OAN551

SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS

UNIT-I
INTRODUCTION
CONTENT
 Basics of Measurement
 Classification of error
 Error analysis
 Static and dynamic characteristics of transducers
 Performance measures of sensors
 Classification of sensors
 Sensor calibration techniques
 Sensor output signal types
1.1 INTRODUCTION
 The measurement of a given quantity is essentially an act or the
result of comparison between the quantity (whose magnitude is
unknown) and a predefined standard.
Since two quantities are compared, the result is expressed in
numerical values.
In fact, measurement is the process by which one can convert
physical parameters to meaningful numbers.
 The measuring process is one in which the property of an object
or system under consideration is compared to an accepted standard
unit, a standard defined for the particular property.
 Since two quantities, the amount of which is unknown and other
quantity whose amount is known are compared, the result is
expressed in terms of a numerical values.
Basic requirements:
1. The standard used for comparison purpose must be accurately
defined and should be commonly accepted.
2. The apparatus used and the method adopted must be provable.
1.2 BASICS OF MEASUREMENT

 Measurements is a vast field which embraces detection,

acquisition control and analysis of data.
 It involves the measurement of physical, electrical, mechanical,
optical and chemical quantities and plays a very significant role in
every branch of scientific research and engineering process which
include control systems, process Instrumentation and data reduction.

There are two major function of all branch of engineering

Design of equipment and processes and
 Proper operation control and maintenance of process.
1.2.1 METHODS OF MEASUREMENTS

The methods of measurements may be broadly classified into two

categories.
(i) Direct methods
The unknown quantity (also called the measurand) is directly
compared against a standard.
The result is expressed as a numerical number and a unit.
Direct methods are quite common for the measurement of
physical quantities like length, mass and time.
(ii) Indirect methods
Measurements by direct methods are not always possible, feasible
and practicable. These methods in most of the cases, are inaccurate
because they involve human factors.
They are also less sensitive.
Hence direct methods are not preferred and are less commonly
used.
A measurement system consists of a transducing element which
converts the quantity to be measured into an analogous signal.
The analogous signal is then processed by some intermediate
means and is then fed to the end devices which present the results of
the measurements.
1.2.2 PRIMARY, SECONDARY AND TERTIARY
MEASUREMENTS
 Measurements may be classified as primary, secondary and
tertiary based upon whether direct or indirect methods are used.
1. Primary Measurements
 A primary measurement is one that can be made by direct
observation without involving any conversion (translation) of the
measured quantity into length.
Typical examples of primary measurements are:
i) The matching of two lengths such as when determining the length
of an object with a meter rod.
ii) The matching of two colours, such as when judging the colour of
red hot metals.
iii) The counting of strokes of a clock chime to measure the time.
2. Secondary Measurement
 A secondary measurement involves only one translation
(conversion) to be done on the quantity under measurement to
convert it into a change of length.
 The measurement quantity may be pressure of gas, and therefore,
may not be observable.
Therefore, a secondary measurement requires,
i) An instrument which translates pressure changes into length
changes.
ii) A length scale or a standard which is calibrated in length units
equivalent to known changes in pressure.
 Therefore, in a pressure gauze, the primary signal (pressure) is
transmitted to a translator and the secondary signal (length) is
transmitted to observer’s eye.
3. Tertiary Measurement
A tertiary measurement involves two translations. A typical
example of such a measurement of temperature of an object by
termo couple.
 The primary signal (temperature of object) is transmitted to a
translator which generates a voltage which is a function of the
temperature. Therefore, first translation is temperature to voltage.
 The secondary translation is then voltage into length.
 The tertiary signal (length change) is transmitted to the observer’s
brain.
1.2.3 Functions of Measurement System
1. Indicating Function
 Instruments and systems use different kinds of methods for
supplying information concerning the variable quantity under
measurement.
 Most of the time this information is obtained as a deflection of a
pointer of a measuring instrument.
Example:
The deflection of pointer of a speedometer indicates the speed of the
automobile at that moment. A pressure gauge is used for indicating
pressure.
2. Recording function

