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Filament-wound glass-fibre reinforced polymer composites: Potential

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DOI: 10.1007/s00289-022-04114-4

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Polymer Bulletin
https://doi.org/10.1007/s00289-022-04114-4

REVIEW PAPER

Filament‑wound glass‑fibre reinforced polymer

composites: Potential applications for cross arm structure
in transmission towers

M. R. M. Asyraf1   · M. R. Ishak2,3 · Agusril Syamsir1 · A. L. Amir2 · N. M. Nurazzi4 ·

M. N. F. Norrrahim5 · Mochamad Asrofi6 · M. Rafidah7 · R. A. Ilyas8,9 ·
Mohamad Zakir Abd Rashid10 · M. R. Razman11

Received: 21 June 2021 / Revised: 6 December 2021 / Accepted: 9 December 2021

© The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature 2022

Abstract
This manuscript reviews previous literature on filament-wound polymer compos-
ites and their potential applications as cross arm structures in latticed transmission
towers. The current trends of cross arms implement pultruded glass fibre-reinforced
polymer composites without any additional configurations. However, extreme tropi-
cal climate and dynamic wind loads can cause a high risk of sudden failure due to
creep, followed by laminate crack propagation, which can induce structural failure.
Glass fibre-reinforced polymer composites are more resilient in corrosion resistance,
strength, extreme conditions, and life serviceability according to previous literature.
The composite can also function as a good insulator in lightning impulse strength
of composite cross arms. It is suggested that the current cross arm design has to
adopt core structure as reinforcement to the structure by using filament winding pro-
cess for long-term structures. Hence, the composite structure can withstand extreme
environmental conditions via the filament winding process. Thus, this manuscript is
expected to deliver a state-of-art review on the manufacturing process, perspectives,
and potential of filament-wounded composite as cross arms in transmission towers.

Keywords  Filament-wound · Failure mechanisms · Manufacturing process · Cross

arm · Transmission tower

* M. R. M. Asyraf
[email protected]
* M. R. Ishak
[email protected]
* Agusril Syamsir
[email protected]
Extended author information available on the last page of the article

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Polymer Bulletin

Introduction

The current cross arms in suspension latticed transmission towers are fabricated
from pultruded glass fibre-reinforced polymer composites (PGFRPCs). The pul-
truded composites permit higher mechanical and electrical resistances than its
predecessor, Chengal wood timber [1–3]. Composite materials such as carbon
and glass fibre-reinforced polymer composites have been widely used in struc-
tural applications due to their good flexural performance, better tensile strength,
high low-impact strength, and easy manufacture [4, 5]. The application of com-
posite cross arms is limited to reducing land uptake for transmission lines; how-
ever, they also provide improvement in the installation process and allow more
compact transmission lines [6]. In this case, the PGFRPC offers a higher mass
production rate and better commendable properties as compared to wood tim-
ber. Composite cross arms could also potentially omit the replacement cycle of
wooden timber cross arms because they will take about 25 to 40 years depending
on the timber quality and environmental condition [7]. PGFRPC cross arms have
been successfully introduced and implemented in Malaysia since the late 1990s in
both 132 and 275 kV transmission lines as an alternative to wooden cross arms
[8].
The PGFRPC cross arms are thin-walled beams with a hollow structure manu-
factured via pultrusion process. In general, composite materials such as PGFRPC
exhibit high mechanical strength, stiffness, more extended ageing period, light-
weight properties, good structural integrity, and thermal insulation capacity
[9–18]. Regardless of these benefits, the PGFRPC is at risk of degradation and
ageing due to electrical stresses, dynamic and creep loads, and extreme environ-
mental issues [19–21]. In recent studies, PGFRPC cross arms have progressively
degraded due to ultraviolet radiation and extreme heat, which induce delamina-
tion, fibre blooming, and water infusion [22, 23]. Moreover, Asyraf et  al. [24]
revealed that even though PGFRPC has better creep resistance, it has lower stiff-
ness properties than wood timber. Another study by Asyraf et al. [1] discovered
that PGFRPC cross arms need to be aided with braced arms as additional mem-
bers to resist the creep loads from insulators and electric cables.
After a long-term period of service, cross arms lose their mechanical integrity
depending on the intensity of environmental exposure. The constant loads from
power cable, insulator, and various extreme conditions, including rain, speed
winds, and ultraviolet rays from sunlight would degrade the structure. Subse-
quently, potential propagation of failure would occur within cross arm members.
Other significant factors that affect cross arm members include moisture, tem-
perature change in the atmosphere, and biological attacks that would also reduce
the composite structure’s quality [25–27]. Currently, various cross arm studies
have been conducted to characterise wooden and PGFRPC cross arms, including
development of creep testing facilities for full scale [28, 29] and coupon scale
[30], creep bending analyses on failed pultruded composite cross arms [31, 32],
and quasi-static [33] and creep analyses [1] on full-scale cross arms. Thus, a fea-
sible solution for this issue is to replace PGFRPC with an alternative material

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Polymer Bulletin

that could sustain longer than the existing material. Therefore, this review article
focuses on the potential and applicability of filament-wound composite tubes as
cross arm members for transmission towers.
At present, issues on the structural integrity of existing PGFRPC cross arm mem-
bers are being addressed with the temporary strengthening of materials with addi-
tional structural members [2, 34]. However, these efforts and actions could only
prolong the life temporarily. To provide a permanent solution, an entirely new mate-
rial that could replace the existing PGFRPC has to be identified. Hence, compos-
ite tube structures with filament winding are proposed due to their superior perfor-
mance under bending and compressive loads. The application of filament winding
to these structures can serve two primary purposes: (1) enhancing the shear strength
of face sheets and (2) confining the entire sandwich system for optimum bonding
characteristics.

