Chapter-1 Introduction of Measurement: Response of Measuring System

Instrumentation and Measurement Mizan-Tepi University

CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION OF MEASUREMENT

RESPONSE OF MEASURING SYSTEM:

MEASUREMENT:
Measurement is the act or the result of a quantitative comparison between a
predetermined standard and an unknown magnitude. The procedure and apparatus employed for
obtaining the comparison, however, must be provable; the procedure for this is called
calibration.
 Probably it has rightly been said: “whatever exists; exists in some amount”. The
determination of the amount is what measurement in all about. If those things that exist
are related to the practice of mechanical engineering, then the determination of their
amounts constitutes the subject of mechanical measurements.
 Measurements provide us with a means of describing various phenomena in quantitative
terms.
The measurements are not necessarily carried out by mechanical means.
The following quantities are typically within the scope of mechanical measurements:
Pressure Temperature
Displacement Fluid flow and related parameter
Acoustics Mass, length, time etc.
In several situations, however, the above quantities are not measured by purely
mechanical means, but invariably measured by electrical means by transducing them into an
analogous electrical quantity.
In modern technology, the measurement of mechanical quantities involves the use of
electrical and electronic techniques.
Measurand:
The physical quantity or the characteristic condition which is the object of measurement
in an instrumentation system is variously termed as “measurand”, “measurement variable”, and
“instrumentation variable” or “process variable”.
The measurand may be:
1. Fundamental quantity, e.g., length, mass and time
2. Derived quantity, e.g., speed, velocity, acceleration, pressure.
The word measurand is used to designate the particular physical parameter being observed and
quantified; that is, the input quantity to the measuring process. The act of measurement
produces a result.
Prepared by: Belachew G. Page 1

Fundamental measuring process

Whereas the input to a measuring system is known as measurand and the output is called
measurement.
The basic requirements for getting, meaningful result of measurement are:

1. The standard employed for comparison purpose must be accurately defined and should
be commonly acceptable
2. The standard must be of the same character as the measurand and usually, but not
always is prescribed and defined by a legal or recognized agency or organization. e.g.,
International Organisation of Standards (ISO).
3. The apparatus use and method adopted for the comparison purpose must be provable.
Several measurands of interest vary with time in a continuous manner over a range of
magnitude.
For example, the speed of the automobile, as it starts from rest has some magnitude at
every instant during its motion. A sensor that responds to velocity will produce an output signal
having a line variation analogous to the time change in automobiles speed. Such a signal is
referred to as analog signal because it is analogous to a continuous physical process.
The analog signal, which has a value at every instant of time, becomes a digital signal.
 A digital signal is a set of discrete members each corresponding to the value of the
analog signal at a single specific instant of time.
 The digital signal contains no information about the value of the analog signals at
times other than sample times.
The mechanical quantities such as pressure, stress, strain, temperature, fluid-flow rates behave
time-wise in an analog manner. However, by converting an analog signal to an equivalent
digital signal for the purpose of signal conditioning or read out oftenly following distinct
advantages are obtained.
i. Noise problems are reduced or sometimes eliminated completely
ii. Data transmission becomes simpler
iii. Computers are designed to process digital information and direct numerical display or
recording is more easily accomplished by manipulating digital quantities.
Instrumentation:
The technology of using instruments to measure and control the physical and chemical
properties of material is called “instrumentation”.
 When the instruments are used for the measurement and control of industrial
manufacturing, conversion or treatment processes, the term “process instrumentation” is
used.
 When the measuring and controlling instruments are combined so that measurements
provide impulses for remote automatic action, the result is called a control system.
Significance of measurements:
The significance of measurements is discussed below:
 Measurements play a very significant role in every branch of scientific research and
engineering processes which include the following:
i. Control systems

ii. Process instrumentation

iii. Data reduction
 The whole area of automation or automatic controls is based on measurements. The
concept of control is based on the comparison of the actual condition and the desired
performance. The exactness of error depends on the precision and accuracy of
measurements made.
 The measurements confirm the validity of a hypothesis and also add to it its
understanding. This eventually leads to new discoveries that require new and
sophisticated measuring techniques.
 Through measurements a product can be designed or a process to operated with
maximum efficiency, minimum cost and with desired degree of reliability and
maintainability.
Standards of measurement:
As the measurement is a process of comparison, therefore, regardless of our
measurement method, we must employ a basis of comparison – standardized units. The standard
must be precisely defined and because different systems of units exist, the method of conversion
from system to system must be mutually agreed upon.
It is of significant importance that a relationship between the standards and the read out
scale of each measuring system must be established through a process known as calibration.
The standards of measurement are often classified as follows:
 Primary standards
 Secondary standards
 Working standards
The measurement standard is the physical embodiment of the unit of measurement as well
as that of its submultiples value.
1. Primary standards:
The highest standard of either a base unit or a derived unit is called a primary standard.
i. These standards essentially are copies of international prototypes and are kept
throughout the world in national standard laboratories and institutions of similar
standing.
ii. These standardized units are:
 Quite stable
 Independent
 Invariant
 Not relative but finite
While setting up the primary standards, the following points are given by consideration:
i. Long time stability of the material
ii. Low temperature coefficient
iii. No deterioration in its characteristics with changes in humidity, temperature and other
environmental conditions.
iv. Rigidity of construction
v. Accuracy of machining.
The primary standards constitute the ultimate basis of reference and are used for the purpose of
“verification and calibration of secondary standards”.
 These standards have the “highest possible accuracy” but are very expensive to own and
maintain
 The primary standards are not available for use outside the national laboratories.

2. Secondary standards:
The secondary standards are the reference calibrated standards designed and calibrated
from the primary standards.
 These are sent periodically to the national standard laboratories for their calibration (the
interval of calibration depends upon the accuracy and the type of standard being
maintained).
 These standards are kept by the measurement laboratories and the industrial
organizations to check and calibrate the general tools for their accuracy and precision.
3. Working Standards:
 These standards have an accuracy of one order lower than that of the secondary
standards.
 These are the normal standards which are used by the workers and technicians who
actually carry out the measurements.
S.I UNITS AND CONVERSION FACTORS:
S.I. the international system of units is divided into three classes:
i. Base units
ii. Derived units
iii. Supplementary units
From the scientific point of view division of S.I. unit into these classes is to a certain extent
arbitrary, because it is not essential to the physics of the subject. Nevertheless the General
Conference, considering the advantages of a single, practical, world-wide system for
international relations, for reaching and for scientific work, decided to base the international
system on a choice of six well defined units given in Table 1 below:
The second class of S.I. units contains derived units, i.e., units which can be formed by
combining base units according to the algebraic relations linking the corresponding quantities.
Several of these algebraic expressions in terms of base units can be replaced by special names
and symbols can themselves be used to form other derived units.
Derived units may, therefore, be classified under three headings. Some of them are given
in Tables 2, 3 and 4.


The S.I. units assigned to third class called “Supplementary units” may be regarded
either as base units or as derived units. Refer Table 5 and 6.

