The Tissue Level of Organization: Powerpoint® Lecture Slides Prepared by Jason Lapres Lone Star College - North Harris

Chapter

4
The Tissue
Level of
Organization
PowerPoint® Lecture Slides
prepared by Jason LaPres
Lone Star College - North Harris

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.,

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings
Four Types of Tissues
 Tissues are collections of cells and cell

products that perform specific, limited
functions
 Types of tissue
 Epithelial tissue
 Covers exposed surfaces
 Lines internal passageways
 Forms glands

Four Types of Tissues
 Types of Tissue (cont’d)
 Connective tissue
 Fills internal spaces
 Supports other tissues
 Transports materials
 Stores energy
 Muscle tissue
 Specialized for contraction
 Skeletal muscle, heart muscle, and walls of hollow organs
 Neural tissue
 Carries electrical signals from one part of the body to another

Epithelial Tissues
 Epithelia
 Layers of cells covering internal or external
surfaces
 Glands
 Structures that produce secretions

Epithelial Tissues
 Characteristics of Epithelia
 Cellularity (cell junctions)
 Polarity (apical and basal surfaces)
 Attachment (basal lamina)
 Avascularity
 Regeneration

Epithelial Tissues
Figure 4–1 The Polarity of Epithelial Cells.

Epithelial Tissues
 Functions of Epithelial Tissue

 Provide physical protection
 Control permeability
 Provide sensation
 Produce specialized secretions (glandular
epithelium)

Epithelial Tissues
 Specializations of Epithelial Cells
 Move fluids over the epithelium (protection)
 Move fluids through the epithelium (permeability)
 Produce secretions (protection and messengers)
 Free Surface and Attached Surface
 Polarity
 Apical surfaces:
– microvilli increase absorption or secretion
– cilia (ciliated epithelium) move fluid
 Basolateral surfaces

Epithelial Tissues
 Maintaining the Integrity of Epithelia

 Intercellular connections
 Attachment to basal lamina
 Epithelial maintenance and repair

Epithelial Tissues
 Intercellular Connections
 Support and communication
 CAMs (cell adhesion molecules):
– transmembrane proteins
 Intercellular cement:
– proteoglycans
 Hyaluronan (hyaluronic acid):

– glycosaminoglycans

Epithelial Tissues
 Intercellular Connections
 Cell junctions
 Form bonds with other cells or extracellular material:
– occluding (tight) junctions
– gap junctions
– macula adherens (desmosomes)
Intercellular Connections

Epithelial Tissues
 Cell Junctions
 Occluding (Tight) junctions—between two plasma
membranes
 Adhesion belt attaches to terminal web
 Prevents passage of water and solutes
 Isolates wastes in the lumen
 Gap junctions—allow rapid communication

 Held together by channel proteins (junctional proteins,
connexons)
 Allow ions to pass
 Coordinate contractions in heart muscle
Epithelial Tissues
 Cell Junctions
 Macula adherens (Desmosomes)
 CAMs, dense areas, and intercellular
cement
 Spot desmosomes
– tie cells together
– allow bending and twisting
 Hemidesmosomes
– attach cells to the basal lamina
Epithelial Tissues
 Attachment to the Basal Lamina

 Clear layer (Lamina lucida)
 Thin layer
 Secreted by epithelia
 Barrier to proteins
 Dense layer (Lamina densa)
 Thick fibers
 Produced by connective tissue
 Strength and filtration

Epithelial Tissues
Figure 4–2 Intercellular Connections

Epithelial Tissues

Epithelial Tissues

Epithelial Tissues

Epithelial Tissues
 Epithelial Maintenance and Repair

 Epithelia are replaced by division of
germinative cells (stem cells)
 Near basal lamina

Classification of Epithelia
 Singular epithelium; plural epithelia

 Classes of Epithelia
 Based on shape
 Squamous epithelia: thin and flat
 Cuboidal epithelia: square shaped
 Columnar epithelia: tall, slender rectangles
 Based on layers
 Simple epithelium: single layer of cells
 Stratified epithelium: several layers of cells



 Squamous Epithelia
 Simple squamous epithelium
 Absorption and diffusion
 Mesothelium
 Lines body cavities
 Endothelium
 Lines heart and blood vessels

Figure 4–3 Squamous Epithelia.

 Squamous Epithelia
 Stratified squamous epithelium
 Protects against attacks
 Keratin protein adds strength and water resistance

Figure 4–3 Squamous Epithelia.

 Cuboidal Epithelia
 Simple cuboidal epithelium
 Secretion and absorption
 Stratified cuboidal epithelia

 Sweat ducts and mammary ducts

Figure 4–4 Cuboidal Epithelia.