Filament‑wound process

In recent decades, filament winding process has evolved from classical lathe-type
towards winding with an increased number of degrees of freedom using more com-
plex equipment. The typical filament winding process requires several important
steps as shown in Fig. 1.
The development of filament winding process has also benefited information
technology and robotics [38]. In recent years, filament winding systems have been
available for complex axisymmetric and non-axisymmetric components. The place-
ment of fibres or roving can be performed by a computer-aided drawing (CAD) and
numerical analysis software [38, 39]. Using these software, the coordinate data of
geodesic paths are calculated and the input data are fed to the machine microcom-
puter for placement. Complex configurations such as T-shaped parts, non-axisym-
metric parts, and tapered shafts can be successfully programmed.
Current developments on filament winding process focus on increasing the wind-
ing efficiency to achieve high production rates. This development is motivated by the
increasing demand for pressure vessels in the automotive sector. Traditional pressure

Fig. 1  Typical manufacturing flow chart for filament winding process [35–37]

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Polymer Bulletin

Fig. 2  Schematic diagram of wet filament winding process [37]

Fig. 3  Schematic representation of three types of winding patterns; a circumferential winding, b helical

winding, c polar winding [42]

vessels (350 bars) are used in many natural gas-powered vehicles, while high-pres-
sure vessels (700 bars) are required for hydrogen storage used in car prototypes [40].
Figure  2 shows the schematic diagram of the typical filament winding process.
The details on the flow of the process are as follows: (a) Fibres are collected and
put in an order through the first comb; (b) Then, fibres are wetted in a resin bath; (c)
Fibres are impregnated through impregnation rolls and passed through the second
comb; (d) Impregnated yarns are wound around a mandrel; (e) The mandrel is cov-
ered by impregnated yarns in a lateral movement. During the process, the traverse
mechanism can move forward and backward in the delivery system. Several lateral
movements are made for the desired winding angles to satisfy mechanical require-
ments such as strength, elasticity, stiffness, ductility, and fatigue strength; (f) Once
the winding operation is completed, yarns are cut or removed using hydraulic rams;
(g) Curing is induced by a heated mandrel and an infrared lamp; and (h) Once the
tube is gelled, the mandrel is placed in an oven for curing. The pins are removed by
sawing the edges, and the finished tube is demoulded.
Fibre tension force is critical to the operation in filament winding because it will
affect the properties of the composite. The fibre tension depends on the type of fibre,
part diameter, and winding pattern. In addition, there are many types of tension
devices such as magnetic or friction brakes, electronic rewind, rotating scissor bars,
and high-performance solenoids.

Filament winding patterns generation

Generally, there are three types of filament winding patterns: hoop, helical, and
polar winding as shown in Fig. 3. Filament winding pattern types can be differ-
entiated by φ [41]. The first type of winding pattern is circumferential where φ is

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90°, the second type is helical winding where the value of φ lies in the range of
0° to < 90°, and the third type is polar winding where the value of φ is no longer
fixed and varies over the length of the mandrel.
Most filament-wound products are produced by helical winding pattern [42].
In this pattern, the fibre is wound on the mandrel with a moderate angle to the
longitudinal axis. Circumferential winding is a high helical winding angle that
approaches almost 90°. Meanwhile, the mandrel rotates at a constant speed in
helical winding, while the fibre feed carriage transverses back and forth at a
speed to generate the desired helical winding angle. For polar winding, the fibre
is wrapped from pole to pole as the mandrel arm rotates around the longitudinal
axis.
According to Quanjin et  al. [37], the production of filament winding pattern
can be summarised by several passages as shown in Fig.  4. The main objective
of this fabrication method is to cover the mandrel completely with a constant
thickness of fibre. In the beginning, the fibre tow is deposited at the left side of
the mandrel. Then, it is constantly wound to the right side of the mandrel. This
first movement path is named as passage, which is illustrated in Fig.  4a. At the
end of the first passage, the transverse motion of the pay-out eye unit is stopped
and prepared to reverse with the fibre tow to change the direction. During this
reverse motion, the mandrel remained on its rotation to start the second passage.
The two passages are called circuit (Fig.  4b). The end of the circuit has a con-
stant value to add between the following consecutive circuits, as shown in Fig. 4c.
The final winding pattern depends on the increasing value, in which the rotation
angle between each passage can be controlled. The rotation angle at each side of
the mandrel controls the filament winding structure based on the filament wind-
ing angle. The filament winding pattern can be presented by a normal diamond-
shaped cell with a + φ/ − φ fibre orientation (Fig. 4d).

