Lecture I: Fundamentals of Measurement

1.0: Formal definition:

Measurement (also called metrology) is the science of determining values of physical variables.
Instrumentation is the technology of measurement.
Physical Variables:
 Temperature
 Pressure
 Light intensity
 Displacement
 Speed
 Level
 Flow-rate etc
1.1: Typical Applications of Measurements
 Monitoring of a process or operation to indicate its state or condition.
Examples:
i. Monitoring environmental conditions
ii. Water and electricity meters monitor quantity used.
iii. Patient monitoring in hospitals (blood pressure, heart beat, temperature) etc.
iv. In vehicles various instruments are incorporated to indicate speed, fuel left in tank, engine
temperature etc.
 Process control: automatic control systems incorporate measuring instruments at various stages of
the process.
 Data recording: This is the recording of data for storage and later use. Examples of recording media
are magnetic tape, paper chart cd etc.
Block diagram of an instrumentation system

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Data acquisition – this is acquiring information about the measurement object using suitable sensors
and conversion into electrical data (transduction). More than one variable can be measured or one
variable can be measured at different points simultaneously.

Data processing – This is manipulation of measurement data in order to achieve some desired result.

Data distribution – This is the supplying of data to the target object(s). This could be a monitor,
controller or a recorder.

1.2: Standards
 International standards: Defined by international agreements.
 Primary standards: Maintained at institutions around the world. Main function is checking accuracy
of secondary standards
 Secondary standards: Employed in industry as references for calibration and for verifying working
standards.
 Working standards: Used as measurement references on a day – to day basis in all electronics labs.
1.3: UNITS
There are only 5 basic units used in engineering. These are
Mass Kilogramme (kg)
Length Metre (m)
Time Seconds (s)
Current Ampere (A)
Temperature Kelvin (K)
Also used in physics is luminous intensity Candela (Cd). All other quantities used are multiples of these
units.
1.4: FUNDAMENTAL ELECTRICAL LAWS
 CURRENT. i = dq/dt (Coulomb/s or Amperes)
 RESISTANCE. V=IR (Ohm's Law)
 INDUCTANCE. This law is equivalent to the 2nd. law of motion. Inductance (L, Henries) is that
property of a component that resists changes to the flow of current. The emf (E) produced is E = L
di/dt; E = L d2q/dt2
 CAPACITANCE. This law is equivalent to the spring law. Capacitance (C Farads) is the property of a
component which enables it to store electric charge. Q = C V (Coulombs)

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2.0: Physical Quantity, Standard units, Symbols and Definitions
2.1: Introduction:
Measurement techniques have been of immense importance ever since the start of human civilization,
when measurements were first needed to regulate the transfer of goods in barter trade to ensure that
exchanges were fair. The industrial revolution during the nineteenth century brought about a rapid
development of new instruments and measurement techniques to satisfy the needs of industrialized
production techniques. Since that time, there has been a large and rapid growth in new industrial
technology.
2.1.1: Measurement units
The very first measurement units were those used in barter trade to quantify the amounts being
exchanged and to establish clear rules about the relative values of different commodities. Such early
systems of measurement were based on whatever was available as a measuring unit. For purposes of
measuring length, the human torso was a convenient tool, and gave us units of the hand, the foot and
the cubit. Although generally adequate for barter trade systems, such measurement units are of course
imprecise, varying as they do from one person to the next. Therefore, there has been a progressive
movement towards measurement units that are defined much more accurately.
The first improved measurement unit was a unit of length (the metre) defined as10-7 times the polar
quadrant of the earth. A platinum bar made to this length was established as a standard of length in the
early part of the nineteenth century. This was superseded by a superior quality standard bar in 1889,
manufactured from a platinum–iridium alloy.

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Table 1.1: Definition of standard units

Table 1.2 below: Fundamental and derived SI units

(a) Fundamental units

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2.2: Measurement Systems
A measurement (measuring) system exists to provide information about the physical value of some
variable being measured.
Applications of today's measuring instruments can be classified into three major areas. These include:
 Regulating trade. Instruments that measure physical quantities such as length, volume and mass in
terms of standard units are applied to regulate trade. Examples include tape measures, weighing
scales etc.