 Transitional Epithelium
 Tolerates repeated cycles of stretching and recoiling
and returns to its previous shape without damage
 Appearance changes as stretching occurs
 Situated in regions of the urinary system (e.g. urinary

bladder)


 Columnar Epithelia
 Simple columnar epithelium
 Absorption and secretion
 Pseudostratified columnar epithelium

 Cilia movement
 Stratified columnar epithelium

 Protection

Figure 4–5 Columnar Epithelia.



 Glandular Epithelia
 Endocrine glands
 Release hormones:
– into interstitial fluid
– no ducts
 Exocrine glands
 Produce secretions:
– onto epithelial surfaces
– through ducts
Mechanisms of Glandular Secretion

 Modes of Secretion in Glandular Epithelia
 Merocrine secretion
 Is produced in Golgi apparatus
 Is released by vesicles (exocytosis)
 For example, sweat glands
 Apocrine secretion
 Is produced in Golgi apparatus
 Is released by shedding cytoplasm
 For example, mammary gland
 Holocrine secretion
 Is released by cells bursting, killing gland cells
 Gland cells replaced by stem cells
 For example, sebaceous gland
Figure 4–6 Modes of Glandular Secretion.




 Types of secretions
 Serous glands:
– watery secretions
 Mucous glands:
– secrete mucins
 Mixed exocrine glands:

– both serous and mucous

 Gland structure
 Unicellular glands
– Mucous (goblet) cells are the only unicellular
exocrine glands:
» scattered among epithelia
» for example, in intestinal lining

 Gland structure
 Multicellular glands:
– structure of the duct:
» simple (undivided)
» compound (divided)
– shape of secretory portion of the gland:
» tubular (tube shaped)
» alveolar or acinar (blind pockets)
– relationship between ducts and glandular areas:
» branched (several secretory areas sharing one
duct)

Figure 4–7 A Structural Classification of Exocrine Glands.

Figure 4–7 A Structural Classification of Exocrine Glands.

Connective Tissues
 Connect epithelium to the rest of the body

(basal lamina)
 Provide structure (bone)
 Store energy (fat)
 Transport materials (blood)
 Have no contact with environment

Connective Tissues
 Characteristics of Connective Tissues

 Specialized cells
 Solid extracellular protein fibers
 Fluid extracellular ground substance
 The extracellular components of connective
tissues (fibers and ground substance) make up
the matrix
 Majority of tissue volume
 Determines specialized function
Connective Tissues
 Classification of Connective Tissues

 Connective tissue proper
 Connect and protect
 Fluid connective tissues

 Transport
 Supportive connective tissues

 Structural strength

Connective Tissues
 Categories of Connective Tissue Proper

 Loose connective tissue
 More ground substance, less fibers
 For example, fat (adipose tissue)
 Dense connective tissue

 More fibers, less ground substance
 For example, tendons

Connective Tissues
Nine Cell Types of Connective Tissue Proper
 Fibroblasts  Melanocytes
 Fibrocytes  Mast cells
 Macrophages  Lymphocytes
 Adipocytes  Microphages
 Mesenchymal cells

Connective Tissues
 Connective Tissue Proper Cells

 Fibroblasts
 The most abundant cell type:
– found in all connective tissue proper
– secrete proteins and hyaluronan (cellular cement)
 Fibrocytes
 The second most abundant cell type:
– found in all connective tissue proper
– maintain the fibers of connective tissue proper

Connective Tissues

 Macrophages
 Large, amoeba-like cells of the immune system:
– eat pathogens and damaged cells
– fixed macrophages stay in tissue
– free macrophages migrate
 Adipocytes
 Fat cells:
– each cell stores a single, large fat droplet
 Mesenchymal Cells
 Stem cells that respond to injury or infection:
– differentiate into fibroblasts, macrophages, etc.

Connective Tissues

 Melanocytes
 Synthesize and store the brown pigment melanin
 Mast Cells
 Stimulate inflammation after injury or infection:
– release histamine and heparin
 Basophils are leukocytes (white blood cells) that

also contain histamine and heparin

Connective Tissues

 Lymphocytes
 Specialized immune cells in lymphoid (lymphatic) system:
– For example, lymphocytes may develop into plasma cells
(plasmocytes) that produce antibodies
 Microphages
 Phagocytic blood cells:
– respond to signals from macrophages and mast cells
– For example, neutrophils and eosinophils