Fig. 4  Filament winding process generation: a first passage, b first circuit, c third passage, d double
fibre + φ/ − φ fibre orientation [37]

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Mechanical properties of filament‑wound tube composite

Filament winding technique has been the subject of numerous experimental

investigations in the fabrication of composite pipes, tubes, and tanks due to their
high specific strength and stiffness, high production efficiency, excellent vibration
and corrosion resistance, and good fatigue behaviour in reinforcement structural
behaviour. Generally, this technique is used simultaneously with high strength and
lightweight structural material in the form of roving, chopped strand mats, or any
thermoset polymer material [43–45] such as fibre-reinforced polymer (FRP), car-
bon nanotube (CNT), or glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) tube. Taşyürek et al. [46]
investigated the fatigue behaviour of filament winding GRP cracked pipes under
internal pressure. The inter-layer strength of the tube has been reinforced using
nanocomposite materials include E-glass, epoxy, and CNTs. The results reveal
a high potential for increased fatigue life by reinforcing the internal tube using
CNT material and filament winding technique on the external tube. Many studies
have been carried out on the fatigue loading of filament-wound pipes. Conder and
Newhouse [47] studied the fatigue behaviour of filament-wound vessels contain-
ing nitrogen. Frost et  al. [48] studied the influence of long-term fatigue loading
frequency of a [± 55°]n glass-fibre/epoxy filament-wound pipes. They concluded
that the failure mechanism for short- and long-term fatigue was leakage as a
result of matrix cracking and compared the results with static loading.
This paragraph highlights the importance of process parameters concerning the
merits and demerits of filament winding manufacturing methods for better-quality
performance. Furthermore, advantages such as the production of larger pipes, hol-
low pipes, fibre arrangement, high mechanical performance, minimum production
time attract manufacturers towards this process [49–51]. Burst analysis reveals that
the winding angle of ± 55° was recorded to be optimum with minimum failure mech-
anisms, such as matrix cracking, whitening, leakage, and fracture [52, 53]. Further-
more, the reduction of buckling effect was reported in the case of lower hoop stress
value in the hoop-to-axial stress ratio against axial, compression, and torsion [53].
At the same time, other researchers studied the improvement of mechanical proper-
ties of any composite pipes using analytical approach with minimum wall thickness
[54]. The study used variables such as optimal fibre, matrix, volume fraction, and
winding angle (θ). The findings show that an ideal volume fraction of 40% < 60%
and a winding angle of ± 44.5° < θ <  ± 52.5° improved the efficiency of FRP com-
posite pipes used in the oil and gas industry. Hence, controlling parameters such as
winding angle, stacking sequence, the pretension of fibre, and the amount of resin
on the impregnation of fibre can produce better properties of FRP pipes. Figure 5
underlines the importance of the new design proposed for ISO 14692, especially the
R = Rtest pressure test [54]. This plot serves as a sensitivity analysis that emphasises
the impact of the Rtest parameter, and thus the stress multi-axiality on thickness esti-
mation for filament winding process. Designers can use this plot to determine the
optimal winding angle and wall thickness after selecting the appropriate Rtest.
The mechanical properties of composite pipes are predicted by several vari-
ables, including material combination, geometric features, and manufacturing

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Fig. 5  Identification of the optimal winding angle [54]

method [52, 55–58]. A recent study on filament winding manufacturing process

in terms of composite design and fabrication for structural performance was
reported by Zhang et  al. [59]. The study focused on the suitability of filament-
wound composite pipes with cylindrical, torus section non-geodesic parts for
different applications. In the vehicle industry, the concept of energy absorption
tube is one of the main properties that has been considered. Supian et al. [60, 61]
observed the effects of intermediate-velocity impact (IVI) load in hybrid and non-
hybrid GFRP composite-wound tubes due to the energy absorption properties.
The study shows that the higher energy absorption property of hybrid compos-
ite-wound tubes compared to that of the non-hybrid composite-wound tubes. The
winding orientation parameters of the filament winding technique can be adjusted
or customised to improve the collapsing behaviour and other changes that affect
the energy absorption capacity. Other researchers also studied energy absorp-
tion by investigating both the applicability and effectiveness of adopting buck-
ling initiator for axially loaded square tubes [62]. Oshkovra et al. [63] conducted
a comprehensive finite element simulation to evaluate the response and analyse
the energy absorption capacity of natural silk/epoxy square tubes. Most previ-
ous studies have proven that the filament-wound composite tubes can increase the
energy absorption ability of composite tube products.
Although the filament-wound tube composite has several advantages, some com-
mon failures also need to be considered. Generally, researchers study the damage
and failure criteria to discover the properties of the filament-wound composites
design. Most damage criteria occurred due to various winding orientations, material
combination, geometric features, and manufacturing methods. The numerous failure
mechanism that occurred in the filament-wound tube composite is shown in Table 1.
Most previous studies experienced the mixture failure type during their experi-
ments where some failures cause other failures. To address this failure, several

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Table 1  Failure type of filament-wound tube composite [46, 60, 61, 64, 65]
Type of failure Acknowledge due to Type of composite Winding angle (± in degree) Effected from

Fibre/matrix cracking Damage of tube wall surface commences Hybrid and non-hybrid FRP 30°, 45°, 70°, 75° Compression
with shearing of the matrix and fibre Impact load
Local buckling Plastic deformation to absorb crush or Natural flax fibre reinforced epoxy 45° Plastic deformation
impact Impact load
Brittle fracturing Extensive progressive crushing mechanism Metallic vessel reinforced by carbon fibre 30°, 45°, 70° Highest energy absorption
Delamination Shear and tensile separation of intraply GRP pipes reinforced with CNT 30°, 70° Impact load
composite Internal pressure
Initiate by fibre/matrix
cracking and brittle
fracturing
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Polymer Bulletin

methods have been used, such as changing filament winding patterns, improving
fabrication procedures, and enhancing the composite material [58, 65–67]. Some
researchers demonstrated the modelling analysis of composite tubes with different
filament winding mosaic patterns [24]. The numerical results of finite element anal-
yses show that the stress values measured at the ply level for one-layered cylindri-
cal filament-wound shells with different mosaic patterns could vary significantly. A
3D multi-angle filament-wound analytical model was proposed by Geng et al. [68],
which brings more uniform strength through filament-wound thickness. Addition-
ally, the use of filament winding hybrid composite tubes and increasing hybrid plies
can increase the energy absorption properties of the composite tube [69]. However,
there is still a lack of study on the filament winding process of GFRPC for the cross
arm structure in high transmission towers. Therefore, this paper reviewed studies on
the properties and failure behaviour of filament-wound GFRP tube for application in
cross arm assembly.