In many cases the instrument makes a written record, usually on

paper, of the value of the quantity under measurement against time
or against some other variables. Thus the instrument performs a
recording function.
Example:
A potentiometric type of recorder used for monitoring temperature
records the instantaneous values of temperature on a strip chart
recorder.
3. Controlling function
This is one of the most important functions especially in the field
of industrial control processes. In this case, the information is used
by the instrument or the system to control the original measured
quantity.
The instruments whose functions are mainly indicating and
recording especially these instruments which are used for
engineering analysis purpose.
Example:
Controlling instruments are thermostats of temperature control and
floats for liquid level control.
1.2.4 Applications of Measurement Systems
1. Monitoring of processes and operation:
There are certain applications of measuring instruments that have
essentially a monitoring function. They simply indicate the value or
condition of parameter under study and their readings do not serve
any control functions.
Example:
An ammeter or a voltmeter indicates the value of current or voltage
being monitored (measured) at a particular instant.
Similarly, water and electric energy meters installed in homes keep
track of commodity used so that later on its cost may be computed to
be realized from the user.
2. Control of processes and operation:
A very useful application of instrument is in automatic control
systems.
There has been a very strong association between measurements
and control.

In order that process variable like temperature, pressure, humidity

etc may be controlled, the prerequisite is that they can be measured
at the desired location in the individual plants.
3. Experimental engineering analysis
For solution of engineering problems, theoretical and experimental
methods are available.
 The relative affectability of the method depends upon the nature of the
problem.
 Experimental engineering analysis has many uses and some are listed
below.
i) Testing the validity of theoretical prediction
ii) Formulations of generalized empirical relationship in cases where no
proper theoretical backing exists.
iii) Determination of system parameters, variables and performance
indices.
iv) For development in important spheres of study where there is sample
scope of study.
v) Solutions of mathematical relationships with the help of analogies.
1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF ERRORS
Errors in a measurement system can be classified into following
categories
Gross errors
Systematic errors
• Instrumental error
• Environmental error
• Observational error
Random errors
1.3.1 Gross Error
This class of errors mainly covers human mistakes in reading
instruments, recording and calculating measurement results.
The causes of these errors are as follows,
1. Misreading of the instruments
2. Incorrect adjustments
3. Improper application of the instruments.
Gross error can be avoided by adopting two means.
i) Great care should be taken in reading and recording the data.
ii) Two, three or even more readings should be taken for the quantity
under measurement.
1.3.2 Systematic Errors
1. Instrumental Errors
These errors arise due to three main reasons
(i) Due to inherent shortcoming in the instruments
 These errors are inherent in instruments because of their mechanical
structure. They may be due to construction, calibration or operation of the
instruments or measuring devices. These errors may cause the instrument
to read too low or too high.
 The possibility of such errors as it is often possible to eliminate
them, or at least reduce them to a great extent by using the following
methods.
a) The procedure of measurement must be carefully planned. Substitution
methods or calibration against standard may be used for the purpose.
b) Correction factors should be applied after determining the instrumental
errors.
c) The instrument may be re-calibrated carefully.
(ii) Due to misuse of the instruments
 The errors caused in measurements are due to the fault of the
operator than that of the instrument. A good instrument used in an
unintelligent way may give erroneous results.
(iii) Due to loading effects of instruments
 One of the most common errors committed by beginners, is the
improper use of an instrument for measurement work.
2. Environmental Errors
These errors are due to external condition to the measuring device
including conditions in the area surrounding the instrument.
These may be effects of temperature, pressure, humidity, dust,
vibrations or of external magnetic or electrostatic fields.
The corrective measure employed to eliminate or to reduce these
undesired effects are
Arrangements should be made to keep the conditions as nearly as
constant as possible.
Using equipment which is immune to these effects.
Employing techniques which eliminate the effects of these
disturbances.
3. Observation Errors
 These are the errors introduced by the observer. There are many
sources of observational errors such as parallax error while
reading a meter, wrong scale selections, the habits of individual
observers etc.,
• To eliminate such observational errors, one should use the
instruments with mirrors, knife edged pointers etc.,
• Now a days, the instruments with digital display of output which
completely eliminates the errors on account of human
observational or sensing powers as the output is in form of
digits.
1.3.3 Random Errors
• Random errors are generally unpredictable errors, and they occur
even when all systematic errors are accounted for although the
instrument is selected properly based on the nature of
measurement, pre-calibration of the instrument is properly done
before the measurement and there is an environmental control,
random errors will be there.
• However, these errors can be minimized by taking more
number of readings and using proper statistical methods for
obtaining the best approximation of the true value.
1.4 ERROR ANALYSIS
• Due to the presence of the random errors in any measurement
systems, the uncertainty associated with any measurement
cannot be predetermined.
• Only the probable value of the error an be specified using
statistical error analysis.
1.4.1 Probable Error
• The data collected from any measurement can be pictorially
represented by a histogram for a better visual appeal and quick
understanding of information.
probable error is represented as
1.4.2 Limited Error
• Generally the accuracy of a measuring instrument is usually
specified by its manufacturer as a percentage of the full scale
readings.
• But there is a possibility of getting the percentage error for
various values of readings taken will be more than the percentage
specified.
1.4.3 Odds and Uncertainty
• The specification of limiting error is in itself uncertain since the
• manufacture themselves are not sure about the accuracy due to
the presence of random errors in the measurement.
1.4.4 Propagation of Errors
• If many number of instruments are to be used any measurement
in order to compute a quantity, the overall limiting error should
be computed from the individual limiting errors of the
instruments.
1.5 STATIC AND DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF
TRANSDUCERS
1.5.1 Static Characteristic
The main static characteristics discussed here are,
i) Accuracy
ii) Sensitivity
iii) Reproductively
iv) Drift
v) Static Error
vi) Dead Zone
The qualities (i), (ii) and (iii) are desirable, while qualities (iv), (v)
and (vi) are undesirable.
1. Accuracy and Precision
i) Accuracy
• It is the closeness with which an instrument reading approaches the true
value of the quantity being measured. Thus accuracy of a measurement
means conformity to truth.

