmium Stearic Toluene Nicotine Ammonia

BAT
TER

acid
Y

Alkaline battery Candle Industrial solvent Insecticide FLOOR Floor cleaner

CLEANER

Butane Acetone
Lighter
Paint
fuel
Methane Arsenic Cyanide Methanol

Carbon
monoxide
Smoke from Sewage Rat
Poison Fuel
fumes poison
motor
vehicle exhaust

Figure 2.11  Harmful substances found in cigarette smoke

2.3.1 57
Carbon Monoxide
Carbon monoxide is usually found in cigarette smoke and exhaust gases of motor vehicles.
Carbon monoxide is a colourless and odourless gas. When carbon monoxide diffuses from
the alveoli into the blood capillaries, it will combine chemically with haemoglobin to form
carboxyhaemoglobin which is a stable compound.

Carbon monoxide + haemoglobin → carboxyhoglobin

This causes a shortage of oxyhaemoglobin in blood that transports oxygen to the body cells.
Due to this shortage, the body cells are unable to produce the required amount of energy
through cellular respiration. Can body cells live without energy?

Sulphur Dioxide
Sulphur dioxide that is released into the air is normally BRAIN
produced by the combustion of coal from power stations TEASER
as shown in Photograph 2.1. Sulphur dioxide is a Why should we support ‘SAY
colourless gas with a pungent smell. It irritates the air NO TO SMOKING’ campaigns?
passage causing cough, difficulty in breathing, bronchitis
and lung cancer.
My World of Science
The number 220 displayed on
this food label is the code for a
substance, that is sulphur
dioxide, used to preserve food.

Photograph 2.1  Smoke released from a power station

58 2.3.1
Chapter 2: Respiration

Nitrogen Dioxide BRAIN

Nitrogen dioxide that is released into the air is normally TEASER
produced by the combustion of fuels such as petrol and How does the use of electric
diesel in motor vehicles as shown in Photograph 2.2. buses conserve the human
respiratory system?
Nitrogen dioxide is a brown-coloured gas with a pungent
smell. This gas irritates the air passage and causes cough,
difficulty in breathing and asthma.
SCIENCEINFO
On 23 June 2013, the Air
Pollutant Index (API) in Muar,
Johor rose up to 746 at 7.00 a.m.
far above the minimum
hazardous level of 300. This
situation caused the government
to declare a state of emergency in
Muar and Ledang (which was
subsequently withdrawn on the
morning of 25 June 2013).

Photograph 2.2  Motor vehicles

My Malaysia
Health Education Division, Ministry
of Health Malaysia
http://links.andl17.com/BT_Science
Haze, Dust and Pollen
_59
Haze, dust and pollen are solid
particles which are fine, light and
suspended in the air. The smoke
from motor vehicle exhaust, open
burning and forest fires produces
haze and dust (Photograph 2.3).
Pollen released from anthers into
the air is carried by the wind over
long distances in all directions.
Haze, dust and pollen irritate the
respiratory system and cause
respiratory diseases such as asthma.

Photograph 2.3 Condition of the surroundings during haze

2.3.1 59
Respiratory Diseases and their Symptoms

Asthma Symptoms and ways to treat

Asthma is triggered by the presence of dust, pollen, haze, asthma
smoke from cigarette and motor vehicle exhaust, open C
AN

burning and forest fires. Symptoms of asthma include S

shortness of breath, wheezing and coughing.

GE

Bronchitis
A

Bronchitis is an inflammation of the bronchus caused by

tar and irritants in cigarette smoke. Symptoms of
bronchitis include shortness of breath, persistent coughing
and insomnia.
Websites
Emphysema • Is this flu, bronchitis or
Emphysema is the inflammation of the lungs?
condition of the alveoli in http://links.andl17.com/BT_
Science_60_2
the lungs which are
damaged by harmful
substances in the air such
as irritants in cigarette
smoke. Symptoms of
emphysema include
shortness of breath, pain • Emphysema, symptoms
when breathing and feeling and ways to treat it
tired from doing even a http://links.andl17.com/BT_
Science_60_3
light task. Emphysema
Photograph 2.4  Emphysema
patients cannot be cured
patients need oxygen supply
but the symptoms of this
even while at rest
disease can be controlled
(Photograph 2.4).