Potential and current application of filament‑wound composite tube

Filament-wound composites have been widely used in many industrial fields because
of their high specific strength and stiffness, high production efficiency, excellent
vibration and corrosion resistance, and good fatigue behaviour. The winding param-
eters of the manufacturing process are purposely designed to maximise the fibre
strength according to the stress conditions of product to weight ratio. Cross-weaving
continuous roving of fibre reinforcement like carbon fibre, glass fibre, aramid fibre,
and natural fibre, and embedding them in a resin matrix create hollow structures of
specific strength that result in an optimised product for pressure vessels, aerospace
components, golf clubs, military armaments, and other uses.

Automotive

An increasing number of lightweight constructions like space frame structures in

multi-material design will be used in the future automotive market. For automo-
tive parts, high-performance vehicles constantly demand lighter and stronger parts,
resulting in the selection of composite structures. Material efficiency in load-bearing
applications in the automotive industry, such as energy absorption tubes from com-
posite fibres, replaces metallic materials [70, 71]. For example, a composite energy
absorption tube has been used in the sandwich panel as the core and several parts in
motorsport as a monocoque (vehicle frame structure) in Formula One. Other than
monocoque, automotive space frame structures that are joined by filament winding
process are used for light structures such as space-frame design made of fibre com-
posite materials, tube-to-tube-design, and socket design for automotive structures
[72].
Hybrid composite materials in energy absorption tubes or crash box (Fig. 6) can
be utilised and designed for a particular type of load in various primary structures
for high-performance applications and safety equipment in major transportation

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Fig. 6  Cylindrical tube as energy absorbers in automotive and train industry

industries. For energy absorption, thin-wall tubes have been a popular system com-
ponent that increases crashworthiness, which means the higher ability to absorb
energy in automotive or aircraft radome. The concept of an energy-absorption tube
is to dissipate impact forces, which is known as crashworthiness; thus, a crashwor-
thy design in an energy absorption tube becomes the primary aspect in the safety
criteria of the energy absorption tube. Furthermore, the energy absorption tube that
acts as a sacrificial structure in a vehicle crash box device can absorb the impact of
external forces and decelerate impact velocity [60]. Another potential application for
automotive filament-wound tubes is in a driveshaft made from composite materials.
Stedile Filho et al. [73] discovered that the [± 45/ ± 45] filament-wound composite
cylinder presented the most satisfactory overall behaviour with a weight reduction
of up to 47% compared to a steel-based driveshaft based on the parameters for the
design of composite cylinders as half shafts.

Aerospace

In fabrication, continuous fibres can be oriented to match the direction of major

stress in composite vessels to improve the carrying capacity. However, its applica-
tion in the aerospace field is very sensitive to weight. To lower the launch costs, it
is urgent to reduce the weight of each subsystem in the rocket. To produce a light-
weight solid rocket, the first step is to produce a digital design of the winding pat-
tern that plays a key role in weight reduction. Due to the increase in fuel cost, it is
necessary to minimise the weight of civil aircraft to replace metallic structures with
composite structures [74]. The main challenge in manufacturing aerospace compo-
nents is to obtain the desired strength weight ratio. This is due to the aim of weight
reduction that led to a reduction in the amount of fuel consumption and emission.
In addition, it increases the speed and manoeuvrability of aircraft that reduces the
operational cost and improves the overall system requirements, providing an attrac-
tive option for the aerospace industry [75–77]. Examples of aircraft and helicopter
applications are the inflation of escape slides and life rafts, composite fuel pipes,
(flap) actuator shafts, control rods, struts, cones, launchers, canisters, cones, fire
extinguisher, pneumatic gun drive power, oxygen bottle for passengers, and other
cylindrical or square shapes [78, 79].

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Aerospace frames made from filament-wound composite square tubes possess

significant crashworthy performance complemented by weight and cost-effective-
ness. Hence, composite square tubes have become the key component of load-car-
rying structures and energy absorbing members in aerospace, civil, and automobile
applications due to their high specific energy absorption capacity, long-stroke, and
high specific bending stiffness. Besides that, tubes with square cross-sections pos-
sess better compatibility for connecting with other frame structures [80]. Based on
the theoretical and finite element analysis of epoxy composite pressure cylinder used
for aerospace applications by Prasad and Syamsundar [81], carbon fibre- and glass
fibre-reinforced epoxy composite materials have high specific strength at different
pressure conditions.

Sporting goods

Automated productions of golf club shafts, bicycle frames, kayak paddle, or other
hollow symmetrical structures for sporting goods made of reinforced composites are
a natural fit for the filament winding process. The filament-wound composites can
be either reinforced by carbon filament, basalt filament, glass filament, or natural
fibre using polymer matrix. Chaikittiratana et  al. [82] fabricated and characterised
bicycle frames from hemp fibre filament-wound composites (Fig. 7). For the initial
trial, the existing bicycle steel tubes were replaced by ± 45° filament-wound hemp-
epoxy composites with thin aluminium inner layers as the core. The finite element
analysis shows that hemp-epoxy composite tubes with ± 45°fibre orientation can be
used as bicycle frame tubes and met the design specifications under the considered
static load conditions. The researcher suggests that if the diameter of the composite
top tube is increased, it could be used without the aluminium layer. The results of
the study show that hybrid filament-wound composite/aluminium tubular structures

Fig. 7  Bicycle frame made from hemp fibre with aluminium as a core layer

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can be successfully produced and used adequately to replace the existing steel bicy-
cle main frame tubes.

