See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/307612762

Valorization of Algerian Sand for Photovoltaic Application

Article in Acta Physica Polonica Series a · July 2016

DOI: 10.12693/APhysPolA.130.133

CITATIONS READS

24 1,943

4 authors:

Anas Boussaa Sabiha Abdelkrim Kheloufi

Centre de Recherche en Technologie des Semi-conducteurs pour l’Energétique (C… Research Center in Semicoductors technology for Energetic (CRTSE)
31 PUBLICATIONS 114 CITATIONS 22 PUBLICATIONS 130 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Naïma Boutarek Kerkar Fouad

University of Science and Technology Houari Boumediene Centre de Recherche en Technologie des Semi-conducteurs pour l’Energétique (C…
52 PUBLICATIONS 326 CITATIONS 10 PUBLICATIONS 187 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Naïma Boutarek on 08 September 2016.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

Vol. 129 (2016) ACTA PHYSICA POLONICA A No. 1

Special issue of the 2nd International Conference on Computational and Experimental Science and Engineering (ICCESEN 2015)

Valorization of Algerian Sand for Photovoltaic Application

S. Anas Boussaaa,∗ , A. Kheloufia , N. Boutarek Zaourarb and F. Kerkara
Centre de Recherche en Technologie des Semi-conducteurs pour L’énergétique (C.R.T.S.E),
a

02 Bd Frantz Fanon B.P. 140 Alger 7 Merveilles, Alger 16200

b
Laboratoire des Technologies des Matériaux, USTHB, B.P. 32 El Alia, Bab Ezzouar, Alger 16111, Algérie
Extracting quartz from sand, as well as extracting silicon from quartz requires knowledge of the physical
and chemical properties of quartz found in the sand. In this work the chemical composition, the crystallographic
phase, crystal system, space group, unit cell parameters, the absorption bands, the granulometric analysis and the
microscopic observations of quartz in the sand from Mostaganem (Algeria) region have been carried out using X-ray
fluorescence, X-ray diffraction, infrared spectroscopy, sifting, optical and scanning electron microscopy in order to
determine the rate and the nature the crystallinity of its various components and to discover a layer rich in silica,
containing a sufficient reserve to feed a unit manufacturing pure silicon starting from silica. The study is driven by
current economic importance of the silicon application in the field of photovoltaic solar cells. The X-ray fluorescence
indicates that Mostaganem sand has got a very good purity (99.5% silica). The crystallographic parameters of
Mostaganem sand have been determined through analysis of X-ray diffraction. The following parameters were
found, hexagonal crystal system, space group P3221, unit cell parameters: a = b = 4.9030 Å, c = 5.3999 Å.
The infrared absorption spectrum of studied sand exhibits absorption bands characterizing the SiO2 compound,
due to Si-O-Si and Si-O aggregates and others. The granulometric analysis determines the percentage of the
various fraction of the grain. The microscopy observation gives the shape of the grain. The results show finally
that Mostaganem sand has got good proprieties for the photovoltaic application.
DOI: 10.12693/APhysPolA.129.133
PACS/topics: 88.40.jj

1. Introduction
Quartz is one of the most abundant compounds in the
Earth’s crust. It is a crystalline form of silica. Silica is
most generally found in nature as quartz, as well as in
various living organisms. In many parts of the world,
silica is the major constituent of sand. Silica is one of
the most complex and most abundant families of mate-
rials, existing in form of several minerals. It is the basic
mineral of sedimentary rocks which are formed by the
deposition of sand. It is also found in sand dunes.
Silicate minerals are the name given to a group of min-
erals composed of silicon and oxygen, the two most abun-
dant elements in the earth’s crust. Silica is found com- Fig. 1. Schematic of silica molecule.
monly in the crystalline state and rarely in the amor-
phous state. It is composed of one atom of silicon
and two atoms of oxygen resulting in the chemical for- Sand is considered as a clastic rock with a total absence
mula SiO2 [1]. of cement, whose size lies between 0.05 to 2 mm.
SiO2 forms a network solid crystal (tectosilicates) in Although these grains may be of any mineral compo-
which each silicon atom is bonded to four oxygen atoms. sition, the dominant component of sand is the mineral
It would, therefore, seem that the formula should be quartz, which is composed of silica (silicon dioxide). Sand
SiO4 , but each oxygen atom is bonded to another sili- can include other components like aluminium, sodium,
con atom as well [2]. calcium and potassium (feldspar minerals). Ferromag-
Therefor every silicon atom has four half-oxygen which nesian minerals are silicate minerals in which cations
means that silicon atom is bonded to two oxygen of iron and magnesium form essential chemical compo-
atoms Fig. 1. nents. The term is used to cover such minerals as the
Sand is a product of weathering processes, which olivines, pyroxenes, amphiboles, and the micas biotite
causes the disintegration or decomposition of rock near and phlogopite.
the surface of the earth. For a particular source of sand to be suitable for in-
dustrial application, it must not only contain a very high
proportion of silica but it also should not contain more
than strictly limited amounts of certain metallic elements
∗ corresponding author; e-mail: [email protected] such as iron, aluminium, titanium, etc.