Salient features of S.I. Units:

The salient features of S.I. units are as follows:
1. It is a coherent system of units, i.e., product or quotient of any two base quantities
results in a unit resultant quantity. For example, unit length divided by unit time gives
unit velocity.
2. It is a rationalized system of units, applicable to both, magnetism and electricity.
3. It is a non-gravitational system of units. It clearly distinguishes between the units of
mass and weight (force) which are kilogram and Newton respectively.
4. All the units of the system can be derived from the base and supplementary units
5. The decimal relationship between units of same quantity makes possible to express any
small or large quantity as a power of 10.
6. For any quantity there is one and only one S.I. unit. For example, Joule is the unit of
energy of all forms such as mechanical, heat, chemical, electrical and nuclear. However,
kWh will also continue to be used as unit of electrical energy.
Advantages of S.I. Units:
1. Units for many different quantities are related through a series of simple and basic
relationship.
2. Being an absolute system, it avoids the use of factor ‘g’ i.e., acceleration due to gravity
in several expressions in physics and engineering which had been a nuisance in all
numerical in physics and engineering.
3. Being a rationalized system, it ensures all the advantages of rationalized MKSA system
in the fields of electricity, magnetism, electrical engineering and electrons.
4. Joule is the only sole unit of energy of all forms and watt is the sole unit of powers
hence a lot of labor is saved in calculations.
5. It is a coherent system of units and involves only decimal co-efficient. Hence it is very
convenient and quick system for calculations.
6. In electricity, all the practical units like volt, ohm, ampere, farad, coulomb, joule and
watt accepted in industry and laboratories all over the world for well over a century have
become absolute in their own right in the S.I. system without the need for any more
practical units.
Disadvantages:
1. The non S.I. time units “minute” and “hour” will still continue to be used until the
clocks and watches are all changed to kilo seconds and mega seconds etc.
2. The base unit kilogram (kg) includes a prefix, which creates an ambiguity in the use of
multiplier with gram.

Dimensions of Quantities:
Different units can be represented dimensionally in terms of units of length L, mass M
time T and current I. The dimensions can be derived as under:

MECHANICAL MEASUREMENTS:
Mainly the following two types of measurements are involved in the mechanical
engineering field.
1. Mechanics type (or self-operated type)
2. Power type
1. Mechanics type of measurements:
This type of mechanical measurements is commonly applied to experimental or
developmental programmes.
The following are the three distinct methods or approaches essential to determine the
complete solution to complex problems in mechanical design:
a. The empirical method
b. The rational method
c. The experimental method.
a. The empirical method:
In this method use is made of the knowledge of satisfactory previous performance, either
personally observed or generally recognized as “good practice”. The results of each observation
are available in the form of “thumb rules” in handbooks and codes.
 This method, however, cannot be relied upon especially in case of complex system
design, since this method of design is mainly based upon the judgment of the designers.
b. The rational method:
This method is strictly based upon well established scientific laws and relationships.
 The rational method has a very limited scope in areas of mechanical engineering other
than mechanics and thermodynamics, where the availability of laws and relationships is
rather scarce.
c. The experimental method:
In the experimental design method, the component is designed by trial and error based
on existing knowledge and the designed component is put on the job. The trails are carried out
intelligently and the interpretation of the error is done wisely.
The experimental design, in fact requires the greatest application of engineering
ingenuity.
2. Power type of measurement:
These types of measurements are generally used for monitoring of operational
measurement in control system.
 The entire area of automation and control is based upon power type of measurement.
METHODS OF MEASUREMENT:
The broad classification of methods of measurement is as follows:
a. Direct comparison methods
b. Indirect comparison methods
a. Direct comparison method:
In this method the parameter to be measured is directly compared with either a primary
or a secondary standard.

Direct comparison is quite commonly used for measurements of length. However, for
measurement of mass the problem becomes much more intricate since it is just not possible for
human beings to distinguish between wide margins of mass.
 Generally, this method is not always the most accurate or the best, it is not sensitive
enough also.
b. Indirect comparison method:
In this method the comparison is done with a standard through the use of a calibrated
system. These methods for measurements are used in those cases where the desired parameter to
be measured is difficult to be measured directly, but it has got some correlation in the some
other parameter which can be easily measured.
Example: The elimination of bacteria in milk is directly dependent upon its temperature.
Thus the bacteria elimination can be measured indirectly by measuring the temperature of the
milk.
 Indirect measurements an empirical relation is generally established between the
measurement actually made and the results that are desired.
 When the primary purpose of making a measurement is to determine quality of a
product, then quality should be measured directly. However, in case direct measurement
is not possible, then indirect measurement should be made.
 The measurement systems used in engineering application make use of indirect methods
for measurement purpose.
 A measurement system consists of a transducing element which converts the quality to
be measured with an analogous signal. This signal after being processed by some intermediate
means is then fed to the end devices which provide the measurement results.
MODES OF MEASURMENT:
Following are the three modes of measurement
1. Primary measurement
2. Secondary measurement
3. Tertiary measurement.
1. Primary measurements:
 In this case the sought value of a parameter is determined by comparing it directly with
“reference standards”.
 There is no conversion of measurand in terms of length.
Examples:
a. Measurement of time by counting the number of strokes of a clock
b. Matching of two lengths when determining the length of an object with a ruler
c. Matching of two colours when judging the temperature of red hot steel.
2. Secondary measurements:
The indirect measurements involving “one translation” are called secondary
measurements.
Examples:
a. The pressure measurement by manometers.
b. The temperature measurement by mercury-in-glass thermometers.
3. Tertiary measurements:
The indirect measurement involving ‘two conversions’ are called tertiary measurements.

Examples:
a. The measurement of temperature of an object by thermocouple.
[The primary signal (temperature of object) is transmitted to a thermocouple which
generates a voltage which is a voltmeter through a pair of wires. The second conversion is
then voltage into length. The tertiary signal is transmitted to brain of the observer.
Tertiary measurement: Measurement of temperature by a thermocouple

b. The measurement of static pressure by a bourdon tube pressure gauge.
The unit of a measuring system where translation of measured takes place is called the
transducer or translator.
 Majority of measurement system are tertiary systems and they include the whole range
of mechanical, electrical, pneumatic electro-mechanical and electro-pneumatic
instruments.
Measurements may also be divided into following two categories
1. Contact type: In this case the sensor of the measuring device contacts the controlled
medium
2. Non-contact type: Here the sensor does not contact the controlled medium.
 Non contact measurements include optical, radioactive and others.
GENERALISED MEASUREMENT SYSTEM AND ITS FUNCTIONAL ELEMENTS:
The figure shows a measurement system (generalized) with different components is
called elements.
The various elements are:
1. Primary sensing element: It is an element that is sensitive to the measured variable. The
sensing elements sense the condition, state or value of the process variable by extracting a small
part of energy from the measurand and then produce an output which reflects this conditions,
state or value of the measurand.
Generalised measurement system

2. Variable conversion of transducer element: This element converts the signal from one physical
form to another without changing the information content of the signal.
3. Manipulation element: This element operates on the signal according to some mathematical
rule without changing the physical nature of the variable.
4. Data transmission element: This element transmits the signal from one location to another
without changing its information contents.