ii) Precision
• It is a measure of the reproducibility of the measurements, i.e., given a fixed
value of a quantity, precision is a measure of the degree of agreement within
a group of measurements. The term ‘precise’ means clearly or sharply
defined.
2. Sensitivity
• The sensitivity of any instrument is stated as an ability to detect
changes in the measured quantity. It can be defined as the slope
of the calibration curve, if the input/output relationship is linear.
The sensitivity of an instrument is also referred to the true
quantity that is being measured.
3. Repeatability and Reproducibility
• Repeatability describes the closeness of output readings, when
the same input is applied repetitively over a short period of time
with the same measurement conditions, same instrument and
observer, same location and same conditions of use maintained
throughout.
• Reproducibility describes the closeness of output readings for
the same input when there are changes in the method of
measurement, observer, measuring instrument, location, condition
of use and time of measurement.
4. Drift
• All calibrations and specifications of an instrument are only valid
under controlled conditions of temperature, pressure etc., These
standard ambient conditions are usually defined in the instrument
specifications. As variations occur in ambient temperature etc.,
Drift may be classified into three categories
i) Zero Drift
• If the whole calibration gradually shifts due to slippage,
permanent set or due to undue warming up of electronic tube
circuits, zero drift sets in.
ii) Span Drift or Sensitivity Drift
• If there is proportional change in the indication all along the
upward scale, the drift is called span drift or sensitivity drift.
iii) Zonal Drift
• In case the drift occurs only over a portion of span of an
instrument, it is called zonal drift.
• There are many environmental factors which cause drift. They
may be stray electric and magnetic fields, thermal emfs, change
in temperature, mechanical vibrations, wear and tear and high
mechanical stresses developed in some parts of the instruments
and systems.
5. Static Error
• Static error is defined as the difference between the measured
value and the true value of quantity then.
6. Dead Zone
• Dead zone is defined as the largest change of input quantity for
which there is no output of the instrument. The factors which
produce dead zone are friction, backlash and hystersis in the
instrument.
Dead Time
• Dead time is defined as the time required by a
measurement system to being to respond to a
change in the measurand.
• Dead time, infact is the time before the
instrument beings to respond after the
measured quantity has been changed.
1.5.2 Dynamic Characteristics
 The dynamic characteristics of an instrument refers to
performance of the instrument when it is subjected to time
varying input. The performance criteria based upon the dynamic
relation constitute the dynamic characteristics.