Connective Tissues
 Connective Tissue Fibers

 Collagen fibers
 Most common fibers in connective tissue proper
 Long, straight, and unbranched
 Strong and flexible
 Resist force in one direction
 For example, tendons and ligaments

Connective Tissues

 Reticular fibers
 Network of interwoven fibers (stroma)
 Strong and flexible
 Resist force in many directions
 Stabilize functional cells (parenchyma) and
structures
 For example, sheaths around organs

Connective Tissues

 Elastic fibers
 Contain elastin
 Branched and wavy
 Return to original length after stretching
 For example, elastic ligaments of vertebrae

Connective Tissues
 Ground Substance
 Is clear, colorless, and viscous
 Fills spaces between cells and slows

pathogen movement

Connective Tissues
Figure 4–8 The Cells and Fibers of Connective Tissue Proper.

Connective Tissues
Figure 4–8 The Cells and Fibers of Connective Tissue Proper.

Connective Tissues
 Embryonic Connective Tissues

 Are not found in adults
 Mesenchyme (embryonic stem cells)

 The first connective tissue in embryos
 Mucous connective tissue

 Loose embryonic connective tissue

Connective Tissues
Figure 4–9 Connective Tissues in Embryos.

Connective Tissues
[INSERT FIG. 4.9b]
Figure 4–9 Connective Tissues in Embryos.

Connective Tissues
 Loose Connective Tissues

 The packing materials of the body
 Three types in adults
 Areolar
 Adipose
 Reticular

Connective Tissues
 Areolar Tissue
 Least specialized
 Open framework
 Viscous ground substance
 Elastic fibers
 Holds blood vessels and capillary beds
 For example, under skin (subcutaneous layer)

Connective Tissues
 Adipose Tissue
 Contains many adipocytes (fat cells)
 Types of adipose tissue
 White fat:
– most common
– stores fat
– absorbs shocks
– slows heat loss (insulation)
 Brown fat:
– more vascularized
– adipocytes have many mitochondria
– when stimulated by nervous system, fat break down
accelerates, releasing energy
– absorbs energy from surrounding tissues

Connective Tissues
 Adipose Tissue
 Adipose cells
 Adipocytes in adults do not divide:
– expand to store fat
– shrink as fats are released
 Mesenchymal cells divide and
differentiate:
– to produce more fat cells
– when more storage is needed

Connective Tissues
 Reticular Tissue
 Provides support
 Complex, three-dimensional network
 Supportive fibers (stroma)

 Support functional cells (parenchyma)
 Reticular organs
 Spleen, liver, lymph nodes, and bone marrow

Connective Tissues
Figure 4–10 Adipose and Reticular Tissues.

Connective Tissues
Figure 4–10 Adipose and Reticular Tissues.

Connective Tissues
 Dense Connective Tissues

 Connective tissues proper, tightly packed with
high numbers of collagen or elastic fibers
 Dense regular connective tissue
 Dense irregular connective tissue
 Elastic tissue

Connective Tissues
 Dense Regular Connective Tissue

 Tightly packed, parallel collagen fibers
 Tendons attach muscles to bones
 Ligaments connect bone to bone and stabilize

organs
 Aponeuroses attach in sheets to large, flat
muscles

Connective Tissues
Figure 4–11 Dense Connective Tissues.

Connective Tissues
 Dense Irregular Connective Tissue

 Interwoven networks of collagen fibers
 Layered in skin
 Around cartilages (perichondrium)
 Around bones (periosteum)
 Form capsules around some organs (e.g., liver,

kidneys)

Connective Tissues

Connective Tissues
 Elastic Tissue
 Made of elastic fibers
 For example, elastic ligaments of spinal vertebrae

Connective Tissues

Connective Tissues
 Fluid Connective Tissues

 Blood and lymph
 Watery matrix of dissolved proteins
 Carry specific cell types (formed elements)
 Formed elements of blood

– red blood cells (erythrocytes)
– white blood cells (leukocytes)
– platelets

Connective Tissues
 Fluid Elements of Fluid Connective

Tissues
 Extracellular
 Plasma
 Interstitial fluid
 Lymph

Connective Tissues
Figure 4–12 Formed Elements of the Blood.