(a) Healthy alveoli (b) Damaged alveoli due

to emphysema
Figure 2.12  Difference between healthy alveoli
and damaged alveoli
60 2.3.1
Chapter 2: Respiration

Today in history
World Cancer Day is
celebrated on 4 February
every year since 2000.

My
Malaysia
National Cancer Institute
Screening test for lung cancer is
provided free of charge to
Malaysians between the ages of
50 and 70.
http://links.andl17.com/BT_Scienc
e _61

• ICS
• Discussion
activity

Lung Cancer
Lung cancer is caused by cancer causing chemical
substances known as carcinogens. These chemical
substances are inhaled during breathing. Cigarette smoke
contains various carcinogens, for example tar that causes
lung cancer. Symptoms of lung cancer include persistent
coughing, blood in the phlegm and feeling pain when
breathing. Observe the difference between healthy lungs and
the lungs of a cancer patient shown in Photograph 2.5.
(a) Lungs of a healthy person (b) Lungs of a cancer patient

Photograph 2.5  Difference between healthy and

cancerous lungs

Activity 2.4
To gather and analyse data on respiratory diseases
Instructions
1. Work in groups.
2. Gather and analyse information based on data obtained from the
Ministry of Health Malaysia or from other countries on respiratory diseases such as
asthma, bronchitis, emphysema and lung cancer.

http://links.andl17. http://links.andl17.
com/BT_Science com/BT_Science
_61_2 _61_3

3. Discuss the analysed information.

4. Present the outcome of your group's discussion in class in the form of multimedia
presentation.

2.3.1 61
Say no !
to smoking
Effects of Smoking on the Lungs
CIGARETTE IS HARMFUL
Smoking is not only harmful to the respiratory system of REGARDLESS OF WHAT TYPE IT IS...

smokers but also to the respiratory system of other people in

the vicinity of the smokers. A person who does not smoke
Are you
keen to stop
FLOW CHART CLINIC
smoking? TO STOP SMOKING
but inhales cigarette smoke is known as a passive smoker. Reference/Walk in

The harmful Registration

effects of Examination/

cigarette smoke Have you ever

Screening
Modification of Pharmacology

to the human tried to stop

smoking before
this? behaviour treatment

respiratory (consultation) (if necessary)

Appointment for 6

system do not months (minimum

6 sessions)

only happen
Assessment on the

status of stop
in the body of We are ready to help you.
Register at the stop
smoking

the smoker but smoking clinic

Alam Hospital
in Shah Contact:
Health Education Unit Shah
Alam Hospital Tel.: 03-
now!
also in the body 55263000 ext.: 1208/1209

of the passive
smoker.

Photograph 2.6  Signboards at the hospital related to smoking

Experiment 2.2 (Demonstration by teacher)

Aim Safety
To study the effects of smoking on the lungs Precautions
Problem statement • Carry out this experiment in a
What are the effects of smoking on the lungs? • fume chamber.
Hypothesis Avoid inhaling cigarette smoke.
• U-tube and conical flask are
Cigarette smoke contains cigarette tar (brown-coloured fragile. Be careful when handling
substance) and acidic gases that damage the lungs. these apparatus.
Variables
(a) manipulated : Presence of cigarette Rubber tube
(b) variable smoke Glass tube
responding : Colour of cotton wool
variables and litmus solution at
the end of the Clamp of To lter
(c) constant experiment retort stand pump
: Rate of suction U-tube
variable of air using the filter Conical
Cotton ask
pump
wool
Materials Wooden Litmus
Cigarette, cotton wool, litmus solution block solution
and matches or lighter Figure 2.13 (a)
Apparatus
U-tube, conical flask, rubber stopper, filter pump, rubber tube, glass tube, retort stand with
clamps and wooden block

62 2.3.2
Chapter 2: Respiration

Procedure
1. Set up the apparatus as shown in Lighted cigarette
Figure 2.13 (a). Rubber tube Glass tube
2. Observe and record the colour of the
Clamp of To lter
cotton wool and litmus solution.
3. Switch on the filter pump for
10 minutes.
4. Switch off the filter pump. pump
retort stand
5. Observe and record the change in
U-tube Conical
colour of the cotton wool (if any)
and litmus solution in a table. Cotton ask
6. Repeat steps 1 to 5 with a wool Litmus
lighted cigarette as shown in Wooden block solution
Figure 2.13 (b).
Figure 2.13 (b)
Observation
Presence of Colour of cotton wool Colour of litmus solution
cigarette beginning of end of beginning of end of
smoke experiment experiment experiment experiment
No
Yes

Conclusion
Is the hypothesis of the experiment accepted? What is the conclusion of this experiment?

Questions
1. Name the substance in cigarette smoke that is deposited on the cotton wool.
2. Is cigarette smoke acidic or alkaline? Explain your answer.
3. Name three other harmful substances found in cigarette smoke.

Formative Practice 2.3

1. (a) Name four examples of solids in the air that are harmful to the human
respiratory system.
(b) Name three examples of gases in the air that are harmful to the human
respiratory system.
2. Name one substance released by plants that is harmful to the human respiratory system.
3. State one symptom of each of the following respiratory diseases:
(a) Emphysema (c) Bronchitis
(b) Lung cancer (d) Asthma
4. Name two types of respiratory diseases that are caused by harmful substances in
cigarette smoke.
5. What is meant by passive smoker?

2.3.2 63
2.4 Adaptations in Respiratory Systems
How the Respiratory System Adapts in Different Surroundings
The respiratory structures of most organisms including humans have three features to ensure
an efficient gaseous exchange with the surroundings. These three features are as follows:

Moist surface Thin respiratory Large surface

structures such as area of respiratory
of respiratory
the walls of alveolus structures such as
structures such as
and blood capillaries the surface area
the moist surface
which are one cell of millions of
of alveoli.
thick. alveoli.

Different organisms have different respiratory systems and adapt to maximise the rate of
gaseous exchange in different surroundings. The respiratory structures which adapt in different
surroundings include moist outer skin, gills and trachea.

Moist Outer Skin

Amphibians such as frogs are organisms which can live on land and in water. The respiratory
structure of frogs can adapt to increase the efficiency of gaseous exchange while they are on
land (Figure 2.14). Name one respiratory structure of frogs which can adapt for gaseous
exchange while they are on land.
Other than lungs, frogs usually use
their moist outer skin for gaseous Moist outer
exchange. The skin of frogs is thin
Glottis skin
and very permeable to gas. The skin
of frogs is also always moist because
it is covered by a layer of mucus Lungs
which causes the respiratory gases to Nostril
dissolve and diffuse easily.
Under the layers of skin is a dense
network of blood capillaries to Oral
increase the diffusion rate cavity
of gases between the skin and
the blood capillaries.

Figure 2.14  Respiratory system of a frog

64 2.4.1
Chapter 2: Respiration

Gills SCIENCEINFO
Fish is an organism that can only live in water. Therefore,
the respiratory structure of fish, namely gills can
adapt to increase the efficiency of gaseous exchange
in water.
Gills are made up of two rows of fine filaments that have
many thin and flat projections known as lamellae as shown Mudskippers are classified as
in Figure 2.15. The number of filaments and lamellae amphibious fish because they
produces a large surface area to facilitate gaseous exchange. breathe through their gills like fish
and also through their moist outer
Since fish live in water, their gills are surrounded by water skin like amphibians.
and this causes the respiratory gases to dissolve and diffuse
easily.