(133)
134 S. Anas Boussaa et al.

Silica sand is also normally required to be well-sorted, cated in the vicinity of Chlef in the east, of Relizane in
i.e. to have grains of an approximately uniform size. In- the southeast, of Oran in the west, and of Mascara in the
dustrial uses of silica sand depend on its purity and phys- southwest. Mostaganem city is a littoral town. The cli-
ical characteristics. Some of the more important physical mate is semi-arid, mild in winter and slightly humid at
properties are: grain size and distribution, grain shape elevations greater than 500 m [4].
and sphericity. Silica sands have a large number of uses Our six sand (SM1, SM2, SM3, SM4, SM5 and SM6)
depending on their characteristics [3]: samples were collected in this city.
The stratigraphy of the site is presented in Fig. 3.
• Production of silicon and silicon carbide, produc-
tion of glass.
• Foundry sand, ceramics.
• Sandblasting and other abrasives
• Building products, filler and extender
• Pigments, hydraulic fracturing and propping in the
oil industry
• Ultra high silica products in the electronic and fiber
optic industries, fused silica, silicone products.
• Water filtration.
Algeria is a very large sunny country which makes it an Fig. 3. Schematic stratigraphic section of the Mosta-
ganem area [5].
important reservoir of solar energy. This solar radiation
can be converted to electricity using photovoltaic solar
panels. These are, mainly, manufactured of silicon cells, 2.2. X-ray fluorescence analysis
which are quite expensive. There are huge quantities of
Chemical composition of the six samples, in their oxide
quartz (SiO2 ), which is found in the sands although there
form, was determined by employing an Axios Panalytical
are no producers of silicon in Algeria.
X-ray fluorescence instrument in the department of ge-
To our knowledge, the amount of quartz, that has a
ology of the National Office of Research in Geology and
great economic importance, in the sand of Mostaganem
Mineralogy (ORGM, Boumerdes, Algeria)
has not been evaluated up to now. The main aim of
Samples were first milled in a laboratory disc mill to
this work is to evaluate several proprieties of the Mosta-
approximately 40 µm before pressing into pellets (approx.
ganem sand required for production of photovoltaic-grade
5 g of sample material) and analyzed.
silicon.
2. Materials and methods 2.3. X-ray diffraction analysis
X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) is a rapid analyti-
2.1. Geological setting cal technique primarily used for phase identification of a
Mostaganem is located in the in northwest Algeria. crystalline material and can provide information on unit
The area of the city is about 2.269 km2 . Its geographical cell dimensions.
coordinates are: latitude of 35◦ 550 5700 North, longitude Knowledge about crystallinity is highly relevant, as
of 0◦ 050 2100 East, Fig. 2. The city of Mostaganem is lo- a crystalline form is usually preferred in development.
In contrast to amorphous material, the crystal has well-
defined properties (melting point, solubility), parameters
that should be known in order to control the final prod-
uct. The result from an XRD analysis is a diffractogram
showing the intensity as a function of the diffraction
angles.
Our results of XRD analysis were obtained by means
of Siemens D500 analyzer in the Department of Materials
Science of the University of Biskra, Algeria.
After the XRF analysis, we conclude that our sand
is very rich in silica so that the concentration of other
minerals is almost the same. This is why the analysis
was carried out only for sample SM1. For the analysis,
sample SM1 was milled in a laboratory disc mill to ap-
Fig. 2. Location of Mostaganem in Algeria [5, 6]. proximately 63 µm.
Valorization of Algerian Sand for Photovoltaic Application 135

