A rock is a naturally occurring solid mixture of one or Sedimentary Rocks are formed at or near the

more minerals, or organic matter. Earth’s surface

 Igneous rock begins as magma. No heat and pressure involved

 Magma can form: Strata – layers of rock

▪ When rock is heated Stratification – the process in which sedimentary

rocks are arranged in layers
▪ When pressure is released
Clastic – made of fragments of rock cemented
▪ When rock changes together with calcite or quartz
composition
Breccia is a term most often used for clastic
 Magma freezes between
sedimentary rocks that are composed of large
700 °C and 1,250 °C angular fragments (over two millimeters in
diameter).
 Magma is a mixture of

many minerals
Chemical sedimentary – minerals crystallize out
of solution to become rock
Felsic: light colored rocks that are rich in
elements such as aluminum, potassium, silicon, Limestone is a sedimentary rock composed
and sodium primarily of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) in the
form of the mineral calcite. It most commonly
Mafic: dark colored rocks that are rich in calcium, forms in clear, warm, shallow marine waters.
iron, and magnesium, poor in silicon
Coarse-grained: takes longer to cool, giving
mineral crystals more time to grow
Metamorphic Rock
Fine-grained: cools quickly with little to no
crystals Meaning to change shape

Intrusive Igneous Rocks: magma pushes into Changes with temperature and pressure, but
surrounding rock below the Earth’s surface remains solid

Extrusive Rocks: forms when magma erupts onto Usually takes place deep in the Earth
the Earth’s surface (lava), cools quickly with very Contact Metamorphism – heated by nearby
small or no crystals formed magma
Obsidian is a dark-colored volcanic glass that Increased temperature changes the composition
forms from the very rapid cooling of molten rock of the rock, minerals are changed into new
material. It cools so rapidly that crystals do not minerals
form.
Hornfels is a fine-grained non-foliated
Sedimentary Rocks metamorphic rock produced by contact
metamorphism
Sedimentary rock is formed by erosion
Regional Metamorphism – pressure builds up in
Sediments are moved from one place to another
rocks that is deep within the Earth
Sediments are deposited in layers, with the older
Large pieces of the Earth’s crust collide and the
ones on the bottom
rock is deformed and chemically changed by heat
 The layers become compacted and pressure
and cemented together
Foliated - contain aligned grains of flat minerals The Mineral Beryl
Emerald Aquamarine
Gneiss is foliated metamorphic rock that has a
banded appearance and is made up of granular The Mineral Corundum
mineral grains. It typically contains abundant
Ruby Sapphire
quartz or feldspar minerals.
Identifying Minerals
Non-Foliated – mineral grains are not arranged in
Each Mineral has its own specific properties that
plains or bands
can be used to identify it.
Marble is a non-foliated metamorphic rock that is
1. Hardness 6. Crystal Shape
produced from the metamorphism of limestone.
It is composed primarily of calcium carbonate. 2. Color 7. Cleavage & Fracture

3. Streak
The rock cycle
8. Special Properties

4. Luster
5. Density
Rocks are aggregates of 2 or more minerals.
Petrology is the study of rocks. Mohs hardness scale
There are three classifications of rocks: igneous, 1 = Softest (talc or graphite)
sedimentary, and metamorphic.
10 = Hardest (diamond)

Properties of Minerals Streak- the color of a mineral when it is made

into a powder
The Rules of the Mineral
Pyrite (fool’s gold) is very similar in color to real
Every Mineral must follow these set of rules gold, but Pyrite has a greenish-black streak and
1. Naturally Occurring gold has a gold streak.

2. Inorganic Luster- describes how light reflects off a

minerals surface
3. Solid
Metallic Luster- describes minerals that are shiny.
4. Crystal Structure
Glassy Luster- describes minerals that look like
5. Definite Chemical Composition
they have a glassy surface, ex. Quartz
Crystal Structure *Minerals are usually described as having a
A crystal is a solid in which the atoms are metallic or non-metallic luster.
arranged in a pattern that repeats again and
again. Crystal Shape
Internal Arrangement of the Atoms Every crystal has a characteristic shape that is
due to its Crystal structure.
Definite Chemical Composition
Halite (NaCl or Salt)- will always have six sides
This means that a mineral always contains certain and form a cube
elements in definite proportions
Hoppered pink Halite crystals from the
Quartz- always has one atom of Silica for every evaporation
two atoms of oxygen
Minerals will either break by cleavage or
fracture?
Cleavage- a minerals ability to split easily along Before a mine can be opened, a complete
flat surfaces environmental study is done so the land can be
rehabilitated during and after mining.
Fracture- minerals which break with rough or
uneven surfaces Environmental protection
throughout the mining process.
Special Properties
Fluorescence- some minerals glow under
ultraviolet light ex.) Fluorite
Magnetism- some metallic minerals are naturally
magnetic ex.) Magnetite
Effervescence- some minerals such as Calcite fizz
when acid is placed on it
Electrical Properties- a few minerals, such as
quartz produce an electrical current
There are two basic types of Mining
Underground Mining- various underground mining

MINING techniques used to excavate hard minerals (hard rock

mining), mainly those containing metals such as gold,
silver, iron, copper, zinc, nickel and lead, but also
A mine is a place where rocks and minerals of involves using the same techniques for excavating
value are extracted. ores of gems such as diamonds. In contrast soft rock
mining refers to excavation of softer minerals such as
Government Permits are needed before and salt, coal or tar sands.
during all mining processes
Surface Mining-  method of extracting minerals near
the surface of the Earth. The three most common
types of surface mining are open pit mining, strip
mining, and quarrying.