 Monitoring functions. This category of instruments provides information that enable human beings
to take some prescribed action accordingly. Take an example of thermometers used by Doctors,
voltmeters used by Engineers, level monitors used to monitor fluid levels in processing industries
etc.

 Automatic feedback control systems. Although these form the third application area of
measurement systems, their performance entirely depends on monitoring instruments. As an
example, a simple temperature control system in which the temperature Ta of a room is maintained
at a reference value Td.

Fig. 4: Illustration of a simple closed-loop control system

The value of the controlled variable Ta, as determined by a temperature measuring device, is compared
with the reference value Td, and the difference (which is an error signal e) is applied to the heater. The
heater then modifies the room temperature until Ta = Td. The characteristics of the measuring
instruments used in any feedback control system are of fundamental importance to the quality of
control achieved. The accuracy and resolution with which an output variable of a process is controlled
can never be better than the accuracy and resolution of the measuring instruments used.

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2.2.1: Elements of a Measurement System
Note that the term measurement system is commonly used to describe measuring instrument.
A measuring system exists to provide information about the physical value of some variable being
measured. In simple cases, the system can consist of only a single unit that gives an output reading or
signal according to the magnitude of the unknown variable applied to it. However, in more complex
measurement situations, a measuring system consists of several separate elements as shown in Figure
5. These components might be contained within one or more boxes, and the boxes holding individual
measurement elements might be either close together or physically separate. The term measuring
instrument is commonly used to describe a measurement system, whether it contains only one or many
elements, and this term will be widely used throughout this text. The first element in any measuring
system is the primary sensor.

Figure 5: Elements of a measurement system

Elements of a measuring system include:
Primary Sensor: - This gives an output that is a function of the measurand (the input applied to it). For
most but not all sensors, this function is at least approximately linear.
Some examples of primary sensors are a liquid-in-glass thermometer, a thermocouple and a strain
gauge. In the case of the mercury-in-glass thermometer, the output reading is given in terms of the level
of the mercury, and so this particular primary sensor is also a complete measurement system in itself.
Variable conversion element: - This converts the primary sensor’s output variable into a more
convenient form. For instance, the displacement measuring strain gauge has an output in the form of a
varying resistance. The resistance change cannot be easily measured and so it is converted to a change
in voltage by a bridge circuit, which is a typical example of a variable conversion element. In some cases,

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the primary sensor and variable conversion element are combined, and the combination is known as a
transducer.
Signal processing: - This element improves the quality of the output of a measurement system in some
way. A common example is the electronic amplifier which amplifies the output of the primary
transducer or variable conversion element, thus improving the sensitivity and resolution of
measurement. This element of a measuring system is particularly important where the primary
transducer has a low output. For example, thermocouples have a typical output of only a few millivolts.
Other types of signal processing element are those that filter out induced noise and remove mean levels
etc. In some devices, signal processing is incorporated into a transducer, which is then known as a
transmitter.
Signal transmission:- This is required to transmit a signal to some remote point. Signal transmission is
needed when the observation or application point of the output of a measurement system is some
distance away from the site of the primary transducer.
Sometimes, this separation is made solely for purposes of convenience, but more often it follows from
the physical inaccessibility or environmental unsuitability of the site of the primary transducer for
mounting the signal presentation/recording unit. The signal transmission element has traditionally
consisted of single or multi-cored cable, which is often screened to minimize signal corruption by
induced electrical noise. However, fibre optic cables are being used in ever increasing numbers in
modern installations, in part because of their low transmission loss and imperviousness to the effects of
electrical and magnetic fields.
Signal Presentation or Recording: - This displays or records the signal if it is not fed automatically into a
feedback control system. The final optional element in a measurement system is the point where the
measured signal is utilized. In some cases, this element is omitted altogether because the measurement
is used as part of an automatic control scheme, and the transmitted signal is fed directly into the control
system. In other cases, this element in the measurement system takes the form either of a signal
presentation unit or of a signal-recording unit. These take many forms according to the requirements of
the particular measurement application.

