Presentation on Instrumentation

Topic:
1.Instruments definition and classification
2.Zero order+ 1st order+2nd order
3.Step response+ Impulse response+ Ramp
response
4. Dynamic characteristics

Roll: 1929036,37,39,40,41,
43,44,46,47,48,49
Instrument:
In an instrumentation system, an instrument refers to a device
that is used to measure, monitor, or control a physical quantity
or process variable. Instruments can be simple or complex
depending on the application, and they can range from basic
analog devices to sophisticated digital systems.

Some examples of instruments commonly used in instrumentation

systems include thermocouples for temperature measurement,
pressure sensors for pressure measurement, flow meters for fluid flow
measurement, pH meters for pH measurement, and accelerometers for
vibration measurement.
Figure 1. Thermocouple Figure 2. Basic iron-constantan thermocouple circuit

Instruments are typically designed to be accurate, reliable, and repeatable,

and they are often calibrated and tested to ensure that they meet specified
performance requirements. They are also often designed to interface with
other components of the instrumentation system, such as data acquisition
systems or control systems, in order to provide feedback and enable real-
time monitoring and control of processes.
Classification of Instrumentation:

Instruments in an
instrumentation system can
be classified based on
various criteria, including
their functions, working
principles, and types of
measurements they make.
Here are some common
classifications of instruments
in an instrumentation system:
Mechanical instruments – The instruments which came into existence in early
days were of mechanical nature. The principles on which these instruments worked
are even in use today. The earliest scientific instruments used the same three
essential elements as the modern instruments use.
These elements are :

(i) detector,
(ii) intermediate transfer device
(iii) indicator, recorder or a storage device. 

These instruments are very reliable for static and stable conditions. There are a
large number of possibilities for mechanical instruments. 
Example: the instruments can be calipers, micrometers, scales, measuring tapes,
and lasers, etc.
Electronic instruments – Majority of the modern instruments used for
scientific and industrial measurement applications require very rapid
responses. The mechanical and electrical instruments and systems cannot
meet these requirements. There is a requirement of decreasing the response
time and also the detection of dynamic changes in certain parameters. The
monitoring time needed can be of the order of milli-seconds and many a
times, in micro- seconds. This has led to the development of electronic
instruments and their associated circuitry. These instruments involved
vacuum tubes or semi-conductor devices.
Electrical instruments – Electrical methods of indicating and transmitting
the output are faster when compared with the respective mechanical methods.
However, an electrical system normally depends upon a mechanical pointer
movement as an indicating device. Thus owing to the inertial of mechanical
movements, these instruments have a limited time and frequency response.

As an example:
the majority of industrial recorders have response time
ranging from of 0.5 seconds to 24 seconds though some electrical recorders
can give full scale response in 0.2 seconds.
Electrical instrument has two part

1. Absolute or primary instruments – These instruments are those instruments which

give the value of electrical quantity to be measured in terms of the constants of the
instruments and their deflection only e.g. tangent galvanometer.

2. Secondary instruments – It is the secondary instruments which are most generally

used in everyday work.  Secondary instruments are those in which the values of
electrical quantity to be measured can be determined from the deflection of the
instruments only when they have been pre-calibrated by comparison with an absolute
instrument. Without calibration, the deflection of such instruments is meaningless. It is
the secondary instruments which are most generally used in everyday work. Typical
examples of secondary instruments are voltmeter, glass thermometer, and pressure
gauge. Secondary type of measuring instruments has been classified in three categories
namely
(i) indicating instruments,
(ii) recording instruments, and
(iii) integrating instruments.
Secondary instruments has also two parts:

Analog Instruments:
Analog instruments provide a continuous output signal, such as a voltage or
current, that varies in proportion to the measured quantity.
Examples include voltmeters, ammeters, and pressure gauges.

Fig: voltmeters
Digital Instruments:
Digital instruments provide a discrete output signal, such as a binary number
or a series of pulses, that represents the measured quantity.
Examples include digital multimeters, counters, and timers.

Fig: timer
Fig: multimeter
Measuring Instruments: Measuring instruments are used to measure physical
quantities such as temperature, pressure, flow, and level.
 
Recording Instruments: Recording instruments are used to record the
variations in the measured quantity over time.
Examples include chart recorders, data loggers, and strip chart recorders.
 
Control Instruments: Control instruments are used to maintain a process
variable at a desired value by automatically adjusting a control signal.
Examples include temperature controllers, pressure controllers, and flow
controllers.
 