5. Data presentation element: This element provides a display record or indication of the output
from the manipulation elements.
Stages of the general measurement system:
The general measuring system consists of the following three stages.
1. Stage – 1:
 It senses desired input to exclusion of all others and provides analogous output.
Types and Examples:
Mechanical: Contacting spindle, spring-mass
Electrical: Resistance, capacitance, inductance, thermocouple, semiconductor junction
Optical: Photographic film, holographic plates.
Hydro-pneumatic: Orifice, venture.
2. Stage – 2:
 It modifies transduced signal into form usable by final stage.
 It usually increases amplitude or power depending on requirement
 It may also selectively filter unwanted component or convert signal into pulsed form.
Types and Examples:
Mechanical: Gearing, cranks, slides etc…
Electrical: Amplifying or attenuating systems, bridges, filters, I.C. (Integrated circuit) devices.
Optical: Optical lenses, optical filters, optical fibers.
Hydro-pneumatic: Piping, valving etc…
3. Stage – 3:
 It provides an indication or recording in form that can be evaluated by an unaided
human sense or by a controller.
Types and Examples:
Indicators Displace types: Moving pointer and scale, moving scale and index.
Digital types: Direct alphanumeric readout.
Recorder: Digital printing, inked pen and chart, direct photography.
Processor and computer: Various types of computing systems, either special purpose or general.
Controllers: All types.
ILLUSTRATION OF MEASURING SYSTEM:
1. Bourdon tube pressure gauge:
Figure shows the simple Bourdon tube pressure gauge – an example of a simple
measurement system.
 In this case the Bourdon tube acts as the primary sensing element and a variable
conversion element. It senses the input (pressure) quantity. On account of the pressure,
the closed end of the Bourdon tube is displaced and thus the pressure is converted into a
small displacement.
 The closed end of the Bourdon tube is connected to a gearing arrangement through
mechanical linkage. The gearing arrangement amplifies the small displacement and
consequently the pointer rotates through a large angle. Thus, the mechanical linkage acts
as a data transmission element while the gearing arrangement acts as a data
manipulation element.

 The final data presentation stage consists of a pointer and dial arrangement, which when
calibrated with known pressure inputs, gives an indication of the pressure signal applied
to the Bourdon tube.
Simple pressure Bourdon tube pressure gauge

Figure shows the schematic diagram of this measurement system:
2. Pressure actuated thermometer:

 The liquid – filled bulb acts as the primary sensor and variable conversion element since
a temperature change results in pressure build-up within the bulb, due to the constrained
thermal expansion of filling liquid.
 The pressure tubing is employed to transmit the pressure to the bourdon tube and thus
functions as the data transmission element.
 The Bourdon tube converts the fluid pressure into displacement of its tip and such acts
as the variable conversion element.
 The displacement is manipulated by the linkage and gear (manipulation elements) to
give a large pointer motion.
 The scale and the pointer serve as the data presentation element.
Pressure – actuated thermometer

Figure shows the schematic diagram of this measurement system:

INSTRUMENTS:
Introduction:
The instrument serves as an extension of human faculties and enables the man to
determine the value of unknown quantity or variable which his unaided human faculties cannot
measure. A measuring instrument provides information about the physical value of some
variable being measured.
 The instrument would sense a physical parameter (e.g.., velocity, pressure, temperature
etc.), process and translate it into a format and range which can be interpreted by the
observer.
 The instrument and must also provided the controls by which the operator can obtain
manipulated and respond to the information.
An instrument, in simple cases, consists of a single unit which gives an output reading or
signal according to the unknown variable (measurand) applied to it. Under more complex
measurement situations, a measuring instrument may consist of transducing elements which
convert the measurand to analogous form. The analogous signal is then processed by some
intermediate means and then fed to the end devices for presenting the measurement results for
the purpose of display, record and control.
The instruments made by man not only retain their characteristics for extended periods of
time but are also accurate and sensitive in their response.
Measurements involve the use of instruments as a physical means of determining quantities
and variables.
Classification of Instruments:
The instruments may be classified as follows:
1. Absolute and secondary instruments
2. Analog and digital instruments
3. Mechanical, electrical and electronic instruments
4. Manual and automatic instruments
5. Self-contained and remote indicating instruments
6. Self-operated and power-operated instruments
7. Deflection and null output instruments.
1. Absolute and secondary instruments:
i. Absolute instruments:
These instruments give the magnitude of the quantity under measurement in terms of
physical constants of the instruments.
Example: Tangent galvanometer and Rayleigh’s current balance.
 These instruments are seldom used except in standard institution.
ii. Secondary instruments:
These instruments are so constructed that the quantity being measured can only be
measured by observing the output indicated by the instrument.
These instruments are calibrated by comparison with an absolute instrument or another
secondary instrument which has already been calibrated against an absolute instrument.
Example: Voltmeter, glass thermometer, pressure gauge etc.
 The secondary instruments find wide use in every sphere of measurement.
2. Analog and digital instruments:

I. Analog instruments:
The signals of an analog unit vary in a continuous fashion and can take on infinite number
of values in a given range.
Examples: Fuel gauge, ammeters and voltmeters, wrist watch, speedometer of an automobile
etc.
II. Digital instruments:
Signals varying in discrete steps and taking on a finite number of different values in a given
range are digital signals and the corresponding instruments are of digital type.
Examples: Odometer of an automobile, calibrated balance of a platform scale, timer on a
scoreboard, etc.
 The digital devices have the following advantages:
High accuracy; high speed; elimination of human operational errors.
 Owing to the application of digital computers for data handling, reduction and in
automatic controls, the importance of digital instrumentations is increasing very fast. Thus, it
becomes necessary to have both analog-to-digital (A/D) converters at input to the computers
and digital-to-analog (D/A) converters at the output of the computers.
3. Mechanical, electrical and electronic instruments:
a) Mechanical instruments:
o These instruments are very reliable for static and stable conditions.
o They are unable to respond rapidly to the measurements of dynamic and transient
conditions due to the face that they have moving parts that are rigid, heavy and
bulky and consequently have a large mass. Mass presents inertia problems and
hence these instruments cannot faithfully follow the rapid changes which are
involved in dynamic instruments.
o Most of the mechanical instruments cause noise pollution.
b) Electrical instruments:
 The electrical methods of indicating the output of detectors are more rapid than
that of mechanical methods.
 Unfortunately an electrical system normally depends upon a mechanical meter as
an indicating device. This mechanical movement has some inertia due to which
the frequency response of these instruments is poor.
c) Electronic instruments:
o Most of the scientific and industrial instruments require very fast responses. Such
requirements cannot be met with by mechanical and electrical instruments.
o These instruments use semiconductor devices. In electronic devices, since the
only movement involved is that of electrons, the response time is extremely
small owing to very small inertia of electrons.
o With the use of electronic devices very weak signals can be detected by using
pre-amplifiers and amplifiers.
4. Manual and automatic instruments:
 In case of manual instruments services of an operator are required.
Example: Measurement of temperature by a resistance thermometer incorporating a
Wheatstone bridge in its circuit (an operator is required to indicate the temperature being
measured).
 In an automatic type of instrument, an operator is not required.