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2.2.2: Types of Instruments
Instruments are divided into a number of class types according to several criteria. These classes are:
 Active and passive instruments
 Null and deflection instruments
 Analogue and digital instruments
 Indicating and non- indicating instruments
 Smart and non-smart instruments
Active and passive instruments
 Passive instruments are those whose output is entirely produced by the quantity being measured
whereas active instruments are those in which the quantity being measured simply modulates the
magnitude of some external power source.
 A pressure-measuring device, shown in figure 6 (a), is an example of a passive instrument whereas a
float-type petrol tank level indicator in shown in figure 6 (b) is an example of an active instrument.

Figure 6 (a): Pressure Gauge

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Figure 6 (b): Petrol Tank-Level Indicator
 The fluid pressure is translated into the movement of a pointer against a scale. The energy
expended in moving the pointer is derived entirely from the change in pressure measured: there are
no other energy inputs to the system.
For an active float-type petrol tank level indicator (Figure 6 (b):) , the change in petrol level moves a
potentiometer arm, and the output signal consists of a proportion of the external voltage source applied
across the two ends of the potentiometer.
The energy in the output signal comes from the external power source: the primary transducer float
system is merely modulating the value of the voltage from this external power source.
Although the external power source is normally in electrical form, other forms of energy such as
pneumatic or hydraulic can also be used in some active instruments.
Differences between Active and Passive Instruments:
Measurement Resolution: With our passive pressure gauge, the amount of movement made by the
pointer for a particular pressure change is closely defined by the nature of the instrument. Although it is
possible to increase measurement resolution by making the pointer longer, such that the pointer tip
moves through a longer arc, the scope for such improvement is clearly restricted by the practical limit of
how long the pointer can conveniently be. In an active instrument, however, adjustment of the
magnitude of the external energy input allows much greater control over measurement resolution.
Whilst the scope for improving measurement resolution is much greater incidentally, it is not infinite
because of limitations placed on the magnitude of the external energy input, in consideration of heating
effects and for safety reasons.

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Cost: Due to their simple construction, passive instruments are cheaper to manufacture and therefore
less costly as compared to their active counterparts. In summary, choosing between active and passive
instruments for a particular application involves carefully balancing the measurement resolution
requirements against cost.
Deflection and Null instruments
 Deflection instruments are those in which the value of the quantity being measured is displayed in
terms of the amount of movement of a pointer whereas null instruments make use of standard
weights.

Figure 7: Deadweight pressure gauge

 A pressure gauge explained earlier is an example of a deflection type of instrument. An alternative
type of pressure gauge, which is a null-type of instrument, is the deadweight gauge shown in figure
7. Here, weights are put on top of the piston until the downward force balances the fluid pressure.
Weights are added until the piston reaches a datum level, known as the null point.
Pressure measurement is made in terms of the value of the weights needed to reach this null
position.
 Accuracy of a deflection-type of instrument depends on the linearity and calibration of the spring
whereas in null instruments, accuracy relies on the calibration of the weights. As calibration of
weights is much easier than careful choice and calibration of a linear characteristic spring, this
means that null instruments are more accurate. This is in accordance with the general rule that null-
type instruments are more accurate than deflection types. In terms of usage, the deflection type
instrument is clearly more convenient. It is far simpler to read the position of a pointer against a
scale than to add and subtract weights until a null point is reached. A deflection-type instrument is

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therefore the one that would normally be used in a workplace. However, for calibration duties, the
null-type instrument is preferable because of its superior accuracy. The extra effort required to use
such an instrument is perfectly acceptable in this case because of the infrequent nature of
calibration operations.
Analogue and digital instruments
 Analog instruments are those whose outputs vary continuously as the quantity being measured
changes. The output can have an infinite number of values within the range that the instrument is
designed to measure. Digital instruments on the other hand have outputs that vary in discrete steps
and so can only have a finite number of values.
 The deflection-type of pressure gauge described earlier is a good example of an analog instrument.
As the input value changes, the pointer moves with a smooth continuous motion. Although the
pointer can be in an infinite number of positions within its range of movement, the number of
different positions that the eye can discriminate between is strictly limited, this discrimination being
dependent upon how large the scale is and how finely it is divided.
 Digital instruments find applications in microcomputers and automatic control systems. Any digital
computer system, of which the microcomputer is an example, performs its computations in digital
form. An instrument whose output is in digital form can be interfaced directly to the control
computer. Analogue instruments must be interfaced to the microcomputer by an analogue-to-
digital (A/D) converter, which converts the analogue output signal from the instrument into an
equivalent digital quantity that can be read into the computer. The A/D conversion process,
however, adds a significant cost to the system and a finite time is involved. It should be noted that in
the control of fast processes where accuracy of control depends on the speed of the controlling
computer, time is critical and a requirement for A/D conversion therefore impairs the accuracy by
which the process is controlled.
Indicating and non-indicating instruments
 Indicating instruments are those that give an audio or visual indication of the magnitude ofthe
physical quantity measured whereas non-indicating instruments give outputs in form of a
measurement signal whose magnitude is proportional to the measured quantity.
 Examples of indicating instruments include all null-types of instruments and the majority of passive
ones. Indicators of indicating instruments can also be divided into those with analogue outputs and
those with digital displays.

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 Indicating instruments have one major disadvantage in the sense that human intervention is
required to read and record a measurement. This process is particularly prone to error in the case of
analogue output displays. Digital displays are not very prone to error unless the human reader is
very careless.
 Instruments that have a signal-type output are commonly used as part of automatic control systems.
In other circumstances, they can also be found in measurement systems where the output
measurement signal is recorded in some way for later use. Usually, the measurement signal involved
is an electrical voltage, but it can take other forms in some systems such as an electrical current, an
optical signal or a pneumatic signal.
 Instruments can further be categorized as smart and non-smart type instruments. Smart type
instruments are those that incorporate a microprocessor whereas those that do not are known as
non- smart instruments.
Choice of a Measuring Instrument
 The following factors need to be considered when choosing an instrument for measurement of a
particular quantity:
o Instrument Characteristics. This is the starting point in choosing the most suitable
instrument for any particular application. Instrument characteristics are divided into static
and dynamic. The Engineer should know, and therefore be in position to give the
specification of the instrument characteristics required.
o Environmental Conditions. It is essential to know the environmental conditions that the
instrument will be subjected to.
 Protection and Cost
o Level of Disturbance. The extent to which the measured system will be disturbed during the
measuring process is another important factor in instrument choice. For example, significant
pressure loss can be caused to the measured system in some techniques of flow
measurement.
o Cost. The rule of the thumb is that “the better the characteristics, the higher the instrument
cost”. However, in comparing the cost and relative suitability of different instruments for a
particular measurement situation, considerations of durability, maintainability and
constancy of performance are also very important because the instrument chosen will often
have to be capable of operating for long periods without performance degradation and a

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requirement for costly maintenance. In consequence of this, the initial cost of an instrument
often has a low weighting in the evaluation exercise.
 It should be noted therefore that cost is strongly correlated with the performance of an instrument,
as measured by its static characteristics. Increasing the accuracy or resolution of an instrument, for
example, can only be done at a penalty of increasing its manufacturing cost.
 Instrument choice therefore proceeds by specifying the minimum characteristics required by a
measurement situation and then searching manufacturers’ catalogues to find an instrument whose
characteristics match those required. To select an instrument with characteristics superior to those
required would only mean paying more than necessary for a level of performance greater than that
needed.
 Mention has been made already that instrument durability and maintenance requirements are
important factors to consider. This is because they have cost implications.
 A general rule, for a good assessment criterion, is to obtain the instrument’s cost per year using the
formula:

 If instruments are being installed on a process whose life is expected to be limited, e.g. in the
manufacture of a particular model of car. Then, instrument’s cost per year is:

 The first formula can be applied only if an alternative use for the instrument is envisaged.