The dynamic characteristics of a measurement system are:

 Speed of response
 Measuring lag
 Fidelity
 Dynamic error
The dynamic characteristics of a measurement system
are:
• Speed of response
 It is defined as the rapidity with which a
measurement system responds to changes in the
measured quantity.
• Measuring lag
• It is the retardation or delay in the response of a
measurement system to change in the measured
quantity.
• The measuring lags are of two types,
• i) Retardation type ii) Time delay type
i) Retardation Type
• In this case the response of the measurement system begins immediately
after a change in measured quantity has occurred.
ii) Time Delay Type
• In this case the response of the measurement system begins after a dead
time after the application of the input. Dead time simply shift the response
of the system along the time scale and causes a corresponding dynamic
error.
Fidelity
• It is defined as the degree to which a measurement system indicates
changes in the measured quantity without any dynamic error.
Dynamic error
• It is the difference between the true value of quantity (under measurement)
changing with time and the value indicated by the measurement system. If
no static error is assumed. It is also called measurement error .
1.6 PERFORMANCE MEASURES OF SENSORS
1.6.1 Types of Input
• The type of input, which can be any physical quantity, is generally
determined in advance.
1. Operating Range
• Choice of transducer depends upon the useful range of input
quantity.
2. Loading Effect
• The transducer, that is selected for a particular application should
ideally exact no force, power or energy from the quantity under
measurement in order that is measured accurately.
3. Response of Transducer to Environmental Influences
• It should not be subjected to any disturbances like stray
electromagnetic and electrostatic fields, mechanical shocks
and vibrations temperature changes, pressure and humidity
changes, changes in supply voltage and improper mechanical
mountings.
4. Accuracy and Repeatability
• High accuracy ensures that frequent calibration is not required
and errors are less. Repeatability is more important than
accuracy.
1.6.2 Type of Electrical Output
• The type of output which may be available from the transducers
may be available from the transducers may be a voltage, current,
impedance or a time function of these amplitudes.
1. Sensitivity
• The transducers must be sensitive enough to produce detectable
output.
2. Output Impedance
• Ideally the value of output impedance should be zero if no
loading effects are there on the subsequent stage.
3. Useful Output Range
• The output range of a transducer is limited at the lower end by
noise signal.
• The upper limit is set by the maximum useful input level.
4. Usage and Ruggedness
• The ruggedness both mechanical and electrical intensities of the
transducer versus its size and weight must be considered.
1.6.3 Electrical Aspects
• Attention must be paid to signal to noise ratios in case the
transducer is to be used in conjunction with amplifiers.
1. Stability and Reliability
• The transducer should exhibit a high degree of stability during its
operation and storage life.
1.7 CLASSIFICATION OF SENSORS
1. Direct Sensor
• A sensor that can convert a non-electrical stimulus into an
electrical signal with intermediate stage. Example :
Thermocouple (temperature to voltage)
2. Indirect Sensor
• A sensor that multiple conversion steps to transform the measured
signal into an electrical signal.
Based on physical law or convent distinguishing property:
 Active and passive sensor
 Contact and non contact sensor
 Absolute and relative sensor
 Analog and digital sensor
1.7.1 Active and Passive Sensor
1. Active Sensor
• A sensor that requires external power to operate.
Example:
• Carbon microphone, thermistor, strain gauges, capacitive and
inductive sensors, etc.,
• The active sensor is also called as parametric sensor (output is a
function of a parameter like resistance).
2. Passive Sensor
• It generates its own electric signal and does not require a power
source.
Example:
 Thermocouples, magnetic microphones, piezoelectric
sensors, photodiode.
• Also called as self generating sensors.
1.7.2 Contact and Non Contact Sensor
• Contact sensor is a sensor that requires physical contact with the
stimulus.
Example : Strain gauges, temperature sensor
• Non contact sensor does not requires no physical contact.
Example: Most optical and magnetic sensors, infrared
thermometer, etc.,
1.7.3 Absolute and Relative Sensors
1. Absolute Sensors
• A sensor that reacts to a stimulus on an absolute scale such as
thermistor, strain gauge, etc., (thermistor always reads the absolute
temperature).
2. Relative Sensors
• The stimulus is sensed relative to a fixed or variable reference, for
example thermocouple measures the temperature difference, pressure
is often measured relative to atmospheric pressure.
1.7.4 Analog and Digital Sensors
• Analog sensors have an output that changes over a range of
values while digital sensors are binary and only have two states
ON and OFF.
• The anemometer is an example of an analog device. Since its
rotating speed increases along with wind speed. Therefore, it can
produce a range of value.
• An occupancy sensor is an example of a digital device, since it
can only detect two states , empty room and occupied room.
1.7.5 Application of Sensors
1. Classification based on broad area of detection like electric
sensors, magnetic, electromagnetic, acoustic, chemical, optical,
heat, temperature, mechanical, radiation, biological, etc.,
2. Classification based on physical law like photoelectric, magneto
electric, thermoelectric, photoconductive, photo magnetic, thermo
magnetic, thermo-optic, electrochemical, magnetro resistive,
photo elastic, etc.,
1.8 SENSOR CALIBRATION
1.8.1 Techniques of Sensors
1. Why do we need to calibrate sensors?
• In order to achieve the best possible accuracy a sensor should be
calibrated in the system where it will be used this is because.
i) No Sensor is Perfect
ii) The sensor is only one component in the measurement
2. What makes a good sensor?
The two most important characteristics of a sensor are:
i) Precision
• The ideal sensor will always produce the same output for the
same input.
ii) Resolution
• A good sensor will be able to reliably detect small changes in the
measured parameter.
1.8.2 Calibration Methods
The three different types of calibration are,
• One point calibration
One point calibration can be used to correct for sensor offset errors
in the following cases.
i) Only One Measurement Point is Needed
• If you have an application that only requires accurate measurement
of a single level, there is no need to worry about the rest of the
measurement range.
(ii) The Sensor is Known to be Linear and Have the Correct
Slope over the Desired Measurement Range.
• In this case, it is only necessary to calibrate one point in the
measurement range and adjust the offset if necessary. Many
temperature sensors are good candidates for one point calibration.
Two point calibration
• A two point calibration is a little more complex. But it can be
applied to either raw or scaled sensor outputs. A two point
calibration essentially re-scales the output and is capable of
correcting both slope and offset errors.
Multi point curve fitting.
• Sensors that are non - linear over the measurement range require
some curve-fitting to achieve accurate measurements over the
measurement range.
1.9 SENSOR OUTPUT SIGNAL TYPES
There are three basic types of sensor output
1.9.1 Analog voltage
• Analog signals are much more susceptible to noise than digital
signals, so there are several measures that must be taken to ensure
the date obtained from the sensor is accurate.
1.9.2 PWM
• A PWM signal is much more immune to noise than an analog
signal, but signal integrity can still benefit from differential
transmission (as in USB).
1.9.3 Serial Digital
• Serial digital signals are the most complicated. This type of
signal requires that the devices sharing information are synced,
and this is accomplished using one of many data packet
protocols.
First order system for unit step input
Second Order System For Unit Step Input