Example: Measurement of temperature by mercury-in-glass thermometer.
5. Self - contained and remote indicating instruments:
 A self-contained instrument has all its different elements in one physical assembly.
 In a remote indicating instrument, the primary sensing element may be located at an
adequate long distance from the secondary indicating element. Such types of instruments
are finding wide use in the modern instrumentation technology.
6. Self – operated and power – operated instruments:
 A self-operated instrument does not require any outside power for its operation; the
output energy is supplied wholly or almost wholly by the input signal.
Examples: Mercury – in – glass thermometer, Dial indicator etc.
 The Power operated instruments are those instruments which require some auxiliary
source of power such as electricity, compressed air, hydraulic supply etc. for their
operation. In such cases, the input signal supplies only an insignificant portion of the
output power.
Example: Electro-mechanical measurement system; shown in figure.
7. Deflection and null output instruments:

 In a “deflection type” instrument, the deflection of the instrument provides a basis for
determining the quantity under measurement. The measured quantity produces some physical
effect which deflects or produces a mechanical displacement of the moving system of the
instrument. An opposing effect is built in the instrument which tries to oppose the deflection or
the mechanical displacement of the moving system. The balance is achieved when opposing
effect equals to cause producing the deflection or mechanical movement. The deflection or
mechanical displacement at the point of balance then gives the value of measured quantity
(which depends upon the calibration of the instrument).
Examples: Permanent magnet moving coil (PMMC) ammeter etc.
 These instruments are more suited for measurements under dynamic conditions than null
type of instruments whose intrinsic response in slower.
 In a “null type” of instrument, a zero or null indication leads to determination of the
magnitude of measured quantity. The null condition is dependent upon some other
known conditions.
Example: D.C. potentiometer.
Advantages:
 The “null type” instruments are more accurate than deflection type instruments.
 These instruments can be highly sensitive as compared with deflection type instruments.

Factors Relating to Selection of Instruments:

The following are some important factors/points which are very essential type
instruments, the proper selection of a correct instrument for any application:
1. The accuracy expected from the instrument.
The following most significant and fundamental rule, which is perhaps the most
important rule in measurement, must always is kept in mind:
“Never demand an accuracy of measurement higher than that which is really needed and
never forget that each degree of accuracy, if demanded is likely to have a
disproportionate effect on the complexity and cost of measuring apparatus”.
2. When are the final data required (i.e. at the time of taking the measurement or later one )
3. The cost criterion (i.e., the cost of the measuring process)
4. In what form the data should be displayed (i.e. indicating, recording, integrating etc.)
5. Whether quantity to be measured has constant value or it is a time variant?
 In the measurement of time variant quantities the manner in which the quantity to be
measured changes has a significant effect on the type of measuring instruments to be used.
The physical characteristics of the measuring device must always be taken into account
since these characteristics determine the amount of interaction which take place between the
measurand quantity and the instrument.
Functions of instruments:
Following are the three main functions of instruments:
1. Indicating function
2. Recording function
3. Controlling function
1. Indicating functions:
 The value of the quantity can be read by the movement of the needle on a calibrated
scale provided on the instrument. Readings can be taken to any fraction within the limitation of
the instrument and human eye.
Example: 1. The deflection of a pointer of a ‘speedometer’ indicates the speed of the
automobile at that moment.
2. The use of a ‘pressure gauge’ for indicating pressure.
 These days digital display (i.e., the reading in numerical) is also commonly used. In fact
where highly accurate and exact readings are desired, use of digital readouts is recommended.
2. Recording function:
In several cases the instrument continuously records, with pen and ink, the value of
measured quantity against some other variable or against time. A graph paper is provided whose
speed can be adjusted. A recording instrument can be used to record more than one number of
quantities also, in which case, either the recording of different parameters may be done by
different pens or same pen may record one parameter after other.
Example: A ‘potentiometric type of recorder’ used for monitoring temperature records the
instantaneous values of temperatures on a strip chart recorder.
3. Controlling function:
The controlling function is perhaps one of the most important functions particularly in
the field of industrial control processes. Here, the information is used by the instrument/system
to control the original measured quantity.
Examples: 1. Floats for liquid level control, 2. Thermostats for temperature control.

STATIC AND DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTIC OF MEASUREMENTS:
The performance of an instrument is described by means of quantitative qualities,

termed as characteristics; these characteristics having been broken down into the sub areas of
static characteristics and dynamic characteristics.
 The static characteristics pertain to a system where the quantities to be measured are
constant or very slowly with time. Performance criteria based on dynamic relations (involving
rapidly varying quantities) constitute dynamic characteristics.
The static characteristics, in a real sense, also influence the quality of measurement under
dynamic conditions, but these characteristics (static) show up as non-linear or statistical effects
in otherwise linear differential equations giving the dynamic characteristics. These effects
would make the differential equations analytically unmanageable and so the conventional
approach is to treat the two aspects of the problem separately. Thus, even though these effects
influence the dynamic behavior, the differential equations of dynamic performance generally
neglect the effects of dry friction, backlash, hysteresis, statistical scatter etc.
 The overall performance of an instrument is judged by a semi quantitative
superimposition of the static and dynamic characteristics.
DEFINITAIONS RELATING TO MEASURING INSTRUMENTS:
Some important terms used in connection with measuring instruments are discussed
below:
1. True or actual value: The actual magnitude of a signal input to a measuring system which
can only be approached and never evaluated is termed as true or actual value.
2. Indicated value: It is the magnitude of a variable indicated by a measuring instrument.
3. Correction: The revision applied to the critical value so that the final result obtained
improves the worth of the result is called correction.
4. Overall error: It is the difference of the scale reading and the true value.
5. Range: The region between the limits within which an instrument is designed to operate for
measuring, indicating or recording a physical quantity is called the range of the instrument.
6. Sensitivity: The ratio of output response to a specified change in the input is called
sensitivity.
 The minimum change in the measured variable which produces an effective response of
the instrument is called “Resolution sensitivity”. It is also called “discrimination”.
 The lowest level of measured variable which produces effective response of the
instrument is called “Threshold sensitivity”
7. Scale sensitivity: It is defined as the ratio of a change in scale reading to the corresponding
change in pointer deflection.
8. Scale readability: The scale readability (in analog instruments) indicates the closeness with
which the scale can be read.
9. Repeatability: It is defined as the variation of scale reading; it is random in nature.
 It is a measure of closeness with which a given input can be measured over and over
again.
10. Accuracy: It may be defined as conformity with or closeness to an accepted standard value
(true value).
 Accuracy of an instrument is influenced by factors like static error, dynamic error,
reproducibility, dead zone.