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3.0: Static Instrument Characteristics
 Static characteristics of measuring instruments are concerned only with the steady state reading
that the instrument settles down to, such as the accuracy of the reading.
 Measurement and instrumentation students need to know instrument characteristics as these are
some of the parameters that Instrumentation and Measurement Engineers consider when choosing
an instrument for a particular application.
 These parameters include accuracy of measurement, sensitivity, linearity, and the reaction to
ambient temperature changes. These attributes are collectively known as the static characteristics
of instruments, and are given in the data sheet for a particular instrument. It is important to note
that the values quoted for instrument characteristics in such a data sheet only apply when the
instrument is used under specified standard calibration conditions. Due allowance must be made for
variations in the characteristics when the instrument is used in other conditions.
 Let us discuss static characteristics in the following pages.
3.1: Accuracy and Inaccuracy (Measurement uncertainty)
 Accuracy of an instrument is a measure of how close the output reading of an instrument is to the
correct value. In practice, it is more usual to quote the inaccuracy figure rather than the accuracy
figure for an instrument.
Inaccuracy is the extent to which a reading might be wrong, and is often quoted as a percentage of
the full-scale (f.s.) reading of an instrument. If, for example, a pressure gauge of range 0–10 bar has
a quoted inaccuracy of ±1.0% f.s. (±1% of full-scale reading), then the maximum error to be
expected in any reading is 0.1 bar. This means that when the instrument is reading 1.0 bar, the
possible error is 10% of this value.
 For this reason, it is an important system design rule that instruments are chosen such that their
range is appropriate to the spread of values being measured, in order that the best possible
accuracy is maintained in instrument readings. Thus, if we were measuring pressures with expected
values between 0 and 1 bar, we would not use an instrument with a range of 0–10 bar. The term
measurement uncertainty is frequently used in place of inaccuracy.
3.2: Precision/repeatability/reproducibility
 Precision describes an instrument’s degree of freedom from random errors. If a large number of
readings are taken of the same quantity by a high precision instrument, then the spread of readings
will be very small.

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 Precision is often, though incorrectly, confused with accuracy. High precision does not imply
anything about measurement accuracy. A high precision instrument may have low accuracy. Low
accuracy measurements from a high precision instrument are normally caused by a bias in the
measurements, which is removable by recalibration.
 Repeatability describes the closeness of output readings when the same input is applied repetitively
over a short period of time, with the same measurement conditions, same instrument and observer,
same location and same conditions of use maintained throughout. Reproducibility, on the other
hand, describes the closeness of output readings for the same input when there are changes in the
method of measurement, observer, measuring instrument, location, conditions of use and time of
measurement. Both repeatability and reproducibility therefore describe the spread of output
readings for the same input. This spread is referred to as repeatability if the measurement
conditions are constant and as reproducibility if the measurement conditions vary.
 The degree of repeatability or reproducibility in measurements from an instrument is an alternative
way of expressing its precision.
 To illustrate the difference between accuracy and precision, let us consider test results of three
industrial robots that were programmed to place components at a particular point on a table.

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Fig. 8: Accuracy and Precision Comparison
 With the target point at the centre of the concentric circles and the black dots representing points
where components were actually deposited for each robot attempt, robot 1 had low accuracy and
low precision. Robot 2 showed high precision but low accuracy as it consistently put the component
down at approximately the same place but away from the target point. Finally, Robot 3showed both
high precision and high accuracy, because it consistently placed the component at the correct target
position.
3.3: Tolerance, Range, and Linearity
 Tolerance defines the maximum error that is to be expected in some value. Please note that
tolerance is not a static characteristic of measuring instruments.

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However; it is worth mentioning here because it is closely related to accuracy and the accuracy of
some instruments is sometimes quoted as a tolerance figure.
 When used correctly, tolerance describes the maximum deviation of a manufactured component
from some specified value. For instance; a resistor chosen at random from a batch having a nominal
value 1000 W and tolerance 5%, might have an actual value anywhere between 950 W and 1050 W.
In this case, 1000 W is the specified value but the actual value of any resistor might be any from 950
W to 1050 W.
 Range or Span of an instrument defines the minimum and maximum values of a quantity that the
instrument is designed to measure.
 Linearity: It is normally desirable that the output reading of an instrument is linearly proportional to
the quantity being measured. Non-linearity is defined as the maximum deviation of any of the
output readings from a rather would be straight line-representing linearity. Non-linearity is usually
expressed as a percentage of full-scale reading.
3.4: Sensitivity of Measurement
 The sensitivity of measurement is a measure of the change in instrument output that occurs when
the quantity being measured changes by a given amount. Thus, sensitivity is given as the ratio:

 The sensitivity of measurement is therefore the slope of the straight line, drawn on figure 9.
 If, for example, a pressure of 2 bar produces a deflection of 10 degrees in a pressure transducer, the
sensitivity of the instrument is 5 degrees/bar (assuming that the deflection is zero with zero
pressure applied).