2.4. Infrared absorption spectroscopy in order of increasing opening size. The sieve with the
Infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) is one of the most inter- largest openings is on top and the one with the small-
esting ways to study materials. It can be used to obtain est openings is on the bottom. A pan placed beneath
the material structure without affecting its properties. the sieves catches material passing through the small-
Infrared spectroscopy exploits the fact that molecules est sieve. Coarse and fine aggregate usually are sieved
absorb light with specific frequencies that are charac- separately.
teristic of their structure. It is often used to identify There are various indices which can be measured using
structures because functional groups give rise to charac- this technique. In this work we have just measured the
teristic bands both in terms of intensity and frequency. concentration in several sieves.
Infrared spectroscopy is a simple and reliable technique The grain size analysis was carried out at the metal-
widely used in both organic and inorganic chemistry, in lurgy laboratory of the national company of the indus-
research and industry. trial vehicles (SNVI) in Rouiba (Algiers Algeria), using
Sample SM1 was first milled in a laboratory disc mill to mechanical sifter RETSCH-AS 200.
approximately 40 µm and then formed into a KBr-reach 2.6. Microscopy observations
pellet for spectroscopic examination using a Brucker
spectrometer in the laboratory of FTIR analysis of the In order to determinate the shape of the sand grain,
Research Center of semiconductors for Energetic Appli- scanning electron micrographs of the sand samples were
cation CRTSE, Algiers Algeria. obtained using JSM-5500LV/JSM-5500 in the Depart-
About 1.5 mg of carefully ground sand was mixed with ment of Materials Science of the University of Biskra,
100 mg of dried KBr powder and then the mixture was Algeria.
further ground using a mortar and pestle. The mixture Optical micrographs of the sand samples were obtained
was then pressed in a hydraulic press to make a pellet, using Nikon Eclipse E600 at the metallurgy laboratory of
which was subsequently used for recording of the FTIR the national company of the industrial vehicles (SNVI)
spectrum. in Rouiba (Algiers Algeria).

2.5. Grain size analysis 3. Results and discussion

3.1. X-ray fluorescence analysis
In this analysis we have used the sifting method, be-
cause it can separate sand from gravel and clay [7]. According to Table I, we show that Mostaganem sand
For this purpose we have used a mechanical sifter with is very rich in silica 99.5%. This sand has a small concen-
ten sieves. We have used a dry-sieve analysis to deter- tration of alumina and hematite and even smaller con-
mine the particle size distribution [8], or grading, of the centration of other oxides, such as the pyrite, the free
sample. To obtain a grading, the aggregate is shaken rutile, the ilmenite, limonite and magnetite, which were
through a series of sieves, nested one above the other also found in the raw material.

TABLE I
Chemical analysis of the content of Mostaganem sand [%].

Oxides SiO2 Al2 O3 Fe2 O3 CaO MgO Na2 O K2 O TiO2 MnO P2 O5

SM1 99.5 0.20 0.23 0.06 0.05 < 0.05 < 0.05 < 0.05 < 0.05 < 0.05
SM2 99.4 0.20 0.28 0.011 0.05 < 0.05 < 0.05 < 0.05 < 0.05 < 0.05
SM3 99.48 0.20 0.25 0.06 0.05 < 0.05 < 0.05 < 0.05 < 0.05 < 0.05
SM4 99.52 0.20 0.23 0.08 0.05 < 0.05 < 0.05 < 0.05 < 0.05 < 0.05
SM5 99.55 0.20 0.28 0.06 0.05 < 0.05 < 0.05 < 0.05 < 0.05 < 0.05
SM6 99.45 0.25 0.23 0.06 0.05 < 0.05 < 0.05 < 0.05 < 0.05 < 0.05

3.2. X-ray diffraction analysis According to these results, we attest the absence of
other phases than quartz, which confirms the results
In order to determine the parameters and the struc- found by XRF.
ture of the crystal lattice of our sand samples, we have When we compare between the results found by the
used the X-ray diffraction which turns out to be the only XRD and those presented in the jcpds 46-1045 card
technique for the determination of these parameters. The (ASTM card), also shown in Table II, we certify that
XRD spectrum of Mostaganem sand is shown in Fig. 4. there is a very good similarity between the measured pa-
In Table II, we observe the appearance of all peaks re- rameters and those present in this card.
lated to the presence of alpha-quartz in our sand sample, The software used for data analysis and for the Ri-
confirming the high crystallinity. etveld refinement was HighScore Plus from PANalytical.
136 S. Anas Boussaa et al.