Network of
Flow of water blood capillaries
Deoxygenated

Blood vessel blood

Flow
of water
Lamella
Oxygenated Flow of
Filament blood
blood

Figure 2.15  Structure of gills in fish

Trachea
Trachea
The respiratory system of insects Air sacs

is the trachea system made up Oxygen

of air tubes known as trachea Trachea
Spiracle
as shown in Figure 2.16. Air
enters or leaves the trachea Tracheole Carbon
through breathing pores known dioxide
as spiracles. The opening and Spiracles Muscles
closing of spiracles are controlled
by valves which allow air to leave Figure 2.16  Trachea system of grasshopper
and enter the body.
Trachea is divided into fine branches known as tracheoles. Tracheoles have thin and
moist walls to increase the efficiency of gaseous exchange. The large number of tracheoles
also provides a large surface area to facilitate gaseous exchange through diffusion directly into
the cells. Some insects such as grasshoppers have air sacs in their trachea system. These sacs
are filled with air to increase the rate of exchange of respiratory gases between tissues and the
surroundings during energetic activities.

2.4.1 65
Activity 2.5
To create a presentation showing how respiratory system adapts in
different surroundings • ISS
Instructions • Inovation-
based activity
1. Work in groups.
2. Each group is required to create a presentation explaining how other organisms
carry out respiration through respiratory systems that can adapt in different
surroundings through: (b) gills (c) trachea
(a) moist outer skin

Activity 2.6
Active reading on the adaptation and ability of the human
• CPS
respiratory system
Instructions Active reading
Info 1
Carry out active reading on
strategy The adaptation and
adaptation and ability of the
http://links. ability of the human
human respiratory system in
andl17.com/ respiratory system
the following contexts: during exercise
BT_Science_66_5
(a) Different altitudes (at the
http://links.andl17.
bottom of the sea and in
mountainous regions). com/BT_Science_66_
Flashback: Refer to 3
Science Gallery on
(b) page 45 Info 2
Sports activities and Sickle cell anaemia
(c) lifestyles (athlete and swimmer). Refer Info 1. http://links.
Sickle cell anaemia. andl17.com/BT_
Refer Info 2. Science_66_4

Formative Practice 2.4

1. Name the respiratory structure in the following animals:
(a) Fish (b) Insects (c) Amphibians
2. State two adaptations in the outer skin of frogs that facilitate quick and efficient gaseous
exchange between the outer skin and the surroundings.
3. Why is the circulatory system of insects not involved in the respiratory mechanism of
insects?
4. What is the importance of exercise in maintaining a healthy respiratory system?
5. Choosing a healthy lifestyle is important for respiration. State two examples of healthy
lifestyles.

66 2.4.1
Chapter 2: Respiration

Gaseous Exchange in Plants

2.5

All living things including plants During the day, besides

carry out respiration. During respiration, plants also carry
respiration, oxygen is taken in out photosynthesis by taking
and carbon dioxide is removed. in carbon dioxide and giving
out oxygen.

SELVI

RIFQI

Mechanism of Gaseous BRAIN

TEASER
Exchange in Plants State one function
Most plants carry out the process of of the aerial roots
gaseous exchange with their of mangrove
plants as shown
surroundings through their leaves,
in the photograph
stems and roots. These three parts on the right.
provide a large surface area for
gaseous exchange. Gaseous exchange in
plants is shown in Figure 2.17.

During the day During the night

Taking in carbon Giving out

dioxide and oxygen and Taking in Giving out
oxygen carbon dioxide oxygen carbon dioxide

Figure 2.17  Gaseous exchange in plants

2.5.1 67
What is the structure in leaves that
Diffusion of Carbon Dioxide allows gases to diffuse either into or
The structure in leaves that shows the pathway of out of plant cells to the atmosphere?
gaseous exchange is as shown in Figure 2.18. The
diffusion of carbon dioxide occurs through the
stoma according to the difference in concentration
of carbon dioxide in the cells and in the air spaces ADNAN

between the cells during photosynthesis.

When carbon dioxide is used in photosynthesis, the
1
concentration of carbon dioxide in the cells becomes lower
compared to the concentration of carbon dioxide in the air I CAN
space between the cells. This difference in concentrations
allows the dissolved carbon dioxide in the moist surface of
REMEMBER!
cells to diffuse from the air space between the cells into Diffusion is the process of
the cells. movement of particles from a
region of high concentration to a
region of low concentration.