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Figure 9: Instrument output characteristic

3.5: Sensitivity to Disturbance

 Sensitivity to disturbance is a measure of the magnitude of the change in certain static instrument
characteristics due to variations in the ambient temperature, pressure and other environmental
changes. The mentioned changes affect instruments in two main ways, known as zero drift (or
sometimes bias) and sensitivity drift.
 Zero drift or bias refers to the effect where the zero reading of an instrument is modified by a change
in ambient conditions. As a result of zero drift, a constant error occurs and this error exists over the
full range of measurement of the instrument. If amass weighing scale indicates a reading of 1 kg
with no weight on it, the 1 kg reading is a zero drift. Using such a scale, a reading of 51 kg would be
indicated for a known weight of 50 kg and 101 kg reading for a known weight of 100 kg. Zero drift is
normally removable by calibration.
Zero drift is also commonly found in instruments like voltmeters that are affected by ambient
temperature changes.
Typical units by which such zero drift is measured are volts/°C. This is often called the zero drift
coefficient related to temperature changes. If the characteristic of an instrument is sensitive to
several environmental parameters, then it will have several zero drift coefficients, one for each
environmental parameter.

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 Sensitivity drift (also known as scale factor drift) defines the amount by which an instrument’s
sensitivity of measurement varies as ambient conditions change. It is quantified by sensitivity drift
coefficients that define how much drift there is for a unit change in each environmental parameter
that the instrument characteristics are sensitive to. Many components within an instrument are
affected by environmental fluctuations, such as temperature changes: for instance, the modulus of
elasticity of a spring is temperature dependent.

Figure 10(a): Illustration of output characteristic of a pressure gauge subject to zero drift

Figure 10(b): Illustration of sensitivity drift effect on an instrument output characteristic.

Sensitivity drift is measured in units of the form (angular degree/bar)/°C.

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Figure 10(c): output characteristic of an instrument with both zero drift and sensitivity drift.
Figures: Effects of disturbance: (a) zero drift; (b) sensitivity drift; (c) zero drift plus sensitivity drift.

Example 1: The following resistance values of a platinum resistance thermometer were measured at a
range of temperatures. Determine the measurement sensitivity of the instrument in ohms/°C.

Example 2: A spring balance is calibrated in an environment at a temperature of20°C and has the
following deflection/load characteristic.

It is then used in an environment at a temperature of 30°C and the following deflection/load

characteristic is measured.

Determine the zero drift and sensitivity drift per °C change in ambient temperature.

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3.6: Threshold and Resolution
 Threshold of an instrument is that minimum value (or level) of an input above which a notable
change in the instrument's output is observed. If the input to an instrument is gradually increased
from zero, the input will have to reach a certain minimum level (threshold) before the change in the
instrument output reading is of a large enough magnitude to be detected. Manufacturers vary in the
way that they specify threshold for instruments. Some quote absolute values, whereas others quote
threshold as a percentage of full-scale readings. As an illustration, a car speedometer typically has a
threshold of about 15 km/h. This means that, if the vehicle starts from rest and accelerates, no
output reading is observed on the speedometer until the speed reaches15 km/h.
 Resolution: Resolution describes a lower limit on the magnitude of the change in the input
measured quantity that produces an observable change in the instrument output.
Like threshold, resolution is sometimes specified as an absolute value and sometimes as a
percentage of f.s. deflection. One of the major factors influencing the resolution of an instrument is
how finely its output scale is divided into subdivisions. Using a car speedometer as an example
again, this has subdivisions of typically 20 km/h. This means that when the needle is between the
scale markings, we cannot estimate speed more accurately than to the nearest 5 km/h. This figure of
5 km/h thus represents the resolution of the instrument.
3.7: Hysteresis effects
 To explain the hysteresis effect, let us make use of figure 11.