Pressure vessel

The wide range of pressure vessel applications made it one of the most important
equipment in the industry. Today, composite pressure vessels are known as new gen-
eration vessels that have been widely used in many industrial zones. The superior
characteristics of a composite vessel are lightweight, high stiffness, resistant to cor-
rosion, and long lifetime. Thus, it can be used as an alternative for metallic vessels
[83]. Although composite vessels were first used for military cases and aerospace
functions, nowadays, they have many civilian applications, including oxygen and
hydrogen gas storage cylinders, and scuba and fire-fighter tanks [36, 84].

Construction building

Filament winding technique is also involved in commercial construction such as

composite bridge decks, beams, swimming pools, coastal structures, and water
storage reservoirs that have an issue in traditional metal corrosion and strength-
to-weight ratio. Filament-wound composite products with concrete columns using
filament winding technique have a higher pre-damaged performance with different
concrete column ratios [85]. Moreover, filament-wound composite tube structure
for building and structure applications includes bridges, deck and electrical trans-
mission tower. In this case, filament-wound composites are majorly used in civil
infrastructure applications for the retrofitting and rehabilitation of buildings and
structural infrastructures as well as the construction of new structural systems [86].
For instance, Asyraf et al. [87] implemented filament-wound composite cross arms
from woven flax and polylactic acid (PLA) biopolymer to achieve green energy con-
struction technology. They also recommended the implementation on the whole
structure, including bracing arms from filament-wound composites. Thus, it can be
deduced that filament winding-manufactured products can be used for civil infra-
structures such as water supply sewers, power grids, telecommunications, ducting,
and structural shapes.

Current PGFRPC cross‑arm: backgrounds

The cross arm component in the suspension latticed transmission tower currently
uses pultruded glass fibre-reinforced unsaturated polyester composites. This material
was chosen because Chengal timber cross arms have long-term durability to sustain
the weight of power cables with their insulators. Furthermore, their natural wood
defects and attack from biological organisms such as fungi, termites, and wood-
peckers are the primary reasons for their fast degradation and ageing process [88,
89]. This problem has led to substituting cross arms from wood timber to pultruded

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composites even though Chengal has excellent mechanical strength and the ability to
arc quench lightning strikes [8].

Raw materials, properties and configuration

PGFRPC cross arms have been the replacement for Chengal timber cross arms due
to their high tensile stiffness and strength, lightweight property, good bending prop-
erties, and great thermal and electrical insulations [90, 91]. Pultruded composite
cross arms are a combination of E-glass fibre and unsaturated polyester (UPE) with
the ratio of 37:63, and each beam of cross arms are fabricated via pultrusion [88].
Pultruded beams exhibit lightweight behaviour because both E-glass fibre (2580 kg/
m3) and UPE resin (1350 kg/m3) have low densities. Table 2 presents the compari-
son of the physical and mechanical properties of PGFRPC and steel. It can be seen
that Young’s modulus in x, y and z axis has differences due to the anisotropic prop-
erty of composite which made up from fibres and matrix. However, the Young’s
modulus at x-axis is significant in value as compared structural steel material. This
indicate that the glass fibre composites are susceptible to be used as cross arm in
transmission tower application.
On top of that, PGFRPC has a homogenous and fine surface finish. Composite
laminate is usually a form of unidirectional fibre along with its polymer matrix.
Specifically for cross arm beams, five layers of E-glass fabrics are laminated with
various orientations and thicknesses to achieve high mechanical strength and stiff-
ness. Table 3 displays the fabric orientation and thickness to manufacture pultruded
square hollow profile composite beams.

Current manufacturing technique: pultrusion

Pultrusion is a manufacturing term referred to as “pull” and “extrusion” as the com-

posite profile is pulled and extruded from a heated die. Pultrusion is usually imple-
mented to produce a symmetrical section profile, such as a square hollow tube with
a high volume production rate. Pultrusion is divided into three main zones: pull-
ing, heat transfer, and pressure [93]. The pultrusion process of composite beams
are started with the impregnation process of E-glass fibre from creel to unsaturated
polyester resin bath with appropriate viscosity. The fibre is aided by the creel with

Table 2  Mechanical and Properties PGFRPC Steel

physical properties of PGFRPC
and steels [92] Poisson ratio 0.28 0.30
Density 1800 7850
Young modulus (MPa)
In x-axis 16,000 20,000
In y-axis 4800 20,000
In z-axis 1440 20,000
Shear modulus (MPa) in all planes 4000 76,923

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Table 3  Configuration of Number of E-glass fabric layers Fabric orien- Thickness of

E-glass fabrics in pultruded layers tation (°) fabric (mm)
composite cross-arms [25]
1 Outer 45 0.5
2 Outer-middle − 45 0.5
3 Middle 90 0.7
4 Middle inner 0 3.6
5 Inner 45 0.5

guide plates directly to the resin basin, as shown in Fig. 8. The fabrication of com-
posite profiles applies continuous unidirectional fibres impregnated with low viscos-
ity thermosetting resin [94]. Initially, the resin basin contains a mixture of resin with
its filler, colouring pigment, catalyst, release agent, and stabilisers, and it is treated
with ultraviolet ray to start the curing process of impregnated fibre. At this stage,
the resin would be in a rubbery state from a liquid state. The fibres are pulled out
via preform guides to remove the excess resin before being placed inside the heated
die for curing. As the fibres in the heated die, they experienced gelation and curing
actions. During the gelation point, composite laminates start to solidify by forming
a solid pultruded profile [95]. Lastly, the composite shapes are pulled by the puller
with a hydraulic rubber clamp guides from the pultruded die and cut to pieces. The
pneumatic control system manages the pultrusion line movement by instructing the
hydraulic clamp to pull the profiles through the cutter. Along this process, the heated
die is embedded with a thermocouple sensor to ensure the temperature is sufficient
for curing and avoid the die from overheating, which could flaw the composite
profile.

