INSTRUMENTATION AND CONTROL(BEE311)

BSc. ELECTRICAL/ELECTRONICS ENG.

LEVEL 300 SEMESTER I

BY

MICAH YIADOM-MENSAH
COURSE OUTLINE
• Basic definitions and needs for instrumentation
• The measuring system, -Loading effect
• Transducers-elements, sensitivity and characteristics,
electrical, resistiance, capacitance, inductive, piezoelectric,
electromagnetic, thermoelectric and mechanical transducers,
lvdt
• Photocells and sensing elements
• Signal conditioning
• Recording and display equipment.
• Introduction to control
• block diagram representation.
• signal flow graphs.
LECTURE ONE: Introduction to instrumentation and control
• In the physical sciences, quality assurance, and engineering,
measurement is the activity of obtaining and comparing physical
quantities of real-world objects and events. Established standard
objects and events are used as units, and the measurement results
in a given number for the relationship between the item under
study and the referenced unit of measurement. Measuring
instruments, and formal test methods which define their use, are
the means by which this translation is made. All measuring
instruments are subject to varying degrees of instrument error and
measurement uncertainty.
• Physicists use a vast range of instruments to perform their
measurements. These range from simple objects such as rulers and
stopwatches to electron microscopes and particle accelerators.
Virtual instrumentation is widely used in the development of
modern measuring instruments.
• Instrumentation controls are apparatuses that measure just about
any physical variable such as the pressure, flow, temperature, level,
density, viscosity, radiation, current, voltage, inductance, frequency,
and chemical properties of a substance or a product.

Functions of Instruments and Measurement Systems

The measurement systems and the instruments may be classified
based upon the functions they perform. There are four main functions
performed by them: indicating, signal processing, recording and
control.
• Indicating Function: This function includes supplying information
concerning the variable quantity under measurement. Several
types of methods could be employed in the instruments and
systems for this purpose. Most of the time, this information is
obtained as the deflection of a pointer of a measuring instrument.
• Recording Function: In many cases the instrument makes a written
record, usually on paper, of the value of the quantity under
measurement against time or against some other variable. This is a
recording function performed by the instrument.

• Signal Processing: This function is performed to process and

modify the measured signal to facilitate recording / control.

• Controlling Function: This is one of the most important functions,

especially in the food processing industries where the processing
operations are required to be precisely controlled. In this case, the
information is used by the instrument or the systems to control the
original measured variable or quantity.
Classification of Types of Measurement Applications

Measurement application from any industry can be classified into

three major categories:
• Monitoring of processes and operations.
• Control of processes and operations.
• Experimental engineering analysis.

• Monitoring a Process and Operation

There are several applications of measuring instruments that mainly
have a function of monitoring a process parameter. They simply
indicate the value or condition of parameter under study and these
readings do not provide any control operation. For example, a
speedometer in a car indicates the speed of the car at a given
moment, an ammeter or a voltmeter indicates the value of current or
voltage being monitored at a particular instant.
Similarly, water and electric energy meters installed in homes and
industries provide the information on the commodity used so that its
cost could be computed and realized from the user.
• control of Processes and Operations: Another application of
instruments is in automatic control systems. Measurement of a
variable and its control are closely associated.
To control a process variable, e.g., temperature, pressure or humidity
etc., the prerequisite is that it is accurately measured at any given
instant and at the desired location. Same is true for all other process
parameters such as position, level, velocity and flow, etc. and the
servo-systems for these parameters.
Fig. 1. shows a generic way of representing an automatic feedback
control system. This type of application is very important in most
mechanical, aerospace, electrical, chemical and industrial
engineering. The feedback control system measurement is pertinent
in two basic ways:
• The use of sensors in feedback control systems
• Measurement systems using feedback control in their operations
Figure 1. Feedback-control system
This basic design concept means that every feedback control system
will have at least one measuring device as a vital component.

• Let us assume that the output variable to be controlled is non-

electrical quantity and the control action is through electrical
means. Since the output variable is a non-electrical quantity, it is
converted into a corresponding electrical form by a transducer
connected in the feedback loop. The input to the controller is
reference which corresponds to the desired value of the process
parameter. The output process variable is compared with the
reference or desired value with the help of a comparator. In case
the desired value and the process variable differ, there is a
resultant error signal. This error signal is amplified and then fed to
an actuator, which produces power to drive the controlled circuitry.
The corrective action goes on till the output is at the same level as
the input which corresponds to the desired output. At this stage,
there is no error signal and hence there is no input to the actuator
and the control action stops.
Common examples of this application are the domestic appliances,
such as, refrigerator, air conditioner, etc.
All of these employ a thermostatic control. A temperature measuring
device (often a bimetallic element) measures the temperature in the
room, refrigerated chamber, and provides the information necessary
for appropriate functioning of the control system in these appliances.