11. Uncertainty: Uncertainty denotes the range of error, i.e., the region in which one guesses
the error to be.
12. Precision: It refers to the degree of agreement within group measurements.
 It is usually expressed in terms of the deviation in measurement.
13. Drift: An undesired gradual departure of the instrument output over a period of time that is
unrelated to changes in input operating conditions or lead is called drift.
14. Linearity or non-linearity: Deviation of transducer output curve from a specified straight
line. The “non-linearity” may be : (i) Terminal linearity (deviation from a straight line through
the end points); (ii) Best-fit linearity (deviation from the straight line which gives minimum
errors both plus and minus).
15. Dead zone: It is the range within which variable can vary without being detected.
16. Dead time: It is the time before the instrument begins to respond after the measured
quantity has been changed.
17. Speed of response: The quickness of an instrument to read the measured variable is called
speed of response.
18. Reproducibility: The degree of closeness with which the same value of a variable may be
measured at different times is called reproducibility.
19. Tolerance: It is the range of inaccuracy which can be tolerated in measurements.
20. Backlash: It is defined as the maximum distance or angle through which any part of a
mechanical system may be moved in one direction without applying appreciable force or
motion to the next part in a mechanical system.
21. Static friction: It is the force or torque that is necessary just to initiate motion from rest.
22. Noise: It may be defined extraneous disturbance generated in measuring systems which
convey no meaningful information with respect to desired signal.
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS:
Measurements of applications in which parameter of interest is more or less constant; or
varies very slowly with time are called static measurements. A set of criteria (e.g. “accuracy”,
“error”, “reproducibility”, “drift”, “sensitivity”, “dead zone”) that provide meaningful
description of measurements under static conditions are called static characteristics.
The main static characteristics may be summed up as follows:

1. Accuracy 2. Sensitivity
3. Reproducibility 4. Drift
5. Static error 6. Dead zone.
1. Accuracy, Errors and Correction
Accuracy:
It is the degree of correctness with which a measuring means yields the “true value”
with reference to accepted engineering standards.
Accuracy is determined as the maximum amount by which the result differs from the
true value (the average of an infinite number of measured values when the average deviation
due to the various contributing factors tends to zero). It is almost impossible to determine
experimentally the true value. The true value is not indicated by any measurement system due
to the loading effects, lags and mechanical problems (e.g., wear, hysteresis, noise pick-up
etc.).

Accuracy of the measured signal depends, upon the following factors:

 Variation of the signal being measured
 Intrinsic accuracy of the instrument itself
 Accuracy of the observer
 Whether or not the quantity is being truly impressed upon the instrument.
“Accuracy” may be expressed as:

 Point accuracy (or) Percent of scale range (or) Percent of true value
1. Point accuracy: In this case the accuracy of an instrument is stated for one or more points in a
range.

 Here, with a drop in true value, the size or error decreases.

 In this type of expression of accuracy, the percentage error is the maximum for any point
in instrument range.
The percent accuracies on the basis of actual scale or full-scale reading are normally used to
express equipment accuracies and not include procedural or personnel performance which is
actually included by the total error.
Example-2.3. An analog indicating instrument with a scale range of 0 – 5.0 V shows a voltage
of 2.65 V. The true value of a voltage is 2.70 volts.
1. What are the values of absolute error and correction?
2. Express the error as a function of the true value and full scale deflection.

Example-2.4. A pressure indicator showed a reading as 42 bar on a scale range of 0 – 50 bar. If

the true value was 41.4 bar, determine.
1. Static error
2. Static correction
3. Relative static error

 In an instrument system, root-square accuracy is more justifiable because it is not

probable that all the elements of the system will have the greatest static error at the same point
and at the same time.
Static Calibration:
Static calibration is a process by which all the static performance characteristics are
obtained in one form or another. In general, static calibration refers to a situation in which all
inputs, whether desirable, interfering or modifying except one are kept at some constant values.
Then the one input under study is varied over some range of constant values, which causes the
output(s) to vary over some range of constant values. Thus an output-input relationship is
developed which comprise a static calibration valid under the stated constant conditions of all
the other inputs.
The procedure of calibration involves a comparison of the particular instrument with
either:
 A primary standard
 A secondary standard with a higher accuracy than the instrument to be calibrated
 An instrument of known accuracy
All working instruments must be calibrated against some reference instruments which have
a higher accuracy. The reference instruments in turn must be calibrated against instruments of
still higher grade of accuracy or against primary standards or against other standards of known
accuracy.
The following steps are necessary in performing a calibration:
1. Examine the construction of the instrument and identify and list all the possible inputs
2. Decide as best as possible which of the inputs will be significant in the application for
which instrument is to be calibrated.
3. Procure apparatus that will allow varying all the significant input over the ranges
considered necessary. Procure standards to measure each input.
4. By holding some inputs constants, varying others and recording the output(s), develop
the desired static input-output relations.
Range and Span:
Range: The difference between the largest and the smallest reading of the instrument is
called the Range of an instrument. The range is expressed by stating the lower and upper value.
Span: It represents the algebraic difference between the upper and lower range value of
the instrument.
If the highest point of calibration is Smax units while the lowest is Smin units and that the
calibration is continuous between the points, then we say that the instrument range is between
Smin and Smax. The instrument span is given by Smax - Smin. The above definitions apply both to
analog as well as digital instruments.
Error calibration curve:
 It is an error curve which can be used for correcting instrument readings.
 The curve is plotted by calibrating the instrument against a suitable standard at a number
of points on the scale.
Examples: (i) Range: 2 kN/m2 to 50 kN/m2
Span: 50 – 2 = 48 kN/m2
(ii) Range: -5C to 90C
Span: 90 – (- 5) = 95C

Error calibration curve

 While determining the range of the instrument the frequency range must be taken into
consideration.
“Frequency range” is defined as frequencies over which measurements can be performed
with a specified degree of accuracy.
Example:
A pressure gauge is calibrated 5 bar to 60 bar. The accuracy is specified within 0.20
percent of instrument span. What is the maximum static error?
Scale Readiability:
The term scale readability is frequently used in analog type of instruments. It indicates
the closeness with which the scale of an analog type of instrument can be read.
The readability depends upon many factors such as:
1. Number of graduations
2. Spacing of graduations
3. Size of pointer
4. Parallax effects
5. Discriminating power of the observer
The readability thus is logically implied by the number of significant figures; the higher the
number of significant figures, the better the readability of the instrument scale.
Repeatability and Reproducibility:
Although the meaning of the terms repeatability and reproducibility is same but they are
applied in different contexts.
Repeatability: It pertains to the closeness of output readings when the same input is applied
repetitively over a short period of time with the same measurement conditions, same instrument
and observer, same location and same conditions of use maintained throughout.
Reproducibility: It relates to the closeness of output readings for the same input when there are
changes in the method of measurement, observer, measuring instrument, location, conditions of
use and time of measurement.

Drift:
Drift is an undesired gradual departure of the instrument output over a period of time
that is unrelated to changes in input, operating conditions or load.
An instrument is said to have no drift if it reproduces same readings at different times
for same variation in measured variable.
The drift may be caused by the following factors:
 High mechanical stresses developed in some parts of instruments and systems
 Wear and tear
 Mechanical vibrations
 Temperature changes
 Stray electric and magnetic fields
 Thermal e.m.fs.
Examples of drift:
 Drift occurs in “resistance thermometers and thermocouples” due to the contamination
of the metal and a change in its atomic or metallurgical structure.
 Drift may occur in “flow meter” due to wear and erosion of the orifice plate, nozzle or
venturimeter.
Classification of drift:
1. Zero drift:Drift is called zero drift if the whole of instrument calibration gradually shifts over
by the same amount.
 It may be due to permanent set or slippage and can be corrected by shifting pointer
position.
2. Span drift: If the calibration from zero upwards changes proportionally, it is called “span (or
sensitivity) drift”
 It may be due to change in spring gradient etc.
3. Zonal drift: When the drift occurs only over a portion of span of an instrument, it is called
“zonal drift”.
 It industrial instrument, drift is an undesirable quantity since it is rarely apparent and
cannot be easily compensated for.
Drift occurs very slowly and can be checked only by periodic inspection and maintenance.
Accuracy and Precision:
Accuracy: The closeness with which an instrument reading approaches the true value of
the quantity being measured is called accuracy. Accuracy is determined as the maximum
amount by which the result differs from the true value. Accuracy of an instrument is influenced
by factors like static error, dynamic error, reproducibility, dead zone.
Precision: The term ‘Precise’ means clearly or sharply defined. Precision is a measure
of reproducibility of measurements. It is usually expressed in terms of the deviation in
measurement.
 It is worth noting that precision is a necessary prerequisite to accuracy but it does not
guarantee accuracy.
Sensitivity:
The ratio of the magnitude of output signal to the input signal or response of measuring
system to the quantity being measured is called sensitivity.

 The sensitivity of an instrument should be high and thus the range should not be high in
comparison to the value being measured.
 Sensitivity has a wide range of units and these depend upon the instrument or
measurement system being investigated.
The following points are worth noting:
 In case the form of input to and output from the measurement system used with
electrical/electronic equipment is same, the term gain is used instead of sensitivity.
 The increase in displacement with the optical and mechanical instruments is described
by the term amplification.
 When the input or output signal is changing with time, the term transfer function or
transfer operator is used (in place of the terms sensitivity, gain or amplification – which
apparently mean the same and describe a relationship between output and input).
Linearity:
The ability to reproduce the input characteristics symmetrically is called Linearity. It can
be expressed by the straight line equation.
The linearity is simply a measure of maximum deviation of any of the calibration points
from the straight line (drawn by using the method of least square from the given calibration
data). The figure shows the actual calibration curve and a straight line drawn from the origin
using method of least squares.
Any departure from straight line relationship is non-linearity. The non-linearity may be
due to the following factors:
 Viscous flow or creep
 Non-linear elements in the measurement device
 Mechanical hysteresis
 The elastic after-effects in the mechanical system.
Two common types of non-linearity are:
1. Terminal linearity: It is the deviation from a straight line through the end points
2. Best fit linearity: It is the deviation from the straight line which gives minimum
errors, both plus and minus.
Linearity (i.e., output is linearly proportional to input) is considered to be one of the best
characteristics of an instrument or measurement system. This is so, because the conversion from
a scale reading to the corresponding value of input quantity is very convenient. However, it may
be understood that a non-linear behavior does not essentially lead to inaccuracy; an instrument
having non-linear calibration curve may be highly accurate as ever.
Since accuracy and linearity are related closely to each other, it is better to keep the non-
linearity as small as possible so as to result in small errors.
Hysteresis:
The maximum differences in output at any measured value within the specified range
when approaching the point first with increasing and then with decreasing input may be termed
as hysteresis.
 It is a phenomenon which shows different output effects when loading and unloading. It
is non-coincidence of loading and unloading curves.
 Figure (a) shows output and input curves (loading and unloading) for an instrument
which has no friction due to sliding parts. The non-coincidence of loading and
unloading curves is on account of internal friction or hysteresis damping.

 Figure (b) shows the input – output relations of instruments which do not have
internal friction but have external sliding friction.
 The numerical value of hysteresis can be specified in terms of either output or input
and is usually given as percentage of full scale.
 Hysteresis results from the presence of irreversible phenomenon such as:
o Mechanical friction
o Slack motion in bearing
o Magnetic and thermal effects.
Threshold and Resolution:
Threshold:
The minimum value below which no output change can be detected when the input of an
instrument is increased gradually from zero is called the threshold of the instrument. Thus
threshold defines the minimum value of input which is necessary to cause a detectable change
from zero output.
 In a digital system, threshold is the input signal necessary to cause one least significant
digit of the output reading to change.
 Threshold may be caused by backlash or internal noise.
Resolution or Discrimination:
When the input is slowly increased from some arbitrary (non-zero) input value, it is
observed that the output does not change at all until a certain increment is exceeded; this
increment is called Resolution or discrimination of the instrument. Thus resolution defines the
smallest change of input from which there will be a change of output.
 In case of analog instruments, resolution is determined by the observer’s ability to judge
the position of a pointer on a scale. Resolution is usually reckoned to be no better than
0.2 of the smallest division of the scale.
 In case of digital instrument, resolution is determined by the number of neon tubes taken
to show the measured value.
Threshold defines the smallest measurable input while the resolution defines the smallest
measurable input change.
“Threshold” and “resolution” may be expressed as an actual value or as a fraction or
percentage of full scale value.
Dead Zone and Dead Time:
Dead zone:Figure shows; the largest change of input quantity for which there is no output of the
instrument is termed as dead zone. It may occur due to friction in the instrument which does not
allow pointer to move till sufficient driving force is developed to overcome the friction loss.

“Dead zone” is caused by backlash and hysteresis in the instrument.

Dead time: Figure shows, the time required by a measurement system to begin in respond to a
change in the measurand is termed as dead time. It represents the time before the instrument
begins to respond after the measured quantity has been changed.
Loading Effects:
Under ideal conditions an element used for signal sensing, conditioning, transmission
and detection should not change/distort the original signal. The sensing element should not use
any energy or take least energy from the process so as not to change the parameter being
measured. However, under practical condition, it has been observed that the introduction of any
element in a system result invariably in extraction, it has been observed that the introduction of
any element in a system result invariably in extraction of the energy from the system thereby
distorting the original signal. This distortion may take the form of attenuation, waveform
distortion, phase shift etc. Consequently the ideal measurements become impossible.
The incapability of the system to faithfully measure the input signal in undistorted form
is called the loading effect. This results in loading errors.
 The loading effects, in a measurement system, not only occur in detector-transducer
stage but also occur in signal conditioning and signal presentation stages as well. The loading
problem is carried right down to the basic elements themselves.
The loading effects may occur on account of both electrical and mechanical elements;
these are due to impedance of the various elements connect in a system. The mechanical
impedances may be treated similar to electrical impedances.
 Loading effects occur due to extraction of energy from the measurand (as earlier stated).
The transfer of energy requires the specification of two variables. The physical variables which
determine the flow of energy in all dynamical systems can be classified as:
(i) Through variables; (ii) Across variables.
 “Through variables” also called flow variables or prevariables, are those which can be
specified and measured at one point in a space. These are extensive variables in the
sense that their magnitude depends upon the extent of the system taking part in the
energy transfer.
 “Across variables” also called effort variables and transvariables are those which can be
specified by two points in a space; usually one point is a reference point. These are
intensive variables whose magnitude is independent of the medium being considered.

All objects in a measurement system or any dynamical system involve a measurand or

defined relationship between an “across variable” and a “through variable”.
Noise:
Noise is a spurious current or voltage extraneous to the current or voltage of interest in
an electrical or electronic circuit. It does not convey any useful information. It is an unwanted
signal superimposed upon the signal of interest thereby causing a deviation of the output from
its expected value.
The ratio of desired signal to the unwanted signal is called signal to noise ratio. This
ratio should be large in any measurement system.
The noise may be broadly classified as follows:
 Generated noise
 Conducted noise
 Radiated noise
Generated noise:
 The internally generated noise is on account of components like resistors, capacitors,
transistors, etc.
 The temperature dependent noise in a resistor (which increases with internal heating (I2R
loss) or with an increase in the ambient temperature is called “Johnson noise”.
 The wideband noise, produced within a resistor, due to vibrations produced by the
thermal effects, covering a wide frequency range is called “White noise”.
The internally generated noise in resistor can be reduced by:
(a) Lowering the internal temperature
(b) Using special film and glass substrates
The internally generated noise in semiconductor and vacuum tube devices on account of
random movement of charges is called “Shot noise”. It is difficult to reduce this type of noise;
however, it can be reduced to some extent by the use of selective filtering.
 The internally generated noise may also be caused by the changing electric fields in the
region between plates of a capacitor and changing magnetic fields around in an inductor. In this
case noise signal has a fixed frequency (since fields change in orderly manner) and as such its
magnitude can be reduced by using a filter turned to this frequency.
Conducted noise:
 This type of noise may be caused by the power supply (to the amplifier) which may have
ripples or random deviations.
 50 Hz power supply and the harmonics contained in it are one of the common sources
for conducted noise.
 It can be reduced by using filters in the leads to trap out the noise.

Radiated noise:
Radiated noise consists of unwanted signals (relating to electric or magnetic fields or
disturbances in the environments around the amplifier) which are radiated into the interior of the
amplifier.
 The electromagnetic impulses radiated from ignition wiring of spark plugs are one of the
common sources of radiated noise.
 It can be reduced by proper shielding.
DYNAMIC CHARACTERISITICS:
When an instrument is required to measure a time – varying process variable, one has to
be concerned with “dynamic characteristics”, these characteristics quantify the dynamic relation
between the input and output.
Dynamic Response:
The evaluation of the ability of a system to faithfully transmit and present all the
pertinent information included in the input signal and to exclude all else, is called the response.
The behaviour of the system when inputs vary with time (i.e., inputs are dynamic in
nature) and so does the output, is called dynamic response. Such a response in measurement
systems is found to occur in industrial, aerospace and biological applications.
The dynamic inputs are of two types:
(i) Steady state periodic; (ii) Transient
The “steady state periodic” quantity is one whose magnitude has a definite repeating
time. Whereas the time variation of a “transient” magnitude does not repeat.
 The response of a measurement system subjected to a time varying input can be divided
into the following two parts:
(i) Steady state response (ii) Transient response.
“Steady state response” is simply the response when time reaches infinity
“Transient response” in measurement systems, is defined as the part of response which goes to
zero as time becomes large.
 Periodically varying inputs may be:
1. A purely sinusoidal input like the A.C. voltage with a frequency of 50 Hz
(Or)
2. A complex time varying repetitive input which a combination of the fundamental is
and harmonics
When the systems are subjected to periodically varying inputs, they exhibit in their response a
magnitude and phase relationship which is different from that of the input signal because of the
energy storage elements. The output is not a faithful representation of the input. The harmonic
contents of the input are not reproduced in the output both in magnitude and phase relationship
as in the input. The output is distorted both in terms of magnitude as well as phase relationships.
Dynamic Characteristics of a Measurement System:
The dynamic characteristics of a measurement system are:
 Speed of response – Desirable
 Measuring lag – Undesirable
 Fidelity – Desirable
 Dynamic error – Undesirable
The “speed of response” or “responsiveness” is defined as the rapidity with
1. Speed of response:
which a measurement system responds to changes in the measured quantity.

It refers to retardation or delays in the response of a measurement system no

2. Measuring lag:
changes in measured quantity.
The lag is caused by conditions such as capacitance, inertia or resistance.
The measuring lags are of the following two types:
 Retardation type lag: In this type of measuring lag the response of the measurement
system begins immediately after a change in measured quantity has occurred.
 Time delay type lag: In this case the response of the measurement system begins after a
dead time after the application of the input. If the measured quantity varies at a fast rate,
the dead time has a severe adverse effect on the performance of the system. The
measurement lags of this type are very small and are of the order of a fraction of a
second and hence can be ignored.
3. Fidelity:It is defined as the degree to which a measurement system indicates changes in the
measured quantity without any dynamic error. It refers to the ability of the system to reproduce
the output in the same form as the input.
4. Dynamic error:The dynamic error, also called “measurement error”, is the difference between
the true value of the quantity changing with time and the value indicated by the measurement
system if no static error is assumed.
 The maximum amount by which the pointer moves beyond the steady state is called
overshoot.
ERRORS IN MEASUREMENTS:
INTRODUCTION:
Errors and uncertainties are inherent in the process of making any measurement and in
the instrument will which the measurements are made. The study of error is important as a step
in finding ways of reducing them and also as means of estimating the reliability of final results.
The accuracy and precision of a measuring instrument depends upon its design proper
selection of material for each and every part and skill of manufacturing.
LIMITING (OR GUARANTEE) ERRORS:


TYPES OF ERRORS:
In measurement systems, the errors could originate from several sources. Broadly these
may be classified as follow:
1. Gross errors
2. Systematic error
 Instrumental errors
 Environment errors
 Observational errors
3. Random errors
1. Gross Errors:
These errors occur due to human mistakes in reading instruments and recording and
calculating results of measurement. Although it is probably impossible to eliminate the gross
errors completely, yet one should try to anticipate and correct them.
The mathematical analysis of gross errors is impossible since these may occur in
different amounts. While some gross errors may be easily detected, others may go unnoticed.
These errors can be avoided by adopting two means:
 Immense care should be taken while taking the reading and recording the data.
 Two, three or even more readings should be taken for the quantity being measured.
Designers of instruments to some extent can take care to avoid gross errors but much would
depend upon the interest and competence of observer.
2. Systematic Errors:
The systematic errors are repeated consistently with the repetition of the experiment and
are caused by such effect as:
 Sensitivity shift
 Zero off-set
 Known non-linearity
These errors cannot be determined by direct and repetitive observations of the
measurand made each time with same technique.
These errors can be located only by having repeated measurements under different
conditions or with different equipment and where possible by an entirely different method.
These errors may be instrumental, environment or observational errors.
Instrumental errors:
These errors arise due to:
 Inherent shortcomings in the instruments
 Misuse of the instruments
 Loading effects of instruments

Instrument errors are inherent in instruments due to construction, calibration or

operation of the instruments. These errors may cause the instrument to read too low or too high.
Some “examples” of such errors are:
 Mechanical friction and wear, backlash, yielding of supports, pen or pointer drag and
hysteresis of elastic members due to aging.
 Constructional faults resulting from finite width of knife edges, excessive friction at the
mating parts, lost motion due to necessary clearance in gear teeth etc.
 Improper selection and poor maintenance of the instrument
 Unavoidable physical phenomenon due to friction, capillary attraction and imperfect
rarefaction.
Assembly errors: These errors may be due to the following
 Displace scale (i.e.,) incorrect fitting of the scale zero with respect to the actual zero
position of the movement.
 Non-uniform division of the scale
 Bent or distorted pointer
The assembly errors do not change with time, so these can be easily discovered and
rectified.
Misuse of instruments: A good instrument used in an unintelligent way may give erroneous
results.
 Loading effects: In several measurement techniques, the detector/sensor utilizes the
energy of the medium, thus altering slightly the parameter to be measured, resulting in
errors.
Environment errors:
The environmental errors are due to conditions external to the measuring device (e.g.
effect of pressure, temperature, humidity, dust, vibrations, and external magnetic or electrostatic
fields). These errors are much more troublesome than assembly errors.
These errors can be eliminated or reduced by taking the following measures:
 Using the instrument in controlled conditions of pressure, temperature, humidity in
which it was originally assembled and calibrated.
 Measure deviations in the local conditions from the calibrated ones and then apply a
suitable correction to the instrument readings.
 Automatic compensation for departures from the calibrated conditions by using
sophisticated devices.
 Make a complete new calibration under the local conditions
 In case it is suspected that external magnetic or electrostatic fields can affect the
readings of the instruments, magnetic or electrostatic shields maybe provided.
 Apply computed corrections. Normally, efforts are made to avoid the use of application
of computed corrections, but where these corrections are needed and are necessary, they
are incorporated for the computation of the results.
Observational errors:
These errors occur due to carelessness of operators. Even when an instrument has been
properly selected, carefully installed and faithfully calibrated, shortcoming in the measurement
occurs due to certain failings on the part of the observer.
The observational errors may be due to the following reasons:
 Parallax – Since the parallax errors arise on account of pointer and the scale not being in
the same plane, we can eliminate this error by having the pointer and the scale in the
same plane.
 Wrong scale reading and wrong recording of data

 Inaccurate estimates of average reading, lack of ability to interpolate properly between
graduations.
 Incorrect conversion of units in between consecutive readings and non-simultaneous
observation of interdependent quantities.
 Tendency to read high or low, anticipate a signal and read too soon – Personal bias.
Modern electrical instruments have digital display of output which completely eliminates the
errors on account of human observational or sensing power as the output is in the form of digits.
Random Errors:
 The random errors are accidental, small and independent
 They vary in an unpredictable manner
 The magnitude and direction of these errors cannot be predicted from a knowledge of
measurement system; however these errors are assumed to follow the law of
probabilities.
The most common causes of these errors are:
 Friction in instrument movement
 Backlash in the movement
 Parallax error between pointer and scale
 Finite dimensions of the pointer and scale divisions
 Hysteres in elastic members
 Mechanical vibrations
SOURCES OF ERRORS:
Besides the errors so far enumerated (of the physical and mechanical nature) and the
errors which necessarily result from the faulty calibration of a measuring system, the errors
arise from the following sources also:
1. Noise: It is defined as any signal that does not convey useful information.
- Noise signals/errors can be reduced to a minimum level through filtering, careful
selection of components, shielding and isolation of the entire measuring system.
2. Response time: It is defined as the time taken by the instrument to show 63.2% change
in a reading to a step input. This factor contributes to the uncertainty of the
measurement.
3. Design limitations: In the design of the instrument, certain inevitable factors such as
friction and resolving power lead to uncertainty of measurements.
4. Energy exchanged by interaction: As earlier pointed out, whenever the energy required
for operating the measuring system is extracted from the measurand, the value of the
latter is altered to a greater or leaser extent. This alteration is dependent upon the
capacity of the system.
5. Transmission: During the transmission of information from the primary sensing element
to the indicator, the signal may be attenuated due to any of the following reasons:
 It may suffer loss through leakage
 It may be absorbed or otherwise consumed in the communication channel
 It may be distorted by resonance, attenuation or delay phenomenon whose
actions are selective on various signal components.
6. Deterioration of measuring system: The examples of some types of deterioration which
occur in a measuring system and result in as a source of error in measurement are:
 Change in resistance of a circuit element through strain relief
 Alteration of thermocouple characteristics through oxidizing or reducing atmosphere

 Weakening of a permanent magnet.

7. Ambient influences on measuring systems.
8. Errors of observation and interpretation.

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Instrumentation and Measurement Mizan-Tepi University

RESPONSE OF MEASURING SYSTEM:

Prepared by: Belachew G. Page 1

Fundamental measuring process

The basic requirements for getting, meaningful result of measurement are:

Prepared by: Belachew G. Page 2

ii. Process instrumentation

Prepared by: Belachew G. Page 3

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Salient features of S.I. Units:

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Tertiary measurement: Measurement of temperature by a thermocouple

Generalised measurement system

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Simple pressure Bourdon tube pressure gauge

2. Pressure actuated thermometer:

Pressure – actuated thermometer

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 In an automatic type of instrument, an operator is not required.

7. Deflection and null output instruments:

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Factors Relating to Selection of Instruments:

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STATIC AND DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTIC OF MEASUREMENTS:

The performance of an instrument is described by means of quantitative qualities,

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The main static characteristics may be summed up as follows:

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Accuracy of the measured signal depends, upon the following factors:

“Accuracy” may be expressed as:

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 Here, with a drop in true value, the size or error decreases.

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Example-2.4. A pressure indicator showed a reading as 42 bar on a scale range of 0 – 50 bar. If

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 In an instrument system, root-square accuracy is more justifiable because it is not

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Error calibration curve

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“Dead zone” is caused by backlash and hysteresis in the instrument.

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All objects in a measurement system or any dynamical system involve a measurand or

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It refers to retardation or delays in the response of a measurement system no

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Instrument errors are inherent in instruments due to construction, calibration or