Indicating Instruments: Indicating instruments are used to display the
measured value of a physical quantity.
Examples include digital displays, analog gauges, and light indicators.
Calibration Instruments: Calibration instruments are used to verify the
accuracy of other instruments.
Examples include reference standards, calibrators, and signal generators.

Overall, these classifications provide a useful way to organize and understand the
different types of instruments used in an instrumentation system.
The applications of instruments in instrumentation systems are vast and can include:
 
Manufacturing: Instruments are used to measure parameters such as temperature,
pressure, and humidity in manufacturing processes to ensure quality and consistency of
the products.
 
Environmental monitoring: Instruments such as sensors, analyzers, and gauges are
used to measure various environmental parameters such as air quality, water quality,
and soil conditions.
 
Healthcare: Instruments are used in healthcare settings to monitor vital signs of
patients, such as blood pressure, heart rate, and oxygen levels.

Aerospace and Defense: Instruments are used in aircraft and missile systems to
measure parameters such as altitude, speed, and direction.

 
 
Energy: Instruments are used in the energy industry to monitor and control
parameters such as flow rate, pressure, and temperature in power generation,
transmission, and distribution systems.
 
Transportation: Instruments are used in transportation systems, such as
automobiles, trains, and ships, to measure parameters such as speed, fuel
consumption, and emissions.
 
Research and Development: Instruments are used in scientific research to measure
and analyze a wide range of parameters in various fields such as physics, chemistry,
and biology.

Overall, instruments play a crucial role in modern instrumentation systems and have
a wide range of applications in various industries and fields.
Zero Order Instruments:

A zero order linear instrument has an output which is proportional to the

input at all times in accordance with the equation,
y(t) = Kx(t)
where K is a constant called the static gain of the instrument. The static gain
is a measure of the sensitivity of the instrument.

An example of a zero order linear instrument is a wire strain gauge in which

the change in the electrical resistance of the wire is proportional to the strain
in the wire.
All instruments behave as zero order instruments when they give a static
output in response to a static input.
First Order Instruments:

A first order linear instrument has an output which is given by a non-

homogeneous first order linear differential equation

tau .dy(t)/dt + y(t) = K.x(t)

where tau is a constant, called the time constant of the instrument. In these
instruments there is a time delay in their response to changes of input. The
time constant tau is a measure of the time delay. Thermometers for
measuring temperature are first-order instruments. The time constant of a
measurement of temperature is determined by the thermal capacity of the
thermometer and the thermal contact between the thermometer and the
body whose temperature is being measured.
A cup anemometer for measuring wind speed is also a first order
instrument. The time constant depends on the anemometer's moment of
inertia.
Second Order Instruments:

A second order linear instrument has an output which is given by a non-homogeneous

second order linear differential equation

d 2y(t)/dt 2 + 2. rho .omega.dy(t)/dt +omega 2.y(t) = K. omega2.x(t)

where rho is a constant, called the damping factor of the instrument, and omega is a constant
called the natural frequency of the instrument. Under a static input a second order linear
instrument tends to oscillate about its position of equilibrium. The natural frequency of the
instrument is the frequency of these oscillations. Friction in the instrument opposes these
oscillations with a strength proportional to the rate of change of the output. The damping
factor is a measure of this opposition to the oscillations.

An example of a second order linear instrument is a galvanometer which measures an

electrical current by the torque on a coil carrying the current in a magnetic field. The rotation
of the coil is opposed by a spring. The strength of the spring and the moment of inertia of the
coil determine the natural frequency of the instrument. The damping of the oscillations is by
mechanical friction and electrical eddy currents.
Step response:
In biomedical instrumentation, the step response refers to the change in the
output of a system or device when a sudden change, or "step," is applied to
the input. In other words, it describes how quickly and accurately a system
responds to a sudden change in the input signal.

For example, in the context of an electrocardiogram (ECG) machine, the

step response would refer to how quickly and accurately the machine detects
and displays a sudden change in the electrical activity of the heart.

The step response is an important parameter for evaluating the performance

of biomedical instrumentation, as it can indicate how well the system is able
to detect and respond to changes in the input signal. A system with a fast and
accurate step response is generally considered to be more reliable and
effective in clinical applications.
what is impulse response in biomedical instrumentation
In biomedical instrumentation, the impulse response refers to the output of a
system or device when it is stimulated with a brief input signal, or "impulse."
The impulse response describes the way that the system responds to a sudden
change in the input, and can be used to characterize the system's behavior
over time.

