ã¨ããNBERè«æã上がっているï¼H/T タイラー・コーエンãungated版ï¼ãåé¡ã¯ãThe New Geography of Labor Marketsãã§ãèè
ã¯Mert Akanï¼ã¹ã¿ã³ãã©ã¼ã大ï¼ã Jose Maria Barreroï¼ã¡ãã·ã³èªæ²»å·¥ç§å¤§ï¼ãNicholas Bloomï¼ã¹ã¿ã³ãã©ã¼ã大ï¼ã Tom Bowenï¼Gustoï¼ãShelby Buckmanï¼ã¹ã¿ã³ãã©ã¼ã大ï¼ãSteven J. Davisï¼åï¼ãHyoseul Kimï¼åï¼ã
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The rise of remote and hybrid working arrangements is reshaping the geography of U.S. labor markets. Mean distance from employee home to employer location rose from 19 miles in 2019 to 26 miles in 2023 in our balanced panel of employers. The share of employees living more than fifty miles from their employers rose from 4 to 9 percent over the same period, and to 12 percent among those hired since March 2020. These developments are concentrated among higher earners, employees in their 30s and 40s, and in industry sectors like Finance & Insurance, Information, and Professional & Business Services. Thirty percent of employees in the Information sector reside more than files from their employers as of 2023, and 20 percent do so in Professional & Business Services.
These developments have wide-ranging implications for states, cities, employers, and households. For example, we show that continuing employees tend to migrate to states with lower tax rates and to areas with less expensive housing. These migration patterns greatly intensified in 2020, especially among high earners, and they continued to unfold through 2023. Outmigration pressures are most acute for cities with high housing costs that are situated in high-tax states, especially cities that also have high employment shares in industries with remote-suitable jobs.
Migration responses to the rise in WFH matter for state-level income tax collections. Our evidence suggests that net migration from high-tax to low-tax states since 2020 has reduced aggregate state-level income tax collections by roughly 7 to 8 percent as of 2023. Of course, these fiscal effects are uneven, with high-tax states losing income tax revenues and low-tax states benefiting from an influx of high earners. Because new hires exhibit more locational flexibility than incumbent employees hired before the pandemic, these fiscal effects are likely to mount in the years ahead as workforces turn over.
We also find large average welfare gains for workers who relocated. Employees with annual earnings greater than $250,000 who moved between states in 2020 (while staying with the same employer) lowered their top state-level tax rates by an average of 5.2 percentage points. Employees with annual earnings greater than $150,000 who moved to a new zip code in 2020 saw a 16% reduction in local housing costs, on average. Savings in taxes and housing costs are also sizable for high earners who moved in 2021, 2022 and 2023. Employees in the middle of the earnings distribution also benefited by relocating to areas with lower housing costs. These results help explain why many employees are highly resistant to return-to-office mandates.
Finally, we show that separation and hiring behavior differs between far and near employees. Among growing firms, hiring rates for distant employees are greater and more sensitive to the firmâs expansion rate. Among shrinking firms, separation rates are higher for employees who live more than 50 miles away and more responsive to the firmâs contraction rate. In short, firms treat distant employees as a more flexible margin of adjustment. Employer-level workforces have also become more geographically dispersed since the pandemic struck. For both reasons â greater employee dispersion, and the greater responsiveness of far employees â the labor market footprint of the average firm is more geographically diffused than before the pandemic. This diffusion of firm-level footprints will continue for some years as workforces turn over.
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