Fig. 4. XRD spectrum of Mostaganem sand.

TABLE II
Parameters of XRD peaks of Mostaganem sand and refer-
ence parameters.
Fig. 5. FTIR absorption spectrum of Mostaganem
Measured parameters jcpds 46-1045 sand.
Intensity Intensity
Peak 2θ D hkl 2θ D hkl HKL
[%] [%] The main bands of absorption obtained from Fig. 5,
1 21.0283 4.22482 6.34 20.859 4.2550 16.0 (100) are shown in Table III [9–11].
2 26.8635 3.31891 100.00 26.639 100.0 3.3435 (101)
3 36.6860 2.44971 11.28 36.543 2.4569 9.0 (110)
3.4. Granulometric analysis
4 39.4900 2.28200 4.35 39.464 2.2815 8.0 (10 2) Sand samples were dried at 120 ◦C for one hour and
5 40.3841 2.23351 2.55 40.299 2.2361 4.0 (111) a half in an oven. After this the sieving operation was
6 42.4300 2.13043 0.80 42.449 2.1277 6.0 ( 200) carried out. After studying the grain size distributions of
7 46.1200 1.96821 0.08 45.792 1.9799 4.0 ( 201) the six samples, we have concluded that they are almost
8 50.2382 1.81610 11.,45 50.138 1.8180 13.0 (11 2) similar and for this reason here we present only the results
9 50.6800 1.80130 0.21 50.621 1.8017 <1 ( 003) of the grain size analysis of sample SM1. The results of
10 54.7600 1.67635 0.08 54.873 1.6717 4.0 (20 2) granulometric analysis are shown as histogram in Fig. 6.
11 55.2700 1.66209 0.16 55.323 1.6592 2.0 (10 3)
12 57.1900 1.61077 0.15 57.234 1.6083 <1 (2 10)
13 59.8582 1.54519 3.46 59.958 1.5415 9.0 (21 1)
14 63.9100 1.45665 0.13 64.034 1.4529 2.0 (11 3)
15 65.8300 1.41874 0.08 65.784 1.4184 <1 (30 0)
16 67.7892 1.38243 13.45 67.742 1.3821 6.0 (21 2)
17 68.2976 1.37338 6.08 68.142 1.3750 7.0 (20 3)

The crystallographic parameters of Mostaganem sand

have been determined through analysis of X-ray diffrac-
tion. These parameters were found to be as follows:
hexagonal crystal system, space group P3 221, unit cell
parameters: a = b = 4.9030 Å, c = 5.3999 Å. Fig. 6. Histogram representation of granulometric
analysis of Mostaganem sand.
3.3. Infrared absorption spectroscopy
The experimental FTIR absorption spectrum of stud- TABLE IV
ied sand is shown in Fig. 5. Granulometric analysis.

Opening size of sieve [mm] Refusal [%]

TABLE III
1.4 0
The main bands of IR absorption and associated bond 1 0
vibration of Mostaganem sand.
0.71 0
Frequency [cm−1 ] Vibration kind 0.5 1.08 (corse sand)
459.75 Si–O–Si 0.355 39.68 (corse to medium)
693.25 Si–O vibration 0.25 49.38 (medium to fine)
778.34 Si–O vibration 0.18 9.32 (fine sand)
790.90 Si–O vibration 0.125 0.5
1080.72 stretching vibrations Si–O–Si 0.09 0.012
1163.53 stretching Si–O–Si bond 0.063 0
1616.37-1876.23-3349.23 Stretching H–OH F < 0.06 0
A 0.028
Valorization of Algerian Sand for Photovoltaic Application 137