Cuticle

Upper epidermis

Palisade mesophyll cell

Air space O2 Xylem

between cells
Phloem
O2 Spongy
CO2

mesophyll cell
Lower epidermis

CO2 O
2
Guard cell KEY:
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Stoma Oxygen (O2)

2 This causes the concentration of carbon dioxide in the air space between the cells to become lower
compared to the concentration of carbon dioxide in the air outside the stoma. This difference in

concentrations causes the diffusion of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere into the air space between
the cells through the stoma which is open.

Figure 2.18  Pathway of gaseous exchange in leaves during photosynthesis

68 2.5.1
Chapter 2: Respiration

Stomatal pore Guard cells

Stomatal Pore and Guard Cells
Stoma is made up of a stomatal pore
bounded by a pair of guard cells. Guard
cells contain chloroplasts to carry out
photosynthesis. Stomata of plants open
during photosynthesis when there is light
and close when it gets dark or when the
(a) Open stoma (b) Closed stoma
plant loses a lot of water on a hot day as
shown in Photograph 2.7. Photograph 2.7 Open and closed stoma

SCIENCEINFO
Process of Osmosis Affects the Stoma Stoma – singular

Concept of Osmosis Stomata – plural

Osmosis is the process of movement of water molecules from a region of high concentration
of water molecules (solution with a low concentration of solutes) to a region of low
concentration of water molecules (solution with a high concentration of solutes) through
a semipermeable membrane (Figure 2.19). This membrane is permeable to water but not
permeable to some solutes such as sucrose molecules.

Semipermeable membrane Only water molecules are able

prevents the movement of large to pass through the pores of
the semipermeable membrane
solute molecules
KEY:
Water molecule
Solute molecule
such as sucrose

Figure 2.19 Osmosis

Process of Osmosis in Guard Cells

When there is light, guard cells carry out photosynthesis to produce glucose. The concentration
of glucose in guard cells increases and causes water from surrounding cells to diffuse into the
guard cells through osmosis. Hence, the guard cells become turgid and curved as shown
in Figure 2.20. Conversely, at night or on a hot day, water diffuses out of the guard cells also
through osmosis and causes the guard cells to become flaccid and straight.

Turgid and KEY:

curved guard Flaccid and
Water di uses into cell
cell straight
through osmosis
guard cell
Water di uses out of cell
through osmosis

Figure 2.20  Change in shape of guard cells caused by osmosis

2.5.1 69
Effects of Osmosis on Stoma

• ICS, ISS
• Technology-
based activity
The process shown in Figure 2.20 explains how during the day, water diffuses into the guard
cells through osmosis and causes both the guard cells to curve and open the stoma as shown in
Figure 2.21.
At night or on a hot day, water diffuses out of the guard cells through osmosis and
causes both the guard cells to become straight and close the stoma as shown in Figure 2.22.

in Guard cells Nucleus

in outer
outer wall Nucleus Chloroplast
wall
Stomatal Vacuole Stomatal
ick inner wall pore
pore

Figure 2.21  Open stoma Figure 2.22 Closed stoma

Activity 2.7
To show the mechanism of gaseous exchange in plants
Instructions
1. Work in groups.
2. Create a multimedia presentation to show the following:
• Stomatal pore is controlled by two guard cells
• During the day, water diffuses into the guard cells through osmosis and causes
both the guard cells to curve and open the stoma
• Diffusion of carbon dioxide occurs in the stoma due to the difference in
concentration
• At night, water diffuses out of the guard cells through osmosis and causes the
stoma to close

Importance of Unpolluted Environment for the Survival of Plants

The environment, especially unpolluted air, is very important to ensure the growth and survival
of plants.