Figure 11

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 If the input measured variable to the instrument is steadily increased from a negative value, the
output readings vary in a manner represented by curve (a). If the input variable is then steadily
decreased, the output varies in a manner represented by curve (b). The non-coincidence between
these loading and unloading curves is known as hysteresis. Two quantities are defined, maximum
input hysteresis and maximum output hysteresis, as shown in figure 11. These are normally
expressed as a percentage of the full-scale input or output reading respectively.
3.8: Dead Space
 Dead space is defined as the range of different input values over which there is no change in output
value. Any instrument that exhibits hysteresis also displays dead space, as marked on figure 8. It
should be noted that some instruments that do not suffer from any significant hysteresis can still
exhibit a dead space in their output characteristics as shown in figure 12.

Figure 12: Output characteristic of an Instrument with Dead space

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4.0 Dynamic Instrument Characteristics
 Dynamic characteristics of a measuring instrument describe its behaviour between the time a
measured quantity changes value and the time when the instrument output attains a steady value in
response. As with static characteristics, any values for dynamic characteristics quoted in instrument
data sheets only apply when the instrument is used under specified environmental conditions.
Outside these calibration conditions, some variation in the dynamic parameters can be expected.
 In any linear, time-invariant measuring system, the following general relation can be written
between the input and output for time (t) > 0:

…………………………………….(1)
Where qi is the measured quantity, q0 is the output reading and ao ......am , bo ......bm are constants.

 If we limit consideration to that of step changes in the measured quantity only, then equation (1)
reduces to:

………………………(2)
4.1: Zero order instrument
 With reference to dynamic characteristics, instruments are classified as zero, first, and third order
instruments. In our case, we will consider zero and second order instruments.
 Zero Order Instruments. If all the coefficients a1......an other than a0 in equation (2) are assumed

zero, then:

…………………………………(3)
where K is a constant known as instrument sensitivity discussed earlier.
 Any instrument that behaves according to equation (3) is said to be of zero order type. Following a
step change in the measured quantity at time t, the instrument output moves immediately to a new
value at the same time instant t, as seen in the figure aside.

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Figure 13: Zero order instrument characteristic.
 A potentiometer, which measures motion, is a good example of such an instrument, where the
output voltage changes instantaneously as the slider is displaced along the potentiometer track.
4.2: First order instrument
 If all the coefficients a2 ......an except for a0 and a1 are assumed zero in equation(2), then:

……………………..(4)
 Any instrument that behaves according to equation (4) is known as a first order instrument. If d/dt is
replaced by the D operator, equation (4), can be rewritten:

and rearranging this then gives ………..(5)

 Defining K = b0/a0 as the static sensitivity and τ = a1/a0 as the time constant of the system, equation
(5) becomes:

………………………..…(6)
 If equation (6) is solved analytically, the output quantity q0 in response to a step change in the input
quantity qi at time τ varies with time in the manner shown in figure 14. The time constant of the
step response is the time taken for the output quantity q0 to reach 63% of its final value.

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 The first order class is of particular importance in control systems where it is necessary to take
account of the time lag that occurs between a measured quantity changing in value and the
measuring instrument indicating the change.
Fortunately, the time constant of many first order instruments is small relative to the dynamics of
the process being measured, and so no serious problems are created.

Figure 14: First order instrument characteristic.

5.0: Calibration
 Calibration is an act of comparing the output of the instrument or sensor under test against the
output of an instrument of known accuracy when the same input (the measured quantity) is applied
to both instruments. This procedure is carried out for a range of inputs covering the whole
measurement range of the instrument or sensor.
 It should be noted that an instrument only conforms to the stated static and dynamic patterns of
behaviour after it has been calibrated. It can normally be assumed that a new instrument will have
been calibrated when it is obtained from an instrument manufacturer, and will therefore initially
behave according to the characteristics stated in the specifications. During use, however, its
behaviour will gradually diverge from the stated specification for a variety of reasons. Such reasons
include mechanical wear, and the effects of dirt, dust, fumes and chemicals in the operating
environment. The rate of divergence from standard specifications varies according to the type of
instrument, the frequency of usage and the severity of the operating conditions. However, there will

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come a time, determined by practical knowledge, when the characteristics of the instrument will
have drifted from the standard specification by an unacceptable amount. When this situation is
reached, it is necessary to recalibrate the instrument to the standard specifications. Such
recalibration is performed by adjusting the instrument at each point in its output range until its
output readings are the same as those of a second standard instrument to which the same inputs
are applied. This second instrument is one kept solely for calibration purposes whose specifications
are accurately known.

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