Issues and problems of the PGFRPC cross‑arms

The current pultruded composite cross arm may encounter damage and failure due to
extreme environment, high stress, and time. The damages may include matrix crack,
delamination, wrinkles, structural damage, debonding, and occurrence of void [96].
The general composite structure defects are discussed in the following subsections.

Fig. 8  Pultrusion process of composite profile [25]

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Polymer Bulletin

Physical degradation

Since the current cross arm uses pultruded composites, several issues may arise in
the nearing future, such as its long-term durability and lifespan. The potential fail-
ure in the PGFRPC cross arm structure might be due to the cyclic loading from
the wind because the action could induce microcracks [97]. Furthermore, Ray [98]
discovered that weathering conditions such as hydrothermal ageing would induce
interface weakening and damage to composite structures. The extreme temperature
and moisture conditions of the environment would initiate the hydrothermal ageing
of composites, leading to premature failure in composite structures, mainly for cross
arm applications [99]. Thus, a critical evaluation on the safe limit parameter of cross
arms should be conducted to develop a standard safety requirement in manufactur-
ing cross arms that satisfies Malaysia’s tropical climate conditions.

Delamination

The delamination of a composite structure usually occurs in the matrix due to fibre
and plies arrangements and types of loading [90]. The delamination of composites
typically occurs in the form of inter-laminar damage and delamination of compos-
ite layers, which are followed by fibre breakage and kinking and matrix cracking.
Table 4 shows the effect of delamination on the degradation and shear properties of
glass fibre composites.
Turon et  al. [102] simulated a composite model to evaluate the delamination
propagation under high cyclic loading of fatigue. They established that the concept
of cohesive zone model could be formulated for quasi-static loads. Moreover, the
experimental results can be reproduced and validated using the constitutive fatigue
damage model in structural analysis. Based on the experimental findings by Li et al.
[103], glass fibre composites with delamination would reduce the ultimate loading
capacity. Subsequently, it would reduce the composites’ fatigue and creep resistance
properties to be used in structural applications. As a result, the lifespan of the com-
posite structure will be shortened for long-term use.

Mechanical and loading bearing conditions

Composite structures, especially GFRPCs would crack if the design is not fully opti-
mised with relevant details. This weakness would cause the catastrophe deterioration

Table 4  Degradation and shear properties of glass fibre composites in respect to creep

Time to thermal Interlaminar In-plane shear (MPa) Degradation depth (mm) References
exposure shear (MPa)

– 34.7 ± 4.5 53.7 ± 4.5 – [100]

0 – – 81.98 ± 8.60 [101]
1000 – – 51.97 ± 6.89
4000 – – 55.71 ± 5.16

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Polymer Bulletin

of the structure due to lack of torsional resistance and sudden load-carrying capacity
[104, 105]. Issues related to thin-walled composite structures include prebuckling,
postbuckling, deflection, and other severe damage growth because they are exposed
to buckling and slandering during their service. The study of torsion for compos-
ite structure could adequately identify the distinct phase of failure mode before the
tension motion and shear. According to Cardoso and Togahsi [106], global buck-
ling capacity and torsional-flexural strength are related to global member bend-
ing. Besides that, they established that a thin-walled composite structure has uni-
form stresses throughout its wall thickness. Thus, the general behaviour of buckling
modes directed by torsion related to bending walls can produce stress gradients
within their thickness, which could benefit heavy structure applications.

Thermal degradation

Even though glass fibre composite structures have innumerable desirable proper-
ties, they are exposed to moisture and heat in extreme climate conditions. Significant
temperature changes are one of the factors that degrade the durability and structural
integrity of composite laminate. This condition is usually referred to as thermal deg-
radation that may cause a composite structure to initiate premature debonding fail-
ure and microcracks at interfaces. In addition, the matrix of glass fibre composites
orient and bind the glass fibre to support the desired loads and protect them from
handling and the environment. Suitable and appropriate polymer matrix also aids
the composite to have interlaminar strength, especially in elevated temperatures and
other extreme environmental conditions. In this particular, Chin et al. [107] estab-
lished a GFRPC structure that is exposed to elevated temperature and high loading
capacity to reduce the composite structural performance. However, they found that
these conditions could be key conditions to evaluate the accelerated ageing and fore-
cast the predicted service life of the structure.

Ultraviolet radiation

GFRPC can be implemented in various industrial applications, including in the

major contractions for power transmission lines as cross arms. The material itself
presents many potential prospects compared to conventional materials (wood tim-
ber), such as improved durability in aggressive climate conditions. According
to Rodrigues et  al. [108], the mechanical behaviours of GFRPC laminate can be
reduced instantaneously due to the combined effect of humidity and ultraviolet radi-
ation. This situation happened due to the increased diffusion kinetics of the compos-
ite. Apart from that, Chin et al. [107] discovered that outdoor application of GFRPC
was prone to UV radiation as photo-initiated oxidisation has led to composite sur-
face degradation.