• Experimental Engineering Analysis is carried out to find out

solution of the engineering problems. These problems may be
theoretical designs or practical analysis. The exact experimental
method for engineering analysis will depend upon the nature of
the problem.
THE MEASURING SYSTEM
Generalized Configurations and Functional Descriptions of
Measuring Instruments
Functional Elements of an instrument
• The operation and the performance of measuring instruments and
associated equipments can be describe in a generalized way
without recourse to specific physical hardware. The operation can
be described in terms of the functional elements of instrument
system, and the performance is defined in terms of the static and
dynamic performance characteristic.
• Consider Figure 2. Which represents a possible arrangement of
functional elements in an instrument and includes all the basic
functions considered necessary for a description of any
instrument.
Fig 2: Functional elements of an instrument or a
measurement system.
• The main functional elements of a measurement system are:
i) Primary sensing element
ii) Variable conversion element
iii) Variable manipulation element
iv) Signal conditioning element
v) Data transmission element
vi) Data presentation element.
• Primary sensing element: The quantity or the variable which is
being measured makes its first contact with the primary sensing
element of a measurement system. The measurement is thus first
detected by primary sensor or detector. The measurement is then
immediately converted into an analogous electrical signal. This is
done by a transducer.
• Variable conversion element : The output signal of the primary
sensing element may be any kind. It could be a mechanical or
electrical signal. Sometimes, the output from the sensor is not
suited to the measurement system. For the instrument to perform
the desired function, it may be necessary to convert this output
signal from the sensor to some other suitable form while preserving
the information content of the original signal.
• Variable manipulation element: Variable manipulation means a
change in numerical value of the signal. The function of a
variable manipulation element is to manipulate the signal
presented to this element while preserving the original nature of
the signal. For example, a voltage amplifier acts as a variable
manipulation element. The amplifier accepts a small voltage
signal as input and produces an output signal which is also
voltage but of greater magnitude. The variable manipulation
element could be either placed after the variable conversion
element or it may precede the variable conversion element.

• Signal conditioning element: The output signal of transducers

contains information which is further processed by the system.
Many transducers develop usually a voltage or some other kind
of electrical signal and quite often the signal developed is of very
low voltages, may be of the order of mV
This signal could be contaminated by unwanted signals like noise.
Another problem is that the signal could also be distorted by
processing equipment itself. If the signal after being sensed contains
unwanted contamination or distortion, there is a need to remove the
interfering noise before its transmission to next stage. Otherwise we
may get highly distorted results which are far from its true value.

The solution to these problems is to prevent or remove the signal

contamination or distortion. The operations performed on the signal,
to remove the signal contamination or distortion, is called Signal
Conditioning. The term signal conditioning includes many other
functions in addition to variable conversion and variable manipulation.
Many signal conditioning processes may be linear, such as,
amplification, attenuation, integration, differentiation, addition and
subtraction. Some may be non-linear processes, such as, modulation,
filtering, clipping, etc. The signal conditioning processes are
performed on the signal to bring it to the desired form for further
transmission to next stage in the system. The element that performs
this function in any instrument or instrumentation system is known as
Signal Conditioning Element.
• Data transmission element: There are several situations where the
elements of an instrument are actually physically separated. In such
situations it becomes necessary to transmit data from one element
to another. The element that performs this function is called a Data
Transmission Element. The signal conditioning and transmission
stage is commonly known as Intermediate Stage.

• Data presentation element: The function of data presentation

element is to convey the information about the quantity under
measurement to the personnel handling the instrument or the
system for monitoring, control, or analysis purposes.
The information conveyed must be in a convenient form. In case data
is to be monitored, visual display devices are needed. These devices
may be analogue or digital indicating instruments like ammeters,
voltmeters, etc
In case the data is to be recorded, recorders like magnetic tapes,
high speed camera and T.V. equipment; storage type C.R.T., printers,
analogue and digital computers may be used. For control and
analysis purpose computers and the control elements are used.
The final stage in a measurement system is known as terminating
stage.