Connective Tissues
 Lymph
 Extracellular fluid
 Collected from interstitial space
 Monitored by immune system
 Transported by lymphoid (lymphatic) system
 Returned to venous system

Connective Tissues
 Fluid Tissue Transport Systems

 Cardiovascular system (blood)
 Arteries
 Capillaries
 Veins
 Lymphoid (lymphatic) system (lymph)
 Lymphatic vessels

Supportive Connective Tissues
 Support soft tissues and body weight

 Cartilage
 Gel-type ground substance
 For shock absorption and protection
 Bone
 Calcified (made rigid by calcium salts, minerals)
 For weight support

 Cartilage Matrix
 Proteoglycans derived from chondroitin sulfates
 Ground substance proteins
 Chondrocytes (cartilage cells) surrounded by

lacunae (chambers)

 Cartilage Structure
 No blood vessels:
 Chondrocytes produce antiangiogenesis factor
 Perichondrium:
 Outer, fibrous layer (for strength)
 Inner, cellular layer (for growth and maintenance)

Figure 4–13 The Growth of Cartilage.

Figure 4–13 The Growth of Cartilage.

 Types of Cartilage
 Hyaline cartilage
 Stiff, flexible support
 Reduces friction between bones
 Found in synovial joints, rib tips, sternum, and trachea
 Elastic cartilage
 Supportive but bends easily
 Found in external ear and epiglottis
 Fibrous cartilage (fibrocartilage)
 Limits movement
 Prevents bone-to-bone contact
 Pads knee joints
 Found between pubic bones and intervertebral discs
Figure 4–14 The Types of Cartilage.



 Bone or osseous tissue
 Strong (calcified: calcium salt deposits)
 Resists shattering (flexible collagen fibers)
 Bone cells or osteocytes
 Arranged around central canals within matrix
 Small channels through matrix (canaliculi) access
blood supply
 Periosteum
 Covers bone surfaces
 Fibrous layer
 Cellular layer

Figure 4–15 Bone.


Membranes
 Membranes
 Are physical barriers
 That line or cover portions of the body
 Consist of
 An epithelium
 Supported by connective tissues

Membranes
 Four Types of Membranes

 Mucous membranes
 Serous membranes
 Cutaneous membrane
 Synovial membranes

Membranes
 Mucous membranes (mucosae)

 Line passageways that have external connections
 In digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive
tracts
 Epithelial surfaces must be moist
 To reduce friction
 To facilitate absorption and excretion
 Lamina propria
 Is areolar tissue

Membranes
 Serous Membranes
 Line cavities not open to the outside
 Are thin but strong
 Have fluid transudate to reduce friction
 Have a parietal portion covering the cavity
 Have a visceral portion (serosa) covering the
organs

Membranes
 Three Serous Membranes

 Pleura:
 Lines pleural cavities
 Covers lungs
 Peritoneum:
 Lines peritoneal cavity
 Covers abdominal organs
 Pericardium:
 Lines pericardial cavity
 Covers heart
Membranes
Figure 4–16 Membranes.

Membranes
 Cutaneous membrane
 Is skin, surface of the body
 Thick, waterproof, and dry
 Synovial membranes
 Line moving, articulating joint cavities
 Produce synovial fluid (lubricant)
 Protect the ends of bones
 Lack a true epithelium

Membranes
Figure 4–16 Membranes.

Internal Framework of the Body
 Connective tissues
 Provide strength and stability
 Maintain positions of internal organs
 Provide routes for blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and
nerves
 Fasciae
 Singular form is fascia
 The body’s framework of connective tissue
 Layers and wrappings that support or surround organs

 Three Types of Fasciae

 Superficial fascia
 Deep fascia
 Subserous fascia

Figure 4–17 The Fasciae.

Muscle Tissue
 Specialized for contraction

 Produces all body movement
 Three types of muscle tissue
 Skeletal muscle
 Large body muscles responsible for movement
 Cardiac muscle
 Found only in the heart
 Smooth muscle
 Found in walls of hollow, contracting organs (blood vessels;
urinary bladder; respiratory, digestive, and reproductive
tracts)
Muscle Tissue
 Classification of Muscle Cells
 Striated (muscle cells with a banded appearance)
 Nonstriated (not banded; smooth)
 Muscle cells can have a single nucleus
 Muscle cells can be multinucleate
 Muscle cells can be controlled voluntarily (consciously)
 Muscle cells can be controlled involuntarily
(automatically)

Muscle Tissue
 Skeletal Muscle Cells

 Are long and thin
 Are usually called muscle fibers
 Do not divide
 New fibers are produced by stem cells

(myosatellite cells)

Muscle Tissue
Figure 4–18 Muscle Tissue.

