SEM/YEAR: IV/II PPG INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

EE6404 Measurements and Instrumentation Department of EEE

EE6404 MEASUREMENTS AND INSTRUMENTATION

UNIT I INTRODUCTION 9
Functional elements of an instrument – Static and dynamic characteristics – Errors in
measurement – Statistical evaluation of measurement data – Standards and calibration.

UNIT II ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS INSTRUMENTS 9

Principle and types of analog and digital voltmeters, ammeters, multimeters – Single and
three phase watt meters and energy meters – Magnetic measurements – Determination
of B-H curve and measurements of iron loss – Instrument transformers – Instruments for
measurement of frequency and phase.

UNIT III COMPARISON METHODS OF MEASUREMENTS 9

D.C & A.C potentiometers, D.C & A.C bridges, transformer ratio bridges, self-balancing
bridges. Interference & screening – Multiple earth and earth loops - Electrostatic and
electromagnetic interference – Grounding techniques
UNIT IV STORAGE AND DISPLAY DEVICES 9
Magnetic disk and tape – Recorders, digital plotters and printers, CRT display, digital CRO,
LED, LCD & dot matrix display – Data Loggers.

UNIT V TRANSDUCERS AND DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEMS 9

Classification of transducers – Selection of transducers – Resistive, capacitive &
inductive transducers – Piezoelectric, Hall effect, optical and digital transducers – Elements
of data acquisition system – A/D, D/A converters – Smart sensors.
TEXT BOOKS:
1. A.K. Sawhney, ‘A Course in Electrical & Electronic Measurements &
Instrumentation’, Dhanpat Rai and Co, 2004.
2. J. B. Gupta, ‘A Course in Electronic and Electrical Measurements’, S. K. Kataria &
Sons, Delhi, 2003.
3. Doebelin E.O. and Manik D.N., Measurement Systems – Applications and Design,
Special Indian Edition, Tata McGraw Hill Education Pvt. Ltd., 2007.
REFERENCES:
1. H.S. Kalsi, ‘Electronic Instrumentation’, Tata McGraw Hill, II Edition 2004.
2. D.V.S. Moorthy, ‘Transducers and Instrumentation’, Prentice Hall of India Pvt
Ltd, 2007. 3. A.J. Bouwens, ‘Digital Instrumentation’, Tata McGraw Hill, 1997.
4. Martin Reissland, ‘Electrical Measurements’, New Age International (P) Ltd., Delhi, 2001.
5. Alan. S. Morris, Principles of Measurements and Instrumentation, 2nd Edition, Prentice Hall
of India, 2003.

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EE6404 Measurements and Instrumentation Department of EEE

UNIT I - INTRODUCTION

1. What is meant by measurement?

Measurement means an act or the result of comparison between the quantity and a
predefined standard.
2. Mention the basic requirements of measurement.
The basic requirements of measurement are
i. The standard used for comparison purpose must be accurately defined and should be
commonly accepted.
ii. The apparatus used and the method adopted must be provable.
3. State the function of measurement system.
The measurement system consists of a transducing element which converts the quantity to
be measured in an analogous form the analogous signal is then processed by some intermediate
means and is then fed to the end device which presents the results of the measurement.
4. Classify the instrument based on their functions.
Instruments are classified into three types based on their functions. They are
i. Indicating instruments ii. Integrating instruments iii. Recording instruments
5. Give any three applications of measurement systems.
The applications of measurement systems are
i. