OMR353 Sensors

Unit 1 - Sensor Classification,

Characteristics and Signal Types

Dr T S Murugesh
ASP/ECE/GCE Srirangam

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A Measurement system - Introduction
The measurement of a given quantity is essentially an act or the result
of comparison between the quantity (whose magnitude is unknown)
and a predefined standard. Since two quantities are compared, the
result is expressed in numerical values. In fact, measurement is the
process by which one can convert physical parameters to meaningful
numbers.

The measuring process is one in which the property of an object or

system under consideration is compared to an accepted standard unit,
a standard defined for the particular property. Since there are two
quantities, the amount of unknown and other quantity whose amount
is known are compared, and the result is expressed in terms of
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numerical values.
A Measurement system
Basic requirements
1. The standard used for comparison purpose must be accurately
defined and should be commonly accepted.
2. The apparatus used and the method adopted must be provable.
Basics of Measurement
Measurements is a vast field which holds detection, acquisition control
and analysis of data.
It involves the measurement of physical, electrical, mechanical, optical
and chemical quantities and plays a very significant role in every
branch of scientific research and engineering process which include
control systems, process Instrumentation and data reduction.
There are two major function of all branch of engineering:
Design of equipment and processes and
Proper operation control and maintenance of process.
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METHODS OF MEASUREMENTS
• The methods of measurements may be broadly classified into two
categories.
(i) Direct methods - The unknown quantity (also called the
measurand) is directly compared against a standard. The result is
expressed as a numerical number and a unit. Direct methods are
quite common for the measurement of physical quantities like
length, mass and time.
(ii) Indirect methods - Measurements by direct methods are not
always possible, achievable and practicable. These methods in
most of the cases, are inaccurate because they involve human
factors. They are also less sensitive. Hence direct methods are not
preferred and are less commonly used. A measurement system
consists of a transducing element which converts the quantity to
be measured into an analogous signal. The analogous signal is
then processed by some intermediate means and is then fed to
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the end devices which present the results of the measurements.
PRIMARY SECONDARY AND TERTIARY MEASUREMENTS
• Measurements may be classified as primary, secondary and tertiary
based upon whether direct or indirect methods are used.
1. Primary Measurements – A primary measurement is one that can
be made by direct observation without involving any conversion
(translation) of the measured quantity into length. Typical examples of
primary measurements are:
i) The matching of two lengths such as when determining the
length of an object with a meter rod.
ii) The matching of redhot metal
iii) The counting of strokes of a clock sound to measure the
time.
2. Secondary Measurement - A secondary measurement involves only
one translation (conversion) to be done on the quantity under
measurement to convert it into a change of length. The measurement
quantity may be pressure of gas, and therefore, may not be
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observable.
PRIMARY SECONDARY AND TERTIARY MEASUREMENTS
• Therefore, a secondary measurement requires,
i) An instrument which translates pressure changes into length
changes.
ii) A length scale or a standard which is calibrated in length
units equivalent to known changes in pressure.
Therefore, in a pressure gauge, the primary signal (pressure) is
transmitted to a translator and the secondary signal (length) is
transmitted to observer’s eye.
3. Tertiary Measurement - A tertiary measurement involves two
translations.
A typical example of such a measurement of temperature of an object
is by thermocouple. The primary signal (temperature of object) is
transmitted to a translator which generates a voltage which is a
function of the temperature. Therefore, first translation is temperature
to voltage. The secondary translation is then voltage into length. The
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tertiary signal (length change) is transmitted to the observer’s brain.
PRIMARY SECONDARY AND TERTIARY MEASUREMENTS

Tertiary Measurement Example Block Diagram

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Functions of Measurement System
1. Indicating Function - Instruments and systems use different kinds of
methods for supplying information concerning the variable quantity
under measurement. Most of the time this information is obtained as
a deflection of a pointer of a measuring instrument.
Example: The deflection of pointer of a speedometer indicates the
speed of the automobile at that moment.
A pressure gauge is used for indicating pressure.
2. Recording function - In many cases the instrument makes a written
record, usually on paper, of the value of the quantity under
measurement against time or against some other variables. Thus the
instrument performs a recording function.
Example: A potentiometric type of recorder used for monitoring
temperature records the instantaneous values of temperature on a
strip chart recorder.
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Functions of Measurement System

Potentiometric Recorder

Strip chart recorder

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Functions of Measurement System
3. Controlling function - This is one of the most important functions
especially in the field of industrial control processes. In this case, the
information is used by the instrument or the system to control the
original measured quantity. The instruments whose functions are
mainly indicating and recording especially these instruments are used
for engineering analysis purpose.
Example: Controlling instruments are thermostats of temperature
control and floats for liquid level control.

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Thermostats
Floats
Applications of Measurement System
1. Monitoring of processes and operation: There are certain
applications of measuring instruments that have essentially a
monitoring function. They simply indicate the value or condition of
parameter under study and their readings do not serve any control
functions.
Example: An ammeter or a voltmeter indicates the value of current or
voltage being monitored (measured) at a particular instant. Similarly,
water and electric energy meters installed in homes keep track of
commodity used so that later on its cost may be computed to be
realized from the user.
2. Control of processes and operation: A very useful application of
instrument is in automatic control systems. There has been a very
strong association between measurements and control.

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Applications of Measurement System

3.Experimental engineering analysis - For solution of engineering

problems, theoretical and experimental methods are available. The
relative affectability of the method depends upon the nature of the
problem. Experimental engineering analysis has many uses and some are
listed below. i) Testing the validity of theoretical prediction ii)
Formulations of generalized empirical relationship in cases where no
proper theoretical backing exists. iii) Determination of system parameters,
variables and performance indices. iv) For development in important
spheres of study where there is sample scope of study. v) Solutions of
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mathematical relationships with the help of analogies.
Sensors and Transducers

• The term sensor is used for an element which produces a signal relating to the
quantity being measured. Thus in the case of, say, an electrical resistance
temperature element, the quantity being measured is temperature and the sensor
transforms an input of temperature into a change in resistance.
• The term transducer is often used in place of the term sensor.
• Transducers are defined as elements that when subject to some physical change
experience a related change. Thus sensors are transducers.
• However, a measurement system may use transducers, in addition to the sensor, in
other parts of the system to convert signals in one form to another form.
• A sensor/transducer is said to be analogue if it gives an output which is analogue
and so changes in a continuous way and typically has an output whose size is
proportional to the size of the variable being measured.
• The term digital is used if the systems give outputs which are digital in nature, i.e. a
sequence of essentially on/off signals which spell out a number whose value is
related to the size of the variable being measured.

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Performance Measures of Sensors
The following terms (REASHNRSDRO) are used to define the
performance of transducers, and often measurement systems as a
whole.
1. R - Range and span
2. E - Error
3. A - Accuracy
4. S - Sensitivity
5. H - Hysteresis error
6. N - Non-linearity error
7. R - Repeatability/Reproducibility
8. S - Stability
9. D - Dead band/Dead time
10. R - Resolution
11. O - Output impedance

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Performance Measures of Sensors
1. Range and span
• The range of a transducer defines the limits between which the input
can vary.
• The span is the maximum value of the input minus the minimum
value.
• Thus, for example, a load cell for the measurement of forces might
have a range of 0 to 50 kN and a span of 50 kN.

2. Error is the difference between the result of the measurement and

the true value of the quantity being measured:
error = measured value ̶ true value
Example: If a measurement system gives a temperature reading of
25°C when the actual temperature is 24°C, then the error is +1°C. If
the actual temperature had been 26°C then the error would have
been ̶ 1°C.
A sensor might give a resistance change of 10.2 Ω when the true
change should have been 10.5 Ω. The error is ̶ 0.3 Ω. 15
3. Accuracy
• Accuracy is the extent to which the value indicated by a measurement system might
be wrong. It is thus the summation of all the possible errors that are likely to occur,
as well as the accuracy to which the transducer has been calibrated.
• A temperature-measuring instrument might, for example, be specified as having an
accuracy of ± 2°C. This would mean that the reading given by the instrument can
be expected to lie within plus or minus 2°C of the true value.
• Accuracy is often expressed as a percentage of the full range output or full-scale
deflection. The percentage of full-scale deflection term results from when the
outputs of measuring systems were displayed almost exclusively on a circular or
linear scale.
• A sensor might, for example, be specified as having an accuracy of ±5% of full
range output. Thus if the range of the sensor was, say, 0 to 200°C, then the reading
given can be expected to be within plus or minus 10°C of the true reading.

4. Sensitivity
• The sensitivity is the relationship indicating how much output there is per unit input,
i.e. output/input.
• For example, a resistance thermometer may have a sensitivity of 0.5 Ω/°C. This
term is also frequently used to indicate the sensitivity to inputs other than that being
measured, i.e. environmental changes.
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Thus there can be the sensitivity of the transducer to temperature changes in the
environment or perhaps fluctuations in the mains voltage supply. A transducer for the
measurement of pressure might be quoted as having a temperature sensitivity of
± 0.1% of the reading per °C change in temperature.

5. Hysteresis error
Transducers can give different outputs from the same value of quantity being
measured according to whether that value has been reached by a continuously
increasing change or a continuously decreasing change. This effect is called
hysteresis. Figure 1 below shows such an output with the hysteresis error as the
maximum difference in output for increasing and decreasing values.

Figure 1 Hysteresis

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6. Non-linearity error
For many transducers a linear relationship between the input and output is assumed
over the working range, i.e. a graph of output plotted against input is assumed to give
a straight line.
Few transducers, however, have a truly linear relationship and thus errors occur as a
result of the assumption of linearity. The error is defined as the maximum difference
from the straight line.
Various methods are used for the numerical expression of the non-linearity error. The
differences occur in determining the straight line relationship against which the error is
specified.
Figure 2.2 illustrates about three methods and how they can affect the non-linearity
error quoted.
The error is generally quoted as a percentage of the full range output. For example, a
transducer for the measurement of pressure might be quoted as having a non-linearity
error of ± 0.5% of the full range.

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(a) One method is to draw the straight line joining the output values at the end points
of the range;
(b) another is to find the straight line by using the method of least squares to
determine the best fit line when all data values are considered equally likely to be
in error;
(c) another is to find the straight line by using the method of least squares to
determine the best fit line which passes through the zero point.

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7. Repeatability/reproducibility
The terms repeatability and reproducibility of a transducer are used to describe its
ability to give the same output for repeated applications of the same input value. The
error resulting from the same output not being given with repeated applications is
usually expressed as a percentage of the full range output:

A transducer for the measurement of angular velocity typically might be quoted as

having a repeatability of ± 0.01% of the full range at a particular angular velocity.
8. Stability
The stability of a transducer is its ability to give the same output when used to
measure a constant input over a period of time. The term drift is often used to
describe the change in output that occurs over time. The drift may be expressed as a
percentage of the full range output. The term zero drift is used for the changes that
occur in output when there is zero input.
9. Dead band/time
The dead band or dead space of a transducer is the range of input values for which
there is no output. For example, bearing friction in a flowmeter using a rotor might
mean that there is no output until the input has reached a particular velocity threshold.
The dead time is the length of time from the application of an input until the output
begins to respond and change.
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10. Resolution
• When the input varies continuously over the range, the output signals for some
sensors may change in small steps. A wire-wound potentiometer is an example of
such a sensor, the output going up in steps as the potentiometer slider moves from
one wire turn to the next.
• The resolution is the smallest change in the input value that will produce an
observable change in the output.
• For a wire-wound potentiometer the resolution might be specified as, say, 0.5° or
perhaps a percentage of the full-scale deflection. For a sensor giving a digital
output the smallest change in output signal is 1 bit. Thus for a sensor giving a data
word of N bits, i.e. a total of 2N bits, the resolution is generally expressed as 1/ 2N.

11. Output impedance

• When a sensor giving an electrical output is interfaced with an electronic circuit it is
necessary to know the output impedance since this impedance is being connected
in either series or parallel with that circuit. The inclusion of the sensor can thus
significantly modify the behaviour of the system to which it is connected.

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To illustrate all of the above, consider the significance of the terms in the
following specification of a strain gauge pressure transducer:

Ranges: 70 to 1000 kPa, 2000 to 70000 kPa

Supply voltage: 10 V d.c. or a.c. r.m.s.
Full range output: 40 mV
Non-linearity and hysteresis: ± 0.5% full range output
Temperature range: ̶ 54°C to +120°C when operating
Thermal zero shift: 0.030% full range output/°C

The range indicates that the transducer can be used to measure pressures between
70 and 1000 kPa or 2000 and 70 000 kPa.
It requires a supply of 10 V d.c. or a.c. r.m.s. for its operation and will give an output of
40 mV when the pressure on the lower range is 1000 kPa and on the upper range is
70000 kPa.
Non-linearity and hysteresis will lead to errors of ±0.5% of 1000, i.e. ±5 kPa on the
lower range and ± 0.5% of 70 000, namely ± 350 kPa, on the upper range.
The transducer can be used between the temperatures of ̶ 54 and +120°C. When the
temperature changes by 1°C the output of the transducer for zero input will change by
0.030% of 1000 = 0.3 kPa on the lower range and 0.030% of 70000 = 21 kPa on the
upper range.
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Static and Dynamic characteristics
• The static characteristics are the values given when steady-
state conditions occur, i.e. the values given when the
transducer has settled down after having received some input.
The terminology defined above refers to such a state.
• The dynamic characteristics refer to the behavior between the
time that the input value changes and the time that the value
given by the transducer settles down to the steady-state
value.
• Dynamic characteristics are stated in terms of the response of
the transducer to inputs in particular forms. For example, this
might be a step input when the input is suddenly changed
from zero to a constant value, or a ramp input when the input
is changed at a steady rate, or a sinusoidal input of a
specified frequency.
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Static and Dynamic characteristics
1. Response time

• This is the time which elapses after

a constant input, a step input, is
applied to the transducer up to the
point at which the transducer gives
an output corresponding to some
specified percentage, e.g. 95%, of
the value of the input (Figure 2.3).

• For example, if a mercury-in-glass

thermometer is put into a hot liquid
there can be quite an appreciable
time lapse, perhaps as much as
100s or more, before the
thermometer indicates 95% of the Figure 2.3 Response to a step input
actual temperature of the liquid.

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Static and Dynamic characteristics
2. Time constant
This is the 63.2% response time. A thermocouple in air might have a
time constant of perhaps 40 to 100 s. The time constant is a measure
of the inertia of the sensor and so how fast it will react to changes in
its input: the bigger the time constant, the slower the reaction to a
changing input signal.

3. Rise time
This is the time taken for the output to rise to some specified
percentage of the steady-state output. Often the rise time refers to the
time taken for the output to rise from 10% of the steady-state value to
90 or 95% of the steady-state value.

4. Settling time
This is the time taken for the output to settle to within some
percentage, e.g. 2%, of the steady-state value.
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Static and Dynamic characteristics
To illustrate the above, consider the graph shown in Figure 2.4 which
indicates how an instrument reading changed with time, being
obtained from a thermometer plunged into a liquid at time t = 0. The
steady-state value is 55°C and so, since 95% of 55°C is 52.25°C, the
95% response time is about 228 s.

Figure 2.4 Thermometer in liquid

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Classification of Sensors
All sensors may be of two kinds: passive and active.

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Classification of Sensors
• Thermopiles are used for contactless temperature sensing.
The function of a thermopile is to transfer the heat radiation
emitted from the object to a voltage output. The output is in
the range of tens or hundreds of millivolts. Thermopiles
work as sensors or generators.
• A thermistor is a resistance thermometer, or a resistor
whose resistance is dependent on temperature. The term is
a combination of “thermal” and “resistor”.
• A Strain gauge is a sensor whose resistance varies with
applied force; It converts force, pressure, tension, weight,
etc., into a change in electrical resistance which can then
be measured.
• A photodiode is a semiconductor device that converts light
into an electrical current. The current is proportional to the
intensity of the light.
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A photovoltaic (PV) cell, commonly called a Solar Cell, is a non-mechanical device
that converts sunlight directly into electricity. Some PV cells can convert artificial light
into electricity. Sunlight is composed of photons, or particles of solar energy.
A piezoelectric material is a material where charge accumulates in response
to applied mechanical stress. The effect works in both directions, where
mechanical stress can be created in response to an applied electric field.

A thermocouple
is a sensor that
measures
temperature. It
consists of two
different types of
metals, joined
together at one
end. When the
junction of the two
metals is heated or
cooled, a voltage
is created that can
be correlated back
to the temperature.
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Sensor vs Actuator

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Depending on the selected reference, sensors can be classified into absolute and
relative.
1. Absolute sensor: it detects a stimulus in reference to an absolute physical scale that
is independent of the measurement conditions.
Examples:
 Thermistor is an absolute sensor, it is a temperature-sensitive resistor. Its electrical
resistance directly relates to the absolute temperature scale of Kelvin.
 An absolute pressure sensor produces signal in reference to vacuum – an absolute
zero on a pressure scale.

2. Relative sensor: it produces a signal that relates to some special case.

Examples:
 Thermocouple is a relative sensor that produces an electric voltage, which is a
function of a temperature gradient across the thermocouple wires. The sensor
output signal cannot be related to any particular temperature without referencing to
a known baseline.
 A relative pressure sensor produces signal with respect to a selected baseline that is
not zero pressure, for example, to the atmospheric pressure.
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Classification of Sensors
Sensors can be classified depending some of its properties that may be of a specific
interest.

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Sensor Classification

33
Sensor Classification

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Units of Measurements:
The base measurement system is known as SI, which stands for Le Syste´me
International d’Unite´s in French:

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CLASSIFICATION OF SENSORS

1. Direct Sensor - A sensor that can convert an on-electrical

stimulus into an electrical signal with intermediate stage.
Example : Thermocouple (temperature to voltage)
2. Indirect Sensor - A sensor that has multiple conversion steps
to transform the measured signal into an electrical signal.
Based on physical law or convent distinguishing property:
Active and passive sensor
Contact and non contact sensor
Absolute and relative sensor
Analog and digital sensor
Active and Passive Sensor
1. Active Sensor - A sensor that requires external power to
operate. Example: Carbon microphone, thermistor, strain
gauges, capacitive and inductive sensors, etc., The active
sensor is also called as parametric sensor (output is a function
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of a parameter like resistance).
CLASSIFICATION OF SENSORS

2. Passive Sensor - It generates its own electric signal and does not
require a power source.
Example: Thermocouples, magnetic microphones, piezo electric
sensors, photodiode. Also called as self generating sensors.
Contact and Non Contact Sensor
Contact sensor is a sensor that requires physical contact with the
stimulus.
Example: Strain gauges, temperature sensor
Non contact sensor does not require physical contact.
Example: Most optical and magnetic sensors, infrared
thermometer, etc.,

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CLASSIFICATION OF SENSORS
Absolute and Relative Sensors
1. Absolute Sensors - A sensor that reacts to a stimulus on an
absolute scale such as thermistor, strain gauge, etc., (thermistor
always reads the absolute temperature).
2. Relative Sensors - The stimulus is sensed relative to a fixed or
variable reference, for example thermocouple measures the
temperature difference, pressure is often measured relative to
atmospheric pressure.
Analog and Digital Sensors - Analog sensors have an output that
changes over a range of values while digital sensors are binary and
only have two states ON and OFF. The anemometer
(measures wind speed and direction. It's often used in weather
stations) is an example of an analog device. Since its rotating
speed increases along with wind speed. Therefore, it can produce
a range of value.
An occupancy sensor is an example of a digital device, since it can
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only detect two states, empty room and occupied room.
SENSOR IMAGES

RTD

Anemometer Thermistor

Thermocouple

Strain Gauge
Carbon microphone
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SENSOR IMAGES

Occupancy Sensor

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APPLICATION OF SENSORS

1. Classification based on broad area of detection like

electric sensors, magnetic, electromagnetic, acoustic,
chemical, optical, heat, temperature, mechanical,
radiation, biological, etc.,
2. Classification based on physical law like photoelectric,
magneto electric, thermoelectric, photoconductive, photo
magnetic, thermomagnetic, thermo-optic,
electrochemical, magneto resistive, photo elastic, etc.,
3. Classification based on specification like accuracy,
sensitivity, stability, response time, hysteresis, frequency
response, input, resolution, linearity, hardness, cost size,
weight, conduction material, temperature, etc.

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SENSOR CALIBRATION

Techniques of Sensors
1. Why do we need to calibrate sensors? In order to achieve
the best possible accuracy a sensor should be calibrated
in the system where it will be used.
This is because; i) No Sensor is Perfect
ii) The sensor is only one component in the
measurement.
2. What makes a good sensor? The two most important
characteristics of a sensor are:
i) Precision - The ideal sensor will always produce the
same output for the same input.
ii) Resolution - A good sensor will be able to reliably
detect small changes in the measured parameters. 42
CALIBRATION METHODS
1. One point calibration

One point calibration can be used to correct the sensor offset

errors in the following cases. i) Only One Measurement Point is
Needed ii) The Sensor is Known to be Linear and have the correct
slope over the desired measurement range. 43
CALIBRATION METHODS
2. Two point calibration

A two point calibration is a little more complex. But it can be

applied to either raw or scaled sensor outputs. A two point
calibration essentially rescales the output and is capable of
correcting both slope and offset errors.
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CALIBRATION METHODS
3. Multi point curve fitting

Sensors that are non-linear over the measurement range require

some curve-fitting to achieve accurate measurements over the
measurement range. A common case requiring curve-fitting is
thermocouples at extremely hot or cold temperatures while
nearly being linear over a fairly wide range, they do deviate
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significantly at extreme temperatures.
SENSOR OUTPUTS
4 - 20 MA - Sensors having a 4-20mA output are calibrated over this
range against various engineering units so that the output value
corresponds to a specific value of pressure, temperature, load, tilt etc.
• The 4-20 mA current loop is a very robust sensor signaling
standard.
• Current loops are ideal for data transmission because of their
inherent insensitivity to electrical noise.
• In a 4-20 mA current loop, all the signaling current flows through all
components; the same current flows even if the wire terminations
are less than perfect.
• All the components in the loop drop voltage due to the signaling
current flowing through them. The signaling current is not affected
by these voltage drops as long as the power supply voltage is
greater than the sum of the voltage drops around the loop at the
maximum signaling current of 20 mA.
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SENSOR OUTPUTS
4 - 20 MA - Why it’s popular?
• Only two wires are needed between the sensor and the
supply/receiver, and return measurements are unaffected by
varying source voltage or voltage drop due to circuit length.
• Also, because the zero signal (4 mA) is non-zero, a signal of 0 mA
indicates that the current loop is broken, rather than just a zero
measurement. This makes debugging a 4-20 mA circuit easier.
Downsides
• The only major downside to 4-20 mA for sensors is that each sensor
requires its own cable run to the power supply/receiver.
• For larger scale control systems, each 4-20 mA loop only sends
information one way, either to or from the instrument.

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SENSOR OUTPUTS
DC VOLTAGE output sensors come in many output ranges: 0 to 2, 5 or
10 VDC; 1 to 5, 6, or 10 VDC; even 0.5 to 4.5 VDC; and so on. But they
all operate on the same principle: a voltage output that is proportional
to the physical measurement.
There are two types of Voltage signal, Differential and Single-ended
Measurements.
• A differential voltage is “floating”, meaning that it has no reference
to ground. The measurement is taken as the voltage difference
between the two wires.
• The main benefit of a differential measurement is noise rejection
because the noise is added to both wires and can then be filtered
out by the common mode rejection of the data acquisition system.
• Differential measurements should be used if the sensor is in a noisy
environment or for sensors with output voltages susceptible to
noise interference.
• Voltage signals are thus best used for short cable lengths 48
in
environments where Electromagnetic and RF noise is at a minimum.
SENSOR OUTPUTS
DC VOLTAGE
• A single-ended measurement is taken as the voltage difference
between a wire and ground.
• The noise is only on the positive wire and as a result, it is still
measured along with the output voltage from the sensor.
• A sensor with a differential output can be wired for single-ended by
wiring the low side to ground.
• This is usually done to reduce the number of channels needed to
measure the sensors.
• Transmitting a sensor’s output as a voltage over long distances has
several drawbacks. Transmitting voltages over long distances
produces correspondingly lower voltages at the receiving end due
to wiring and interconnecting resistances.
• Voltage devices are also sensitive to noise pickup.
• Shielded wires can be used to minimize noise pickup, but their high
cost may be prohibitive when long distances are involved. 49
SENSOR OUTPUTS
DC VOLTAGE - Why it’s popular? Since voltage is easier to measure - in
fact, current is often measured using a proxy voltage - control systems
and signal receivers are cheaper to build for voltage output sensors.
VDC sensors generally use less power than current sensors. And, the
number of ranges available allows for flexibility in matching sensor
output to anticipated input range.
Downsides: Voltage drop and noise sensitivity are two major
disadvantages for VDC sensors. Since the signal from the sensor is
voltage, voltage drop across the length of the cable run from sensor to
receiver directly affects the accuracy of the measurement. Thus, run
length must be considered for VDC sensors.
Also, since electromagnetic interference intrudes into systems as
voltage disturbances, noise directly affects the accuracy of the
measurement as well. And, compared to the two wires needed to run
4-20 mA loops, a VDC sensor needs four wires (two for supply voltage,
and two for output voltage). 50
SENSOR OUTPUTS
mV/V - Unlike 4-20 mA and VDC output, output signals from mV/V
sensors are directly dependent on input signals.
How it works? As with the previous sensors, the physical
measurement has a proportional effect on the output signal of a mV/V
sensor. However, mV/V sensors do not have the signal isolating circuits
of 4-20 mA and VDC sensors. Consequently, the output is affected by
both physical measurement and source voltage.
Why it’s popular? mV/V technology is cheap. We know that measuring
voltage is cheaper than measuring current; add to that the additional
cost savings of much simpler electronics in the sensor itself (no output
isolation circuitry), and a mV/V sensor, with the same piezoelectric
components as a 4-20 mA or VDC sensor, comes at a much lower cost.
Downsides: Unamplified signals have a short range and are
susceptible to noise interference. We recommend no more than 30 ft.
between mV/V sensors and control equipment.
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SENSOR OUTPUTS
DIGITAL - Many sensors now use a digital signal rather than the analogue
signals of voltage or current. Like voltage there are single ended and
differential types of signal.
• The two most common being RS-232 and RS-485 (a serial communication
standard that defines the electrical characteristics of communication
lines) we do not use RS-232 sensors due to the short cable lengths and
the tendency to be effected by Electrical noise. We instead use sensors
employing RS-485 communication.
• RS-485 is a standard defining the electrical characteristics of drivers and
receivers for use in balanced digital multipoint (means the channel is
shared among multiple devices or nodes) systems.
• Digital communications networks implementing this can be used
effectively over long distances and in electrically noisy environments.
RS-485 only specifies electrical characteristics of the generator and the
receiver. It does not specify or recommend any communications protocol,
only the physical layer. Modbus, Profibus, Canbus and SDI 12 (Serial Data
Interface) are all examples of communication protocols employing the RS-
52
485 style signal.
SENSOR OUTPUTS
DIGITAL - The major advantage of the RS-485 system is that sensors can be
bussed, meaning that each sensor has its own individual address and many
can be all attached on to one cable. This means that multiple sensors only
use up one port on the data logger saving considerably on cable and data
logging costs. Long distances are achievable but the distance is a function of
the cable and supply voltage. The longer the cable the greater the signal
attenuation will be and so the length is not infinite. Signal attenuation also
increases with frequency of data transfer and the achievable distance also
diminishes with data rate.
Advantages & disadvantages - Reduced logging cost due to decrease of
logging channels required. The cost and ease of installation is also reduced
as only one cable has to be run per network path and an individual cable to
each instrument is not required. The signal of the sensors, though not
immune, is also significantly less affected by EMI and RF noise than Current
and Voltage signals. Digital signals are not suitable for dynamic monitoring
due to the delay in signal conversion from analogue to digital and also the
time for polling the sensor for readings. 53
SENSOR OUTPUTS
Communications or Control Standard (Modbus, Fieldbus, Profinet,
etc.) are communication protocols that enable devices to connect
with each other
Why they are popular? Enhanced control. Each layer of complexity in
a communication or control standard allows for more user control.
These enhancements can be system visualizations, remote control,
automated control, data collection and storage, even multiple system
integration. Using a communication or control network also allows for
daisy-chained sensors, rather than individual cable runs to each
sensor.
Downsides: Complexity and cost. Whereas a multimeter might help
you quickly and accurately diagnose a problem with a sensor on a 4-20
mA loop, a complex system may require a trained technician. And all
the extra control requires additional equipment, which means more
money. However, for large, complex plants, the added capital
investment up front will probably pay dividends in coordinated,
54
centralized control.
SENSOR OUTPUT SIGNAL TYPES
1. Analog Voltage

Sensor output an analog voltage proportional to some parameter which they

are sensing. The figure above shows a typical analog transfer characteristics
for a distance sensor. Analog signals are much more susceptible to noise than
digital signals, so there are several measures that must be taken to ensure
the data obtained from the sensor is accurate. The most common techniques
for noise reduction are differential signal transmission and passive low pass
filtration. If we use a microcontroller, it may be convenient to apply an IIR or
55
an FIR filter, coded in software.
Differential Signal Transmission

In differential signaling, each signal is transmitted using a differential pair -

the signal carried by one wire is the same level as the one carried by the
other wire, but in opposite polarity. The signal at the receiving end is
interpreted as the difference between the two lines that make up the
differential pair.
NRZI decoding, or non-return-to-zero inverted decoding, is a method of
mapping binary signals to physical signals for transmission. In NRZI decoding,
a change in signal level indicates a 0, while a lack of change indicates a 1. 56
SENSOR OUTPUT SIGNAL TYPES
2. PWM

Pulse Width Modulation (PWM) is a modulation technique that generates

variable-width pulses to represent the amplitude of an analog input signal.
PWM is a popular technique for transmitting digital data in embedded
system.
A typical PWM waveform is shown in above figure for a digital sensor
with an n-bit resolution, the on time (Ton) can take 2N different values.
A change in, 1 LSB is signified by a small change in the on time.
57
SENSOR OUTPUT SIGNAL TYPES
A PWM signal is much more immune to noise than an
analog signal, but signal reliability can still benefit from
differential transmission (as in USB).
There is also a speed requirement: Any circuitry in between
the sensor and the microcontroller must exhibit short
settling time to preserve fast signal edges. If the rise time of
a PWM signal is too slow, it may not be possible to use.

58
SENSOR OUTPUT SIGNAL TYPES
3. Serial Digital

Serial digital signals are the most complicated. This type of signal
requires that the devices sharing information are synced, and this is
accomplished using one of many data packet protocols (IP, FTP, TCP).
An example is shown in above Figure. 59
SENSOR OUTPUT SIGNAL TYPES
Serial digital is the type of signal used for communication between
the Arduino and a computer over USB.
In order to communicate the two devices must agree on the serial
transmission protocol and the symbol rate (baud). Being a digital
signal, the noise margining is quite high, but signal integrity is still
substantially improved with differential transmission. Baud rate
indicates the total number of times the overall state of a given
signal changes/ alters. Bit rate indicates the total bits that travel per
second.
Why is serial transmission better? Longer distance: It can cover
longer distances than parallel data transmission because it requires
fewer wires or channels to transmit data. Lower cost: It requires
fewer wires or channels and simpler hardware, making it a lower-
cost option than parallel data transmission.
As with PWM, any signal conditioning circuitry must be fast to
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pressurizing and falling edges.
SENSOR OUTPUT SIGNAL TYPES
The baud rate is the rate at which information is transferred in a
communication channel. In the serial port context, "9600 baud"
means that the serial port is capable of transferring a maximum of
9600 bits per second.
How to calculate baud rate?
Baud Rate = Bit rate (bps) / Number of bits per unit data
Bitrate, as the name implies, describes the rate at which bits are
transferred from one location to another. It measures how much
data is transmitted in a given amount of time. Bitrate is commonly
measured in bits per second (bps), kilobits per second (Kbps), or
megabits per second (Mbps).
For example, let's say you have a system with a data rate of
2400 bits per second (bps) using a modulation technique, with each
signal carrying two bits of information.
In this scenario, the baud rate is computed as 2400 bps
divided by 2, which equals 1200 baud. 61
SENSOR OUTPUT SIGNAL TYPES
Pulse modulation (PM) is one type of modulation where the signal is
transmitted in the pulse form.
• In this type of modulation, continuous signals are sampled at
normal intervals, so this modulation technique is used to transmit
analog information.
• Pulse modulation is classified into two types;
analog modulation and digital modulation

• Analog modulation is classified into three types;

PAM, PWM and PPM
 Pulse Amplitude Modulation (PAM) is a type of analog signal
modulation that encodes information in a series of pulses by
varying their amplitude.
• Digital modulation is classified into two types;
Pulse code and Delta modulation
62
SENSOR OUTPUT SIGNAL TYPES
4. PPM (Pulse Position Modulation) - is one type of analog
modulation which allows variation within the position of the pulses
based on the sampled modulating signal’s amplitude.
• In this type of modulation, the amplitude & width of the pulses are
kept stable & the position of the pulses only varied.
• The PPM technique allows computers to transmit data by simply
measuring the time taken to reach each data packet to the
computer.
• So it is frequently used within optical communication where there is
small multi-pathway interference (a phenomenon that occurs when
a signal reaches a receiver via multiple paths, causing measurement
errors).
• This modulation totally transmits digital signals & cannot be utilized
by analog systems.
• It transmits simple data which is not efficient while transferring
files. 63
SENSOR OUTPUT SIGNAL TYPES
What is the difference between PWM and PPM?
• PWM stands for pulse width modulation and PPM stands for pulse
position modulation.
• The PWM method employs data in the form of a varying pulse
width but in PPM analog sample values determine the position of a
narrow pulse relative to the clocking time.

64
SENSOR OUTPUT SIGNAL TYPES

Notice that
the ending point of
the PWM pulse as
well as the starting
point of the PPM
pulse is coinciding,
which is shown with
the dotted line.

The amplitude & width

of the pulses are kept
stable & the position of
the pulses only varied
65
SENSOR OUTPUT SIGNAL TYPES
Two Types of outputs for sensors - Analog Output and Digital Output
Analog output: Continuous voltage or current
• Analog output is a common type of output for sensors, providing
continuous voltage. The sensor output varies proportionally with
the measured parameter, allowing for precise measurement.
• Continuous outputs are used for temperature sensing, pressure
measurement, and position detection. Analog signals can be
monitored, controlled, or converted to digital if needed.
Examples of Analog output sensors
• Analog temperature sensors like thermocouples and RTDs offer
continuous voltage. Current outputs proportional to the measured
temperature.
• Strain gauge pressure sensors produce analog signals reflecting the
applied pressure. Light, humidity sensors, and accelerometers
provide analog outputs for measured quantities. Analog signals can
be processed or converted to digital for analysis and control. 66
SENSOR OUTPUT SIGNAL TYPES
Digital output
Discrete binary signals
• Digital output provides discrete binary signals for sensors. These
signals are represented using two distinct states: high (1) and low (0).
• Digital sensors switch between binary states based on detected
parameters or events. This type of output is well-suited for digital
systems, microcontrollers, and communication networks.
• Binary signals are used for reliable information transmission in
sensing and detection applications.
Examples of digital output sensors
• Proximity sensors detect objects with a digital signal in a specific
range. Motion sensors like PIR (passive infrared) sensors produce
digital signals to detect movement.

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Sensor characteristics:
Static characteristics:
The properties of the system after all transient effects have settled to their final or
steady state:
 Accuracy
 Discrimination
 Precision
 Errors
 Drift
 Sensitivity
 Linearity
 Hysteresis (backlash)

Dynamic characteristics:
The properties of the system transient response to an input:
 Zero order systems
 First order systems
 Second order systems

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Accuracy and Resolution:
Accuracy: is the capacity of a measuring instrument to give RESULTS close to the
TRUE VALUE of the measured quantity.
 Accuracy is related to the bias of a set of measurements
 Accuracy is measured by the absolute and relative errors

Resolution (Discrimination): is the minimal change of the input necessary to produce a

detectable change at the output.
 When the increment is from zero, it is called Threshold.

69
Precision:
Precision: is the capacity of a measuring instrument to give the same reading when
repetitively measuring the same quantity under the same prescribed conditions.
 Precision implies agreement between successive readings, NOT closeness to the
true value
 Precision is related to the variance of a set of measurements.
 Precision is a necessary but not sufficient condition for accuracy.

Two terms closely related to precision Repeatability and Reproducibility.

Repeatability: is the precision of a set of measurements taken over a short time interval
Reproducibility: is the precision of a set of measurements BUT:
 taken over a long time interval or
 Performed by different operators or
 with different instruments or
 in different laboratories

70
Accuracy and Errors:
Systematic errors: Result from a variety of factors
 Interfering or modifying variables (i.e., temperature)
 Drift (i.e., changes in chemical structure or mechanical stresses)
 The measurement process changes the measurand (i.e., loading errors)
 The transmission process changes the signal (i.e., attenuation)
 Human observers (i.e., parallax errors)
Systematic errors can be corrected with compensation methods (i.e., feedback, filtering)
Random errors (NOISE):
A signal that carries no information.
 Sources of randomness:
 Repeatability of the measurand itself (i.e., height
of a rough surface)
 Environmental noise (i.e., background noise
picked by a microphone)
 Transmission noise (i.e., 60Hz hum)
 Signal to noise ratio (SNR) should be >>1

71
Other Static Characteristics:
Input range: The maximum and minimum value of the physical variable that can be
measured (i.e., -40F/100F in a thermometer)
Output range: can be defined similarly
Sensitivity: The slope of the calibration curve. An ideal sensor will have a large and
constant sensitivity.
 A nonlinear transfer function exhibits different sensitivities at different points, in
this case the sensitivity is defined as a first derivative of the transfer function:

Linearity: The closeness of the calibration curve to a specified straight line (i.e.,
theoretical behavior, least-squares fit)
Hysteresis: The difference between two output values that correspond to the same input
depending on the trajectory followed by the sensor (i.e., magnetization in
ferromagnetic materials)
Backslash: hysteresis caused by looseness in a mechanical joint

72
Dynamic Characteristics:
 The sensor response to a variable input is different from that exhibited when the
input signals are constant (the latter is described by the static characteristics)
 The reason for dynamic characteristics is the presence of energy-storing elements:
 Inertial: masses, inductances
 Capacitances: electrical, thermal
 Dynamic characteristics are determined by analyzing the response of the sensor to
a family of variable input waveforms:

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1. Sensor Transfer Function:

 The transfer function represents the relation between stimulus (s) and response
electrical signal (S) produced by the sensor. This relation can be written as S= f(s).
 Normally, stimulus (s) is unknown while the output signal S is measured. An
inverse f –1(S) of the transfer function is required to compute the stimulus from the
sensor’s measured response (S).

74
Mathematical Model:
Example: A linear resistive potentiometer is used for sensing displacement (d). Ohm’s
law can be applied to compute the transfer function of the sensor. The response (S) is
the measured voltage (v) and the inverse transfer function F(S) can be given as;

where; E is the reference voltage and D is the maximum displacement (full scale);
both are constants.
From this function we can compute displacement (d) from the measured voltage (v).

75
Functional Approximations:

 The simplest transfer function is linear, and is given by:

It represents a straight line with intercept A, and slope B, which is called

sensitivity, since the larger B the greater the influence of the stimulus).
 In many cases, it is required to reference the sensor not to zero but to some more
practical input reference value (s0). If the sensor response (S0) is known for that
input reference, the above equation can be rewritten as;

 The above represent linear approximation of a nonlinear sensor’s response.

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2. Sensor Calibration:
 In language;
Calibrate means “to check, adjust, or determine by comparison with a standard”.
Calibration is a “comparison between measurements”.

Sensor Calibration is the relationship between the physical measurement variable (X)
and the signal variable (S)
 A sensor or instrument is calibrated by applying a number of KNOWN physical
inputs and recording the response of the system.
 The purpose of the calibration is to find the
unknown coefficients (parameters) of the
sensor transfer function so that the fully
defined function can be employed during the
measurement process to compute any stimulus
in the desirable range, not only at the points
used during the calibration.

77
Calibration Methods:
Calibration of a sensor can be done in several possible ways, some of which are;
1. Calculation of the transfer function or its approximation to fit the selected
calibration points (curve fitting by computing coefficients of a selected
approximation).
2. Adjustment of the data acquisition system to modify the measured data by making
them to fit into a normalized or “ideal” transfer function. An example is scaling of
the acquired data.
3. Modification of the sensor’properties to fit the predetermined transfer function.
4. Creating a sensor-specific reference device with matching properties at particular
calibrating points.

78
Sensor 1: Noncontact sensor, such as a radiation detector and a TV camera.
Sensors 1, 2, 3: are passive sensors positioned directly on or inside the object.
Sensor 4: Active sensor requires an operating signal, which is provided by an excitation
circuit. Thermistor is an example, it a temperature-sensitive resistor. It needs a constant
current source, which is an excitation circuit.
Sensor 5: is an internal sensor, monitors internal conditions of a data acquisition system
itself. 79
Linear Regression Formula:
Simple linear regression is a way to describe a relationship between two variables
through an equation of a straight line, called line of best fit, that most closely models
this relationship.
The following formula is used:

Example: consider the given experimental data.

The regression equation is a linear equation, we
need to solve for A and B. Computations are
shown below;

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ERROR ANALYSIS
Due to the presence of the random errors in any measurement
systems, the uncertainty associated with any measurement cannot
be predetermined. Only the probable value of the error can be
specified using statistical error analysis.
1. Probable Error - The data collected from any measurement can
be pictorially represented by a histogram for a better visual appeal
and quick understanding of information.
A histogram is a statistical graph
that represents the distribution
of a continuous dataset through
plotted bars, each representing
a particular category or class
interval. The bar height reflects
the frequency or count of data
points within each group.
81
ERROR ANALYSIS
2. Limited Error - Generally the accuracy of a measuring instrument
is usually specified by its manufacturer as a percentage of the full
scale readings. But there is a possibility of getting the percentage
error for various values of readings taken will be more than the
percentage specified.
3. Odds and Uncertainty - The specification of limiting error is in
itself uncertain since the manufacture themselves are not sure
about the accuracy due to the presence of random errors in the
measurement.
4. Propagation of Errors - If many number of instruments are to be
used in any measurement, in order to compute a quantity, the
overall limiting error should be computed from the individual
limiting errors of the instruments.

82
Static and Dynamic Characteristics of Transducers
Static Characteristics
The main static characteristics are,
i) Accuracy ii) Sensitivity iii) Reproductively
iv) Drift v) Static Error vi) Dead Zone

The qualities (i), (ii) and (iii) are desirable, while qualities (iv), (v) and
(vi) are undesirable.
1. a) Accuracy and Precision - Accuracy is the closeness with which
an instrument reading approaches the true value of the quantity
being measured. Thus accuracy of a measurement means
conformity to truth.
b) Precision is a measure of the reproducibility of the
measurements, i.e., given a fixed value of a quantity, precision is
a measure of the degree of agreement within a group of
measurements. The term ‘precise’ means clearly or sharply
defined. 83
Static and Dynamic Characteristics of Transducers
2. Sensitivity - The sensitivity of any instrument is stated as an
ability to detect changes in the measured quantity. It can be defined
as the slope of the calibration curve, if the input/output relationship
is linear. The sensitivity of an instrument is also referred to the true
quantity that is being measured.
Sensitivity = Change in Output unit = ∆ϴo
Change in Output unit ∆ϴi
3. Repeatability and Reproducibility – Repeatability describes the
closeness of output readings, when the same input is applied
repetitively over a short period of time with the same measurement
conditions, same instrument and observer, same location and same
conditions of use maintained throughout.
Reproducibility describes the closeness of output readings for the
same input when there are changes in the method of
measurement, observer, measuring instrument, location, condition
of use and time of measurement. 84
Static and Dynamic Characteristics of Transducers
4. Drift - All calibrations and specifications of an instrument are only
valid under controlled conditions of temperature, pressure etc.,
These standard ambient conditions are usually defined in the
instrument specifications. As variations occur in ambient
temperature etc.,
Drift may be classified into three categories
i) Zero Drift - If the whole calibration gradually shifts due to
slippage, permanent set or due to undue warming up of
electronic tube circuits, zero drift sets in.
ii) Span Drift or Sensitivity Drift – If there is proportional change
in the indication all along the upward scale, the drift is called
span drift or sensitivity drift.
iii) Zonal Drift - In case the drift occurs only over a portion of span
of an instrument, it is called zonal drift.

85
Static and Dynamic Characteristics of Transducers
4. Drift - All calibrations and specifications of an instrument are only
valid under controlled conditions of temperature, pressure etc.,
These standard ambient conditions are usually defined in the
instrument specifications. As variations occur in ambient
temperature etc.,
Drift may be classified into three categories
i) Zero Drift - If the whole calibration gradually shifts due to
slippage, permanent set or due to undue warming up of
electronic tube circuits, zero drift sets in.
ii) Span Drift or Sensitivity Drift – If there is proportional change
in the indication all along the upward scale, the drift is called
span drift or sensitivity drift.
iii) Zonal Drift - In case the drift occurs only over a portion of span
of an instrument, it is called zonal drift.

86
Static and Dynamic Characteristics of Transducers
There are many environmental factors which cause drift. They may
be stray electric and magnetic fields, thermal emf’s, change in
temperature, mechanical vibrations, wear and tear and high
mechanical stresses developed in some parts of the instruments
and systems.

87
Static and Dynamic Characteristics of Transducers
Thermal Electromotive Force (EMF) is generated when the
dissimilar metals that make up terminals, contact springs, and
contacts touch. This emf, measured in micro volts, could be very
small or large, and can create undesirable noise during electrical
measurements.
Stray electric field is the amount of electric field takes place
between two points such as two ends of a conductor without any
potential difference. The voltage across the two points is ideally
zero but due to presence of some amount of electrical charges the
electric field can not be zero . The electric field takes place on the
surface of a conductor having zero potential difference across the
two ends of the same conductor is called stray electric field.
A stray magnetic field is an unintended or unwanted magnetic field
that exists in an area where it was not specifically designed or
intended to be.
88
Static and Dynamic Characteristics of Transducers
Stray magnetic fields can be produced by various sources, such as:

Electrical equipment and devices: Transformers, motors,

generators, and other electrical equipment can produce stray
magnetic fields due to the current flowing through their windings or
the presence of magnetic materials.
Power lines and cables: The flow of electric current through power
lines and cables generates magnetic fields around them, which can
extend beyond the immediate vicinity of the cables.
Magnetic materials: Certain materials, such as iron, nickel, or
cobalt, can become magnetized and create localized magnetic fields
that can interfere with other nearby magnetic fields.
Stray magnetic fields in some cases, they can interfere with the
operation of sensitive electronic devices or distort measurements in
scientific experiments.
89
Static and Dynamic Characteristics of Transducers
5. Static Error is defined as the difference between the measured
value and the true value of quantity.
δA = Am – At
where δA is the error;
Am is the measured value of quantity,
At is the true value of quantity.

6. Dead Zone is defined as the largest change of input quantity for

which there is no output of the instrument. The factors which
produce dead zone are friction, backlash and hysteresis in the
instrument.
Like in gear system, the
teeth don’t fit exactly every
time and hence a dead
zone is created which do
not contributes to output.

90
Static and Dynamic Characteristics of Transducers
Hysteresis - A delay in the change of an observed effect in response
to a change in the mechanism producing the effect.

Hysteresis curve with input Hysteresis curve with input

increasing relative to the output decreasing relative to the output

91
Static and Dynamic Characteristics of Transducers
Dynamic Characteristics
The dynamic characteristics of an instrument refers to performance
of the instrument when it is subjected to time varying input. The
performance criteria based upon the dynamic relation constitute
the dynamic characteristics.
The dynamic characteristics of a measurement system are;
1. Speed of response - It is defined as the rapidity with which a
measurement system responds to changes in the measured
quantity.
2. Measuring lag - It is the retardation or delay in the response of a
measurement system to change in the measured quantity.
The measuring lags are of two types,
i) Retardation type - In this case the response of the
measurement system begins immediately after a change in
measured quantity has occurred.
92
Static and Dynamic Characteristics of Transducers
Dynamic Characteristics
ii) Time delay type - In this case the response of the
measurement system begins after a dead time after the application
of the input. Dead time simply shift the response of the system
along the time scale and causes a corresponding dynamic error.
Dead time refers to the period of time during which a system or
device is not functioning or is unable to respond to input signals.
3. Fidelity - It is defined as the degree to which a measurement
system indicates changes in the measured quantity without any
dynamic error.
4. Dynamic error - is the difference between the true value of
quantity (under measurement) changing with time and the value
indicated by the measurement system. If no static error is assumed,
it is also called measurement error.

93
Built-in sensors in a typical present-day smartphone

94