Moisture

GFRPC is a high-performance material, especially its corrosive resistance, which

can be used in storage tanks, piping, structures, and marine applications. In general,

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Polymer Bulletin

GFRPC structure is likely to experience subcritical crack growth, followed by

static fatigue. This phenomenon happens when it is loaded and exposed to a humid
environment [109]. Commonly, composite structures accelerate water absorption
because the propagation of polymer matrix would affect the cyclic (fatigue) and
creep properties [108, 110]. There are prominent relationships between the dura-
bility of GFRP composites applications and moisture, thermal effects, and UV
radiation.
Wang et  al. [109] reported that the moisture absorption of polymer composites
was dependent on traditional diffusion theory, and it is related to the composites’
microstructure. Besides that, the flaking and cracking inside a composite structure
also happened due to the combination of moisture and high surrounding temper-
ature, as mentioned by Kasturiarachchi and Pritchard [111]. Moreover, glass fibre
composites also experienced reduced fatigue resistance properties and become
inconsistent in the very high cycle and low-stress range due to the influence of mois-
ture and elevated temperature. Xin et al. [112] revealed that the ageing of glass fibre
composites was due to the combination of moisture and elevated temperature that
reduces their substantially bending stiffness property. Lastly, the moisture update
could affect the interlaminar shear stress of a composite structure; subsequently, it
would cause more damages [113].

Potential substitution for existing cross‑arm beam

Based on the previous review, filament-wound composite cross arms are consid-
ered a high potential candidate to replace the current pultruded composite structure
technology. The improvement from the current product is its capability to exhibit
higher strength and resistance to collapse and failure in long-term applications. Fur-
thermore, it is a good technique to install composite core inside cross arm beam
without any slippage between face sheet and core. The combination of homogenous
composite core and cross arm beams would potentially promote high flexural prop-
erties and resistance to creep and fatigue due to the lower weight values. At pre-
sent, many cross arm studies are progressing by evaluating the effect of bracing on
a long-term basis and applicability [1, 2]. Hence, this paper suggests applying the
filament-wound composite core cross arm to replace both cross arm beams and brac-
ing arms. Several tests and analyses are required to ensure the future filament-wound
composite structure could replace the pultruded composite cross arm, such as creep,
quasi-static mechanical, fatigue, and electrical experiments.

Test evaluation

Quasi‑static mechanical test

Quasi-static mechanical tests are usually conducted in various ways (flexural, ten-
sile, and compression) to evaluate the stress–strain properties. It is proposed that
a cross arm should be fabricated using the filament winding process. Hence, it is

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Polymer Bulletin

important to study the mechanical properties of the newly designed cross arms to
evaluate the ability of the structure to sustain electric cables and insulators. In this
case, a series of quasi-static mechanical tests and analyses are required to ensure the
fabricated green composite cross arms fulfil the standards of mechanical properties
as their prototypes (wood and pultruded glass fibre composites).
Cardoso et  al. [114] developed a mathematical formulation to compute the
mechanical strength of pultruded glass fibre composite tube under buckling condi-
tions. The pultruded composite tube was exposed to failure during the postbuckling
period because it has longer dimension and lower strength. During postbuckling, the
researcher observed the behaviour and interaction between crushing and local and
global buckling. Sharaf et al. [33] evaluated the quasi-static mechanical properties
of a full-scale wooden cross arm in both normal and broken wire conditions. They
discovered that the current design of wooden cross arms in a 132 kV transmission
tower is exposed to severe deflection, especially during broken wire conditions. This
condition has led to the search for an ideal solution, which includes incorporating
the bracing system in the structure. Thus, Sharaf et  al. [34] developed and fabri-
cated a conceptual design of a full-scale wooden cross arm with an optimised braced
configuration. In addition, a simple computational simulation using finite element
analysis was executed to identify the best design with the most optimal mechani-
cal and structural performances. Hence, it is important to measure the quasi-static
mechanical performance of the proposed filament-wound composite cross arms to
determine whether the quality of the structure fulfils the Tenaga Nasional Berhad
specifications.

Creep test

Many research works use creep experiments in both coupon-scale and full-scale
cross arms to extend the description of loading mechanisms at the prolonged time
of pultruded green composite cross arms [24, 115]. Creep test can be conducted to
investigate the strength of the structure and material, failure mode, elasticity, and
viscoelasticity under constant load in the long-term period [32]. In addition, creep
strain, creep compliance, stress-independent material constant, creep failure, and
creep life are interesting topics, especially for cross arm structures. Thus, this paper
highlights the previous studies from creep responses of cross arm structures to pro-
vide a clear picture of any potential evaluation before the structure can be commer-
cialised in the energy sector.
Currently, research works have been conducted in providing testing facilities to
evaluate long-term mechanical performances of cross arms. According to Asyraf
et  al. [28, 30], two conceptual designs of creep test rigs for cross arm structures
have been developed to set up a platform for creep testing in three-point flexural
and cantilever beam tests. The research team has designed both test rigs using the
hybridisation of theory of inventive problem solving (TRIZ), morphological chart,
and analytic network process to generate ideas, refine attributes and characteristics,
and design the selection. Generally, computer aided drawing (CAD) and finite ele-
ment analysis (FEA) tools are used to systematically compute the process and opti-
mise the designs based on actual scenarios according to structural principles [29].