For example, in the context of a magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) machine,

the impulse response would describe the magnetic field that is generated in
response to a brief pulse of electrical current. By analyzing the impulse
response, researchers can better understand the characteristics of the MRI
system, such as its resolution, sensitivity, and noise levels.
what is ramp response in biomedical instrumentation:

In biomedical instrumentation, the ramp response refers to the output of a system

or device when it is stimulated with a continuously increasing or decreasing input
signal, known as a "ramp" or "slope." The ramp response describes how the
system responds to a gradual change in the input, and can be used to characterize
the system's behavior over time.
For example, in the context of a spirometer used to measure lung function, the
ramp response would describe the changes in airflow or volume that occur in
response to a gradually increasing or decreasing pressure gradient.

The ramp response is an important concept in signal processing and biomedical

instrumentation, as it can be used to analyze the performance of a wide range of
systems, including physiological monitoring devices, drug delivery systems, and
prosthetic devices. By characterizing the ramp response of these systems,
researchers and clinicians can better understand their behavior and optimize their
design and performance for specific clinical applications.
Dynamic characteristics -
The dynamic characteristics of an instrumentation system describe how the system responds to
changes in the input signal over time. These characteristics are important to understand when
designing or selecting an instrumentation system for a specific application. Some of the key
dynamic characteristics include:

Time response: This is the time it takes for the output signal of the system to reach a
steady state after a change in the input signal. A system with a faster time response can
provide more accurate and timely information about the process being monitored.

Rise time: This is the time it takes for the output signal to rise from 10% to 90% of its
steady-state value in response to a step change in the input signal. A system with a
faster rise time can detect and respond to changes in the input signal more quickly.

Settling time: This is the time it takes for the output signal to settle within a certain
range around its steady-state value after a step change in the input signal. A system
with a shorter settling time can provide more stable and accurate measurements.
Overshoot: This is the amount by which the output signal exceeds its steady-
state value before settling down after a step change in the input signal. A system
with high overshoot can indicate that the system is not properly damped, which
can result in inaccurate measurements.

Frequency response: This is the range of frequencies over which the system
can accurately respond to changes in the input signal. A system with a wider
frequency response range can detect and respond to changes in the input signal
over a broader range of frequencies.

Understanding the dynamic characteristics of an instrumentation system is crucial

in ensuring that the system can provide accurate and reliable measurements for a
specific application. The choice of instrumentation system should be based on the
specific needs and requirements of the application in terms of its dynamic
characteristics.
Example for dynamic characteristics
Suppose we have a temperature sensor that measures the temperature of a liquid in a
tank. The temperature sensor is connected to a control system that adjusts the
temperature of the liquid by controlling the flow of a heating element. The control
system has a time response of 1 second.
If the temperature of the liquid in the tank suddenly increases by 10 degrees Celsius,
we can analyze the dynamic characteristics of the system to see how the temperature
sensor and control system respond to this change.
The time response of the control system tells us that it will take approximately 1
second for the control system to adjust the temperature of the liquid in response to the
change. This means that the temperature of the liquid will not reach its new steady-
state value immediately but will gradually approach it over time.
The rise time of the system tells us how quickly the temperature sensor responds to
changes in the temperature of the liquid. Suppose the temperature sensor has a rise
time of 0.1 seconds. This means that it will take 0.1 seconds for the output of the
temperature sensor to rise from 10% to 90% of its steady-state value in response to
the change in temperature.
This means that it will take approximately 5 seconds for the temperature of the liquid
to settle within a certain range around its new steady-state value.
The overshoot of the system tells us how much the temperature of the liquid will
exceed its new steady-state value before settling down. Suppose the overshoot of the
system is 2 degrees Celsius. This means that the temperature of the liquid will
initially rise by 12 degrees Celsius (10 degrees plus 2 degrees of overshoot) before
settling down to its new steady-state value.
The frequency response of the system tells us how quickly the system can respond to
changes in the temperature of the liquid at different frequencies. A system with a
wider frequency response range can respond to changes in the temperature of the
liquid over a broader range of frequencies.
Overall, these dynamic characteristics can help us understand how an instrumentation
system will respond to changes in the input signal and how quickly it can provide
accurate and reliable measurements for a specific application. The settling time of the
system tells us how quickly the temperature of the liquid will stabilize around its new
steady-state value. Suppose the settling time of the system is 5 seconds.