Effects of Haze and Dust on the Survival of Plants

If the surrounding is hazy and dusty, the polluted air will be harmful to the growth and survival
of plants as shown in the article on page 71. Visit the website and study the article published.
Other than reducing sunlight from reaching the plants and reducing the rate of
photosynthesis, haze and dust that settle on stomata prevent gaseous exchange between plants
and their surrounding. What will happen to a plant if its stomata are clogged with dust?

70 2.5.1 2.5.2
Chapter 2: Respiration

BRAIN
TEASER
Why do efforts to prevent air
pollution require the cooperation of
the global society?

http://links.andl17.com/
BT_Science_71_1

Photograph 2.8  Official website of MARDI

Effects of Acidic Gases in the Air on the Survival of Plants
Air pollutant gases which are acidic such as sulphur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide dissolve in
rainwater to produce acid rain. Acid rain kills plant cells and causes soil to be acidic and less
fertile. Most plants cannot live in highly acidic soil. This will reduce agricultural produce and
cause food shortage.
Among the preventive measures against the effects of pollution on plants in the local and
global context are as follows:
• Ban open burning in Indonesia and Malaysia
• Limit the number of motor vehicles on the road in
Beijing, China
• Encourage the use of alternative energy such as
solar energy

Examples of research and information gathered by scientists on the effects of acid rain and
steps taken to prevent air pollution in this region are as follows:

E ects of acid rain in Asia ASEAN – Haze preventive measures

http://links.andll17.com/BT_Science_71_3 http://links.andl17.com/BT_Science_71_2

2.5.2 71
Activity 2.8
To create a multimedia presentation on the effects of pollution on
• ICS, ISS
plants and the preventive measures against pollution in local or global
context • Technology-
based activity
Instructions
1. Work in groups.
2. Gather and analyse further information on the following:
• Effects of pollution on plants
• Preventive measures against pollution in the local or global context
3. Discuss the information analysed.
4. Present the findings of each group in the form of multimedia presentation.

Formative Practice 2.5

1. Figure 1 shows mangrove plants.

Figure 1

Name three parts of a mangrove plant where gaseous exchange occurs.

2. Figure 2 shows a structure found in a leaf.

P:

Q:

Figure 2

Label parts P and Q.

3. (a) Are stomata open or closed during the day? Explain.
(b) Are stomata open or closed at night? Explain.
(c) Why are stomata closed on hot days?
4. What are the effects of polluted air on the growth and survival of plants?

72
Summary
Respiration

Human respiratory system Adaptations in respiratory system

Structure Movement and Health Animals Plants

gaseous exchange in harmed by
consists of the human body
substances Amphibians Fish Insects Stoma
Exchange of oxygen such as
Nostril, nasal cavity, which
and carbon dioxide Cigarette smoke, Moist Gills Trachea
pharynx, epiglottis, larynx,
intercostal muscles, Diffusion of oxygen cigarette tar, dust, outer Opens during
trachea, bronchus,
from alveolus into haze, pollen, skin the day
bronchiole, alveolus, carbon monoxide,
blood capillaries
diaphragm, lungs sulphur dioxide, and
Formation of nitrogen dioxide
Breathing oxyhaemoglobin Closes at
mechanism cause diseases
Release of oxygen to night and
such as on hot days
body cells Asthma,
Cellular respiration produces bronchitis, Importance of
Inhaled Exhaled carbon dioxide and energy lung cancer,
unpolluted
air air emphysema
Diffusion of carbon dioxide environment
• More • Less
oxygen oxygen from body cells into Thickness to ensure
• Less • More capillaries and alveolus

p
a
h
C
carbon carbon Moisture Growth and
dioxide dioxide survival of

2
:
Surface area
Efficiency of depends plants

Respira
alveolus on Network of capillaries
73
Self-reflection
After studying this chapter, you are able to:

2.1 Human Respiratory System

Draw and label the internal structures of the human respiratory system and describe the breathing
mechanism. Carry out experiments to investigate the differences in the content
of gases in inhaled and exhaled air.

2.2 Movement and Exchange of Gases in the Human Body Describe the movement and
exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the human body. Justify the
importance of adaptations of the alveolar structure to increase efficiency of gaseous exchange in
the human body.