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Polymer Bulletin

Besides that, many creep studies and long-term mechanical performance com-
parisons of cross arm’s coupons have been conducted. For instance, Johari et  al.
[31] evaluated the influence of calcium carbonate ­(CaCO3) on the creep response
of PGFRP composite cross arms. They evaluated conventional creep and time–tem-
perature superposition (TTSP) methods and found that ­CaCO3 did not influence the
long-term performance of pultruded laminates. Moreover, both pultruded compos-
ites (with and without ­CaCO3) have the same creep life of about 25 years.
Overall, it is noteworthy that the evaluation of creep performances and responses
in both conventional and accelerated creep techniques is important for new green
composite cross arm structures. Before the experimental stage, test facilities have
to be designed and developed to execute specialised tests and analyses for structural
evaluations.

Electrical test

To evaluate the electrical resistance capacity of cross arms, a series of electrical

tests have to be conducted to measure their relative permittivity, voltage stress, cur-
rent density, and volume conductivity. These examinations are essential to guarantee
the continuous supply of power in metropolitan areas and remote areas for domestic,
commercial, and industrial usages [116–119]. Furthermore, the evaluation of elec-
trical resistance properties of cross arms would avoid any structural collapse that
disrupts transmission towers [120]. In some cases, the composite cross arm may be
exposed to burn due to electrical tracking, which later creates a scar (charred path)
and subsequently forms cavities within failure points. Rawi et al. [121] analysed the
cross arm located at the top of a latticed tower (Fig. 9) and reported that the cross
arm experienced the highest peak voltage when lightning stroke the earth wire of the
cross arms.

Conclusion

This paper presents a comprehensive review of filament-wound composites’ pro-

gress in structural usage, specifically on cross arm applications. Recent studies found
that filament-wound composite structures promote higher stiffness and strength
in mechanical properties and better surface finish. On the other hand, the filament
winding process has a slower production rate compared to pultrusion. However,

Fig. 9  Surface tracking and cracks on composite cross arm beams [25]

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Polymer Bulletin

this issue would not be a problem for cross arms because the demand depends on
the number of suspension latticed towers. The implementation of filament-wound
composite structures can be specifically engineered in textile patterns and designs
with high bending strength and better fatigue and creep resistance. Filament wind-
ing process also allows cross arms to be easily installed with a core structure such
as honeycomb to allow better flexure properties and allow better ability to resist
microcracking and flaking. A comprehensive analysis can compare the composite
structures such as the filament-wound and pultrusion cross arms with the same con-
figurations and materials. These analyses include quasi-static mechanical, creep, and
fatigue tests in the full-scale and coupon-scale cross arms to establish holistic views
and understanding of cross arms. It is also suggested that further studies can study
filament-wound cross arms in various conditions such as high moisture, surround-
ing temperature, and acidic environment to ensure the products are susceptible in
extreme conditions for the use of transmission towers.

Acknowledgements  This work was funded by Ministry of Higher Education, Malaysia for financial sup-
port under Fundamental Research Grant Scheme (FRGS): FRGS/1/2019/TK05/UPM/02/11(5540205)
and Universiti Putra Malaysia under Inisiatif Pemerkasaan Penerbitan Jurnal Tahun 2020: (9044023).
The authors are grateful to acknowledge IRMC UNITEN for the support through Bold 2021 research
grant: J510050002/2021006. We also would like express our gratitude to Universiti Kebangsaan Malay-
sia for partially funded this work via Dana Pecutan Penerbitan-LESTARI UKM: PP/LESTARI/2022 and
XX-2021-002.

Data availability  The data used to support the findings of this study are included within the article.

Declarations 

Conflict of interest  The authors declare no conflict of interest in the article.

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Authors and Affiliations

M. R. M. Asyraf1   · M. R. Ishak2,3 · Agusril Syamsir1 · A. L. Amir2 · N. M. Nurazzi4 ·

M. N. F. Norrrahim5 · Mochamad Asrofi6 · M. Rafidah7 · R. A. Ilyas8,9 ·
Mohamad Zakir Abd Rashid10 · M. R. Razman11
1
Institute of Energy Infrastructure, Universiti Tenaga Nasional, Jalan IKRAM‑UNITEN,
43000 Kajang, Selangor, Malaysia

13
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Polymer Bulletin

2
Department of Aerospace Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang,
Selangor, Malaysia
3
Aerospace Malaysia Research Centre (AMRC), Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang,
Selangor, Malaysia
4
Centre for Defence Foundation Studies, Universiti Pertahanan Nasional Malaysia (UPNM),
Kem Perdana Sungai Besi, 57000 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
5
Research Centre for Chemical Defence, Universiti Pertahanan Nasional Malaysia (UPNM), Kem
Perdana Sungai Besi, 57000 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
6
Laboratory of Material Testing, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Universitas Jember,
Kampus Tegalboto, Jember 68121, East Java, Indonesia
7
Department of Civil Engineering, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor,
Malaysia
8
Sustainable Waste Management Research Group (SWAM), School of Chemical and Energy
Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor,
Malaysia
9
Centre for Advanced Composite Materials (CACM), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia,
81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, Malaysia
10
TNB Grid Division, Grid Solution Expertise (GSE), Bangunan Dua Sentral, No. 8, Jalan Tun
Sambanthan, 50470 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
11
Research Centre for Sustainability Science and Governance (SGK), Institute for Environment
and Development (LESTARI), Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, 43600 UKM Bangi, Selangor,
Malaysia

13
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