Underground Mining
Nickel Miners Underground Drill
Longwall coal mining cuts a slice from the long
wall.
The first phase of mining is called EXPLORATION. Notice the safety gear that these miners wear
everyday.
Satellites, airplanes and helicopters can be used
to help find mineral deposits Miner Safety
A geologist is a scientist who studies the Earth Hard hat – The hard hat will protect Stan’s head
and it’s processes. from falling objects (rocks, tools, etc.) in the
If an area looks promising, a drill is moved to the workplace.
site. Light – The light provides improved illumination
The drill goes deep into the Earth’s crust so Stan can see better in what can be a dark
removing long cylinders of rock called cores. workplace.

Geologic maps are created.

Safety glasses – Protect Stan’s eyes from dust or temperatures above 1064°Celcius. What would
any objects that are thrust towards his eyes while that number be in Fharenheit?
performing work.
Leaching - Arial view of a leach pad at a
Snug Coveralls – Heavy duty snug coveralls keep copper mine in Morenci, Arizona. These
the miner warm and help prevent cuts and
pads are the size of several football fields.
scratches.
This one is being stacked with crushed ore.
Self-rescuer – The self rescuer is a breathing
apparatus that supplies Stan with oxygen for up Electrowinning- Starter sheets are lowered
to 1 hour in the case of a mine fire, smoke, smog into a solution. An electrical charge passes
or any other incident that would deprive him through causing copper ions to stick to the
from breathing fresh air. sheets.
Ankle strap – The ankle strap keeps Stan’s
Reclamation -Modern mines reclaim and
coveralls tight to his legs to avoid loose and
floppy clothing that could get caught in moving rehabilitate the land during and after
machinery or cause him to trip and fall. mining is completed, returning the land to
useful purposes.
Steel-tipped boots – The steel tip of his work
boots protect Stan’s toes from injury due to
heavy falling objects. Fossil Fuels
Battery for light – The battery supplies power to Electricity is considered a secondary source of
Stan’s light for a good 8 to 10 hours. energy because it takes other sources of energy,
Methane detector – detects dangerous levels of such as coal or solar to create electricity.
methane gas in the mine and allows the miner to Currently, most electricity is generated through
get to a safe place. Methane is a colorless, nonrenewable energy sources.
odorless gas that is very explosive. Methane gas
is often encountered in coal mining. Most electricity in the U.S.A. is generated by coal
burning power plants because it is the cheapest
Extraction- is the process of removing mineral to use and produces large amounts of energy.
resources from the Earth’s crust.
The three types of fossil fuels are coal, natural
Minerals are different so many different types gas, and oil.
of processing are needed to remove them from Fossil fuels are the most commonly used
the rock. Following are just a few processes. nonrenewable resources.
Milling-This rock contains gold. Milling is the The energy in fossil fuels originally came from the
process of separating the desired mineral from sun.
the unwanted rock (called gangue.) See if you can
find the specks of gold. The sun provides energy to plants and the plants
use photosynthesis to help them grow.
Concentration and Flotation- Some minerals
The ultimate source of the energy in fossil fuels is
are separated by washing, flotation or magnetic
from the sun. Photosynthetic plants and marine
separation. Here a combination of water,
algae lock this energy into organic matter. When
chemicals, air and agitation make desired mineral
we burn plants, coal, oil, or gas, we release the
particles float to the top of the bubbles.
sun's trapped energy.
Smelting - Smelting uses high heat and
Burning fossil fuels releases their stored energy.
chemicals to remove base metals and impurities
from concentrates. Smelting furnaces can reach
Three problems with burning fossil fuels are air When present supplies of nonrenewable
pollution, water pollution, and soil pollution. resources are used up, there will be no more

Carbon dioxide is released when burning fossil

fuels.

Coal is an organic rock that originally came from

dead swamp grass that compacted over millions
of years.

The fossil fuel coal formed from the

remains of plants that lived and died
around 100 to 400 million years ago, when
parts of the earth were covered with huge
swampy forests.
Coal is considered a nonrenewable energy
source because it takes millions of years to
form.
Of the fossil fuels, natural gas produces
the least amount of pollution.
Natural gas is a naturally occurring
hydrocarbon gas mixture consisting
primarily of methane, with other
hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide, nitrogen
and hydrogen sulfide.
Natural gas is an energy source often used
for heating, cooking, and electricity
generation.
Petroleum, also known as crude oil, or simply oil
is a nonrenewable fossil fuel usually found
underground in reservoirs located in sandstone
or limestone. This fossil fuel is made from sea
plants and animals.
The energy source used more than any other in
the U.S.A. is oil.
Gasoline is made from the fossil fuel oil.
Oil and gas are formed from the remains of
marine plants, animals and microorganisms that
lived in seas millions of years ago.
Propane is a nonrenewable fossil fuel that is a
derivative of natural gas and petroleum