2.3 Health of Human Respiratory System Communicate about substances that are
harmful to the respiratory system as well as diseases and their symptoms. Carry out
an experiment to show the effects of smoking on the lungs.

2.4 Adaptations in Respiratory System Justify how the respiratory system adapts
in different situations.

2.5 Gaseous Exchange in Plants Explain the mechanism of gaseous exchange in plants.
Communicate to justify the importance of an unpolluted environment for the growth and
survival of plants.

Summative Practice 2
Answer the following questions:
1. Complete the following flow chart to show the direction of air that is breathed out
from the lungs.

(a) Bronchiole (b) Trachea

Larynx Pharynx (c) Nostrils

74
Chapter 2: Respiration

2. Figure 1 shows the human respiratory system.

P:

Q:

R:

Figure 1

Label P, Q and R in Figure 1 using the following words:

Alveolus Bronchiole Bronchus Trachea

3. Figure 2 shows the breathing mechanism during exhalation.

Rib cage
oracic cavity

Diaphragm

Figure 2

Mark ‘•’ for the correct statements, about the mechani

(a) Air leaves the lungs when the diaphragm moves upwards.
(b) When exhaling, the rib cage moves downwards.
(c) Air pressure is lower in the lungs.
(d) Volume of thoracic cavity decreases.

4. Underline the correct answers.

(a) Percentage of oxygen in inhaled air is (higher/lower) than in exhaled air.
(b) Percentage of carbon dioxide in inhaled air is (higher/lower) than in exhaled air.

75
5. (a) What is the function of haemoglobin in the human respiratory system?
(b) What is the importance of the characteristic of oxyhaemoglobin as an unstable
compound in gaseous exchange in the body?

6. Azura is an asthma patient.

(a) Why does the doctor advise Azura to reduce her visits to botanical gardens during
Spring?
(b) Other than the botanical gardens, state two other locations that should be avoided by
Azura. Explain your answer.

7. (a) State four factors that affect the efficiency of the alveolus to maximise gaseous
exchange in the human body.
(b) State one symptom of each of the following respiratory diseases. What causes the
symptom?
(i) Asthma
Symptom :
Cause :

(ii) Bronchitis
Symptom :
Cause :

(iii) Emphysema
Symptom :
Cause :

8. Describe three ways to maintain the health of the respiratory system.

9. Why should waiting areas for public transport such as LRT stations and bus stands be
designated as non-smoking areas?

10. (a) Give one similarity in the gaseous exchange between insects and plants.
(b) Is the insect respiratory system more or less effective compared to the human
respiratory system?
(c) Explain your answer in 10 (b).

11. (a) Gas X is harmful to the human respiratory system. Gas X can diffuse into a stationary
car with its air conditioning on, windows closed and engine running. Name gas X.
(b) Explain the effects of the gas in the situation in 11 (a).

76
Chapter 2: Respiration

Focus on HOTS
12. Changes in the volume of air in the lungs of runners X and Y are as shown in Figures 3 (a)
and 3 (b).
Volume of air in the lungs of runner X against time Volume of air in the lungs of runner Y against time

5 5

)
)

eVolum of air in the lungs 3(dm

4
Volume of air in the lungs 3(dm

4
3 3

2 2

1 Walking Running Walking 1 Walking Running Walking

0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100

Time (seconds) Time (seconds)

Figure 3(a) Figure 3(b)

(a) State the maximum volume of air in the lungs of the following runners while walking.
(i) Runner X
(ii) Runner Y
(b) State the maximum volume of air in the lungs of the following runners:
(i) Runner X
(ii) Runner Y
(c) From the graphs in Figures 3 (a) and 3 (b), state the relationship between the types of
activity performed and the maximum volume of lungs of each runner. Explain.
(d) If one of the runners X or Y is a smoker, which one is the smoker? Explain.
(e) How does the increase in the maximum volume of the lungs affect the respiration rate?
Explain.

77