After the analysis of the obtained results, we notice has a high crystallinity. The crystallographic parame-
that in the size distribution of Mostaganem sand prevail ters were found to be as follows: hexagonal crystal sys-
grains in the class of 0.25 mm and 0.355 mm. These tem, space group P3 221, unit cell parameters: a = b =
classes represented almost 50 to 40% of the overall mass 4.9030 Å, c = 5.3999 Å. The FTIR spectrum of this sand
of the sand. indicates that the majority of chemical bonds were Si–O
In the particle size class of 0.18 mm we find almost 9%, bonds, with different kinds of vibrations. Especially the
while the concentration is insignificant in the remaining double absorption at 790 and 7798 cm−1 indicates that
sieves. the sand is in α-quartz phase.
The granulometric analysis shows that in the size dis-
3.5. The microscopy observations tribution of Mostaganem sand prevail grains with the size
of 0.25 mm and 0.355 mm.
3.5.1. Optical microscopy observation Using the optical microscopy and the scanning elec-
The micrographs at lower magnifications in Fig. 7 re- tron microscopy, we observed that the sand grains are
veal the presence of somewhat rounded, angular edged, rounded, angular edged, elongated and irregular.
elongated and irregular grains. After the study of several proprieties of the Mosta-
ganem sand, we conclude that this sand can be used in
photovoltaic applications by the reduction of silica with
carbon in an electric arc furnace [12] at temperatures
higher than 2000 ◦C in the hottest parts, by a reaction
that can be written ideally as:
SiO2 +2C=Si+2CO [13].
We confirm that Mostaganem silica can be used as the
raw material for production of silicon.
Acknowledgments
This work was completed thanks to the National Funds
of Research, DGRSDT/MESRS (Algeria) and to the in-
valuable assistance of Miss Abellache Dahbia, member
Fig. 7. Mostaganem sand micrograph. of the metallurgy laboratory of the national company of
the industrial vehicles (SNVI Rouiba), whom we wish to
3.5.2. Scanning electron microscopy observations thank.
The observation under the scanning electron microscop
confirms the irregular shape of sand. Figure 8a confirms References
the rounded shape of sand and that the grain dimensions [1] W. Trabelsia, M. Benzinab, S. Bouaziza, Phys. Pro-
are about 200 µm in average. cedia 2, 1461 (2008).
[2] S. Beddiaf, S. Chihi, Y. Leghrieb, J. Afr. Earth Sci.
106, 129 (2015).
[3] K. Shah Ariffin, What is Silica EBS 425 – Mineral
Perindustrian, 2004.
[4] Z. Bendjoudi, F. Taleb, F. Abdelmalek, A. Addou,
Waste Manage. 29, 1383 (2009).
[5] F. Bahri, H. Saibi, Arab. J. Geoscience (2010).
Fig. 8. Scanning electron micrographs of Mostaganem [6] F. Belhouari, K. Bendani, H. Missoum, M. Derkaoui,
sand. Arab. J. Sci. Eng. (2015).
Figure 8b confirms the elongated shape of sand grains [7] A. Tafraoui, S. Lebaili, A. Slimani, Res. J. Appl.
and that their dimensions are about 400 µm in average. Sci. 1, 1 (2006).
Figure 8c shows several shapes of sand, including some- [8] M.I. El-Sayed, Sediment. Geol. 123, 219 (1999).
what elongated, rounded and angular shape with various [9] M. Hatipoglu, J. Afr. Earth Sci. 54, 1 (2009).
dimensions. [10] R.L.P. Carnina, M. Valadares Folguerasb, R.R. Lu-
vizaob, S.L. Correiab, C.J. da Cunhac, R.S. Dungand,
4. Conclusions Thermochim. Acta 543, 150 (2012).
The present work has been carried out using several [11] I. Štyriaková, A. Mockovčiaková, I. Štyriak, I. Kraus,
characterization techniques in order to assess applicabil- P. Uhlík, J. Madejová, Z. Orolínová, Appl. Clay Sci.
61, 1 (2012).
ity of Mostaganem sand for photovoltaic applications.
According to X-ray fluorescence analysis, we certify [12] E. Dal Martello, G. Tranell, S. Gaal, O.S. Raaness,
K. Tang, Metall. Mater. Trans. B 42B, 939 (2011).
that Mostaganem sand is very rich in silica 99.5%.
The X-ray diffraction reveals that Mostaganem sand [13] K. Aasly, Ph.D. Thesis, Trondheim 2008.

View publication stats