Muscle Tissue
 Cardiac muscle cells

 Are called cardiocytes
 Form branching networks connected at
intercalated discs
 Are regulated by pacemaker cells
 Smooth muscle cells
 Are small and tapered
 Can divide and regenerate
Muscle Tissue

Muscle Tissue

Neural Tissue
 Also called nervous or nerve tissue

 Specialized for conducting electrical impulses
 Rapidly senses internal or external

environment
 Processes information and controls
responses

Neural Tissue
 Neural tissue is concentrated in the

central nervous system
 Brain
 Spinal cord

Neural Tissue
 Two Kinds of Neural Cells

 Neurons
 Nerve cells
 Perform electrical communication
 Neuroglia
 Supporting cells
 Repair and supply nutrients to neurons

Neural Tissue
 Cell Parts of a Neuron

 Cell body
 Contains the nucleus and nucleolus
 Dendrites
 Short branches extending from the cell body
 Receive incoming signals
 Axon (nerve fiber)

 Long, thin extension of the cell body
 Carries outgoing electrical signals to their destination

Neural Tissue
Figure 4–19 Neural Tissue.

Tissue Injuries and Repair
 Tissues respond to injuries to maintain

homeostasis
 Cells restore homeostasis with two processes
 Inflammation
 Regeneration

 Inflammation = inflammatory response

 The tissue’s first response to injury
 Signs and symptoms of the inflammatory
response include
 Swelling
 Redness
 Heat
 Pain

 Inflammatory Response
 Can be triggered by
 Trauma (physical injury)
 Infection (the presence of harmful pathogens)

 The Process of Inflammation

 Damaged cells release chemical signals into the
surrounding interstitial fluid
 Prostaglandins
 Proteins
 Potassium ions
 As cells break down
 Lysosomes release enzymes
 That destroy the injured cell
 And attack surrounding tissues
 Tissue destruction is called necrosis

 Necrotic tissues and cellular debris (pus) accumulate
in the wound
 Abscess:
– pus trapped in an enclosed area
 Injury stimulates mast cells to release

 Histamine
 Heparin
 Prostaglandins


 Dilation of blood vessels
 Increases blood circulation in the area
 Causes warmth and redness
 Brings more nutrients and oxygen to the area
 Removes wastes
 Plasma diffuses into the area
 Causing swelling and pain
 Phagocytic white blood cells
 Clean up the area
Figure 4–20 An Introduction to Inflammation.

 Regeneration
 When the injury or infection is cleaned up
 Healing (regeneration) begins

 The Process of Regeneration

 Fibrocytes move into necrotic area
 Lay down collagen fibers
 To bind the area together (scar tissue)
 New cells migrate into area

 Or are produced by mesenchymal stem cells
 Not all tissues can regenerate

 Epithelia and connective tissues regenerate well
 Cardiac cells and neurons do not regenerate (or regenerate
poorly)

Aging and Tissue
 Aging and Tissue Structure

 Speed and efficiency of tissue repair
decreases with age, due to
 Slower rate of energy consumption (metabolism)
 Hormonal alterations
 Reduced physical activity

Aging and Tissue
 Effects of Aging
 Chemical and structural tissue changes
 Thinning epithelia and connective tissues
 Increased bruising and bone brittleness
 Joint pain and broken bones
 Cardiovascular disease
 Mental deterioration

Aging and Tissue
 Aging and Cancer Incidence

 Cancer rates increase with age
 1 in 4 people in the United States develops cancer
 Cancer is the #2 cause of death in the United

States
 Environmental chemicals and cigarette smoke
cause cancer

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Chapter

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc.,

 Tissues are collections of cells and cell

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Copyright © 2009 Pearson Education, Inc., publishing as Pearson Benjamin Cummings

Figure 4–1 The Polarity of Epithelial Cells.

 Functions of Epithelial Tissue

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 Maintaining the Integrity of Epithelia

 Attachment to basal lamina

 Epithelial maintenance and repair

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 Hyaluronan (hyaluronic acid):

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– macula adherens (desmosomes)

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 Gap junctions—allow rapid communication

 Attachment to the Basal Lamina

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Figure 4–2 Intercellular Connections

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Figure 4–2 Intercellular Connections

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Figure 4–2 Intercellular Connections

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Figure 4–2 Intercellular Connections

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 Epithelial Maintenance and Repair

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 Singular epithelium; plural epithelia

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Figure 4–3 Squamous Epithelia.

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 Keratin protein adds strength and water resistance

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Figure 4–3 Squamous Epithelia.

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 Stratified cuboidal epithelia

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Figure 4–4 Cuboidal Epithelia.

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Figure 4–4 Cuboidal Epithelia.

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 Situated in regions of the urinary system (e.g. urinary

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Figure 4–4 Cuboidal Epithelia.

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 Pseudostratified columnar epithelium

 Stratified columnar epithelium

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Figure 4–5 Columnar Epithelia.

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Figure 4–5 Columnar Epithelia.