One must understand the difference between functional elements

and the physical elements of measuring system. Functional element
indicates only the function to be performed. Physical elements are
the actual components or parts of the system. One physical element
can perform more than one function. Similarly one function could be
performed by more than one physical element. This is more suitably
illustrated in the example of a measuring instrument described
below.
EXAMPLE OF A MEASUREMENT SYSTEM
Functional Elements of a Bourdon Pressure Gauge

Fig 3: Bourdon tube pressure gauge as on example of a measurement

system
As an example of a measurement system, consider the simple
Bourdon tube pressure gauge as shown in Fig. 3. This gauge
offers a good example of a measurement system.
In this case, the Bourdon tube acts as the primary sensing
element and a variable conversion element. It senses the input
quantity (pressure in this case). On account of the pressure the
closed end of the Bourdon tube is displaced. Thus, the pressure
is converted into a small displacement. The closed end of the
Bourdon tube is connected through mechanical linkage to a
sector-pinion gearing arrangement. The gearing arrangement
amplifies the small displacement and makes the pointer to
rotate through a large angle. The mechanical linkage thus acts as
a data transmission element while the gearing arrangement acts
as a data manipulation element. The dial scale on the gauge
body plays the function of data presentation element and
conveys the information about the quantity being measured.
The information conveyed by this device is in analogue form.
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASURING INSTRUMENTS
The performance characteristics of instruments and measurement
systems can be divided into two distinct categories, viz; the Static
characteristics, and the Dynamic characteristics. Some applications
involve the measurement of quantities that are either constant or
vary very slowly with time. Under these circumstances, it is
possible to define a set of criteria that gives a meaningful
description of quality of measurement without interfering with
dynamic descriptions that involve the use of differential equations.
The characteristics in this set of criteria are called Static
Characteristics. Thus the static characteristics of a measurement
system are those which must be considered when the system or
instrument is used under a condition not varying with time.
However, many measurements are concerned with rapidly varying
quantities. In such cases we must examine the dynamic relations
which exist between the output and the input. This is normally
done with the help of differential equations or other methods.
Performance criteria based upon dynamic relations constitute the
Dynamic Characteristics.
LOADING EFFECT
An ideal measuring instrument should not change or distort the
original signal. The sensing element should not draw the process
or current from the circuit, thereby resulting in the true
measurement of parameters being measured. Unfortunately, in
the real world, all instruments draw current and invariably draw
energy from the system. This is referred to as the loading effect.
This causes parameters being measured to change in value.

The loading effects may occur due to both electrical and

mechanical elements. The loading effects of an Instrument are
the alternations that are caused in the circuit conditions such as
voltage, current etc. when the instrument is introduced in the
circuit for the purpose of measurement. In simple terms, loading
effects of an instrument ends up distorting the signal they are
supposed to measure in the form of attenuation or phase shift.
The instrument therefore reads the altered value of the quantity
and thus an erroneous measurement is resulted. These loading
effects can be better explained by the following examples.
Let’s say a voltage has to be measured across a resistance R in
a circuit. For this purpose, a voltmeter V is connected across
the resistor R in parallel. We know that a voltmeter has a very
high resistance value. But since this value is finite, a fraction
of the total current passing through R will pass through the
Voltmeter V. This will lead to power dissipation in the
Voltmeter. The voltmeter extracts this power out of the circuit
and thus end up varying the values of the circuit parameters
on being introduced.
Another example of loading effects is found in the
measurement of current by an Ammeter. An ammeter is a
very low resistance device that is connected in series in a
circuit for the measurement of current. When current passes
through it, because of the low finite resistance of the
ammeter, there is a small voltage drop across the ammeter
which results in power dissipation. This power is again
borrowed from the circuit and therefore affects the circuit
parameters.
So to minimize this loading effect, the best you can do is to
use a measuring instrument that has very high impedance
so that the current it draws is minimal.
But practically an infinite or zero impedance in an
instrument is not possible. So a condition of minimum
loading effects is tried to be reached by making the values
of the impedances of instruments very high or very low
according to their use. That is why Voltmeters always have
very high while Ammeters always have very low impedance
values.

SEE TUTORIALS FOR ILLUSTRATION OF IMPEDANCE

LOADING AND IMPEDANCE MATCHING
DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS OF MEASURING
INSTRUMENTS
Dynamic Response
When an input is applied to an instrument or a measurement
system, the instrument or the system cannot take up immediately
its final steady state position. It goes through a transient state
before it finally settles to its final steady state position. Some of
the measurements are made under such conditions as to allow the
sufficient time for the instrument or the measurement system to
settle to its final steady state conditions. Under such conditions the
study of behaviour of the system under transient state, known as
transient response is not of much of importance. However, in many
areas of measurement systems applications it becomes necessary
to study the response of the system under both transient as well as
steady state conditions.
In many applications, the transient response of the system, i.e., the
way system settles down to its final steady state conditions is more
important than the steady state response.
The transient response in the instruments is on account of the
presence of energy storage elements in the system, such as, electrical
inductance and capacitance, mass, fluid and thermal capacitances etc.
The systems exhibit a characteristic of sluggishness on account of
presence of these elements. However many a times in several
applications the measurement systems are subjected to inputs which
are not static but dynamic in nature, which means the inputs vary with
time. Since the input varies from instant to instant, so does the output.
The behavior of the system under such conditions is described by the
dynamic response of the system and the characteristics of the
measuring system under such conditions are known as dynamic
characteristics.
Dynamic characteristics of a measuring instrument refer to the case
where the measured variable changes rapidly. As has been
discussed earlier the sensors in control system cannot react to a
sudden change in measured variable immediately. A certain
amount of time is required before the measuring instrument in
control system technology can indicate any output based on the
input received by the measuring instrument.
The amount of time depends on resistance, capacitance, mass and
dead time of the measuring instrument. Step response, ramp
response, frequency response of the measuring instrument
determines the dynamic characteristics of the measuring
instrument in control system technology.
The dynamic characteristics of any measurement system are:
(i) Speed of response and Response time
(ii) Lag
(iii) Fidelity
(iv) Dynamic error
Out of the above four characteristics the Speed of Response and
the Fidelity are desirable in a dynamic system, while Lag and
Dynamic error are undesirable.
Speed of Response and Response Time
Speed of Response is defined as the rapidity with which an
instrument or measurement system responds to changes in
measured quantity.
Response Time is the time required by instrument or system
to settle to its final steady position after the application of
the input. For a step input function, the response time may
be defined as the time taken by the instrument to settle to a
specified percentage of the quantity being measured, after
the application of the input. This percentage may be 90 to
99 percent depending upon the instrument. For portable
instruments it is the time taken by the pointer to come to
rest within 0.3 percent of final scale length and for switch
board (panel) type of instruments it is the time taken by the
pointer to come to rest within 1 percent of its final scale
length.
Measuring Lag
As discussed earlier, an instrument does not react to a change
in input immediately. The delay in the response of an
instrument to a change in the measured quantity is known as
measuring lag. Thus it is the retardation delay in the response
of a measurement system to changes in the measured
quantity. This lag is usually quite small, but this small lag
becomes highly important when high speed measurements
are required. In the high speed measurement systems, as in
dynamic measurements, it becomes essential that the time lag
be reduced to minimum.
Measuring lag is of two types
i) Retardation type: In this type of measuring lag the response
begins immediately after a change in measured quantity has
occurred.
ii) Time delay: In this type of measuring lag the response of
the measurement system begins after a dead zone after the
application of the input.
Fidelity
Fidelity of a system is defined as the ability of the system to
reproduce the output in the same form as the input. It is the
degree to which a measurement system indicates changes in
the measured quantity without any dynamic error. Supposing
if a linearly varying quantity is applied to a system and if the
output is also a linearly varying quantity the system is said to
have 100 percent fidelity. Ideally a system should have 100
percent fidelity and the output should appear in the same
form as that of input and there is no distortion produced in
the signal by the system. In the definition of fidelity any time
lag or phase difference between output and input is not
included.
Dynamic Error
The dynamic error is the difference between the true value of
the quantity changing with time and the value indicated by the
instrument if no static error is assumed.
However, the total dynamic error of the instrument is the
combination of its fidelity and the time lag or phase difference
between input and output of the system.
Overshoot
Moving parts of instruments have mass and thus possess
inertia. When an input is applied to instruments, the pointer
does not immediately come to rest at its steady state (or final
deflected) position but goes beyond it or in other words
overshoots its steady position.
The overshoot is evaluated as the maximum amount by
which moving system moves beyond the steady state
position. In many instruments, especially galvanometers it is
desirable to have a little overshoot but an excessive
overshoot is undesirable.

1 Overshoot response graph

A typical overshoot response graph can be shown as the
response time stated in terms of rise time, peak percentage
overshoot and settling time. Such an under damped graph in
control system technology of a measuring instrument is
shown in Fig. 7.
Fig. 7: Overshoot response graph
7 Standard Test Signals
The measurement systems may be subjected to any type of
input. Since in majority of the applications the signals are
random in nature and the type of input signals cannot be
known ahead of time, it becomes difficult to express the
actual input signals mathematically by simple equations. To
study the dynamic behaviour of measurement systems,
certain standard signals are employed for which the
mathematical equations have been developed. These
standard signals are:
(i) Step input, (ii) Ramp input, (iii) Parabolic input, and (iv)
Impulse input.
The above signals are used for studying dynamic behaviour in
the time domain and the dynamic behaviour of the system to
any kind of inputs can be predicted by studying its response to
one of the standard signals. The standard input chosen for this
purpose is a step input.
Step Response
When the measured variable of a measuring instrument in
control system technology encounters changes from one
steady state value to a second steady state value it is a step
signal and the response shown by the output of a measuring
instrument is called the step response. For example, when
you change the temperature of the probe of a measuring
instrument by shifting it from ice water to boiling water, a
sudden temperature change could be observed in the output
of the measuring instrument. The step response of such a
measuring instrument is stated in terms of response time and
rise time for over damped or critically damped situation.
Where as for under damped situation the terms used for the
measuring instrument are rise time, peak percentage
overshoot and settling time. Typical step response curve for
an over damped or critically damped measuring instrument is
shown in Fig 8.
Fig 8: Typical step response curve
Response time is the time required for output to reach a designated
percentage of the total change in a measuring instrument. The 95%
response time shown in typical step response graph is the time
required for output to reach 95% of the total change. 63.2% response
time in control system technology of the typical step response graph
shown above is the time constant
TRANSDUCERS
A TRANSDUCER is a device, which transforms energy from one
form to another. The transducer may be mechanical, electrical,
magnetic, optical, chemical, thermal, nuclear, acoustic, or a
combination of two or more.
All forms of transducers have some merits and demerits but most
of the shortcomings have been overcome with the introduction
of electrical transducers. Most instrumentation systems have
Non-Electrical input quantity. This non-electrical quantity is
generally converted into an electrical form by a transducer.
BASIC REQUIREMENTS OF TRANSDUCER
The following are the basic requirements of a good quality
transducer:
a) Ruggedness
b) Linearity
c) No hysteresis
d) Repeatability
e) High output signal quality
f) High reliability and stability
g) Good dynamic response
h) No deformation on removal of input signal
CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS
Transducers can be classified in several ways. This classification
could be on the basis of their application, method of energy
conversion, the nature of signal output and according to
whether they are self generating or the externally powered
units. The transducers can be broadly classified as:
1) Active transducers and Passive transducers,
2) Primary transducers and Secondary transducers,
3) Analog transducers and Digital transducers,
4) Transducers and Inverse transducers.
1. ACTIVE AND PASSIVE TRANSDUCERS

On the basis of methods of energy conversion used the

transducers are classified in to following two categories:
A transducer, which develops its output in the form of electrical
current or voltage without any auxiliary source, is called active
transducer or the self generating transducers.
The energy required for this is absorbed from the physical
phenomenon which is being measured. This type of transducer
draws energy from the system under measurement. Examples
are thermocouples, piezo-electric transducers, photovoltaic cell
etc. Such transducers normally give very small output and so
amplification of the signal becomes essential.
Externally powered transducers are those which derive the
power required for energy conversion from an external power
source. These are called as a passive transducers.
They may also absorb a little power from the process variable
being measured. Resistive, inductive and capacitive transducers,
potentiometric devices, differential transformer etc. are known
as passive transducers.

2. PRIMARY TRANSDUCERS AND SECONDARY TRANSDUCERS

The transducer that directly senses the input signal and converts
the physical property into the electrical signal is called primary
transducer or a sensor. Thermistor is an example of primary
transducer. It senses the temperature directly and causes the
changes in its resistance with respect to temperature.
On the other hand, if the input signal is sensed first by some
detector or sensor and its output, which may be of some other
form than the input signal, is given as input to another
transducer for conversion into electrical form, then such a
transducer is called as secondary transducer.
3. ANALOG TRANSDUCERS AND DIGITAL TRANSDUCERS

The output from the transducer may be a continuous function of

time or it may be in discrete function of time. On this basis the
transducers may be classified into two categories; Analog and
digital transducers.
A transducer, which converts input signal into output signal in a
continuous function of time is known as Analog transducer.
Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT), thermo-couple are
the examples of Analog Transducer.
On the other hand, a transducer, which converts input signal into
output signal in the form of pulses i.e., it gives discrete output is
called a digital transducer. The digital transducers are becoming
very popular and useful because the digital signals can be
transmitted over a long distance, with minimum distortion due to
amplitude variation and phase shift.
4. INVERSE TRANSDUCERS
A transducer is generally defined as a device which converts a
non electrical quantity into an electrical quantity. An inverse
transducer is a device which converts an electrical quantity into a
non-electrical quantity.
A current carrying coil moving in a magnetic field is an inverse
transducer, because current by it is converted into a force, which
causes translational or rotational displacement. A most useful
application of inverse transducers is in feedback measuring
systems.
An actuator is an inverse transducer as it is having an electrical
input and a low-power non-electrical output. A piezo-electric
crystal also acts as an inverse transducer because when a voltage
is applied across its surfaces, it changes its dimensions causing a
mechanical displacement.
CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSDUCERS
Performance criteria of the transducers are based upon certain
set of characteristics that gives a meaningful description of
quality of measurement. Normally these characteristics of a
measurement system are those that must be considered when
the system or instrument is used. All these characteristics have to
be taken into account, when choosing a transducer for any
application.
The characteristics of transducers are described as:
a) Input characteristics,
b) Transfer characteristics,
c) Output characteristics.
a. INPUT CHARACTERISTICS
i). Type and Operating Range of Input Quantity: The first
consideration for the selection of a transducer is the input
quantity which is to be measured and its range of operation. The
type of input quantities is generally known in advance. The useful
operating range of transducer is an important factor in the choice
of a transducer for a particular application. The maximum value
or the maximum limit is decided by the transducer capabilities,
whereas, the minimum value of range or the lowest limit is
normally determined by the unavoidable noise which may
originate in the transducer during measurement.
A good resolution is required throughout its operating range of a
transducer.
ii). Loading Effects: In an ideal transducer, there is no loading
effect on the input quantity being measured by the transducer.
However, practically it may not be possible.
The magnitude of the loading effects is expressed in terms of
force, power or energy obtained from the input quantity.
Hence the transducer which is selected for a particular
application should ideally extract no force, power or energy
from the input quantity.

b. TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS
The transfer characteristics involve three separate elements:
i) Transfer function
ii) Sensitivity
iii) Error.
i) Transfer Function: It is defined as relationship between
the input quantity and output and describes the input and
output behaviour of the system.
Fig: Illustration of transfer function
Where, Q0 and Qi are respectively output and output of the
transducer.
ii) Sensitivity: The sensitivity of a transducer is the ratio of
change in output for a given change in input

In general, the sensitivity of transducers is not constant and is

dependent upon the input quantity (Qi). In some cases the
relation between output and input becomes linear.
If the sensitivity is constant over the entire range of the
transducer it shall be defined as :

The inverse of sensitivity is called scaled factor.

iii) Error: Many a times the input-output relationship given by
Q0 = GQi is not followed by transducer. In such cases, error is
obtained in transducers.
Let at a particular input Qi, ideally the output will be Q0 but
practically an output is obtained, then the error of the
instrument is:
c. OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS
The output characteristics of a transducer are considered as
given below :
i) Type of electrical output.
ii) Output impedance.
iii) Useful output range.
i). Type of Electrical Output: The output of transducer may be
a voltage, current, impedance or a time function of these
amplitudes. The above quantities may or may not be acceptable
to the latter stages of the instrumentation system. There is
possibility to change their magnitudes or change in their format
by signal conditioning equipment to make them drive the
different stages of instrumentation system.
ii). Output Impedance: In ideal transducer the value of the
output impedance should be zero, but practically it is not
possible and, therefore, its value should be kept as low as
possible to minimize the loading effects.
The output impedance gives the information of amount of power
than can be transferred to the further stages of the
instrumentation system for a given output signal level. The value
of output impedance is low compared to the forward impedance
of the system, the transducer behaves as a constant voltage
source (provided a voltage is the output of transducer), when
the forward impedance is high as compared to the output
impedance of transducer, it behaves as constant current source.
iii). Useful Output Range: The output range of a transducer is
limited by noise signal at the lower end which may shroud the
required input signal. The output range can be increased by
adding of amplifier in the transducer in some cases.
The addition of amplifier also increases the noise level and
therefore in some applications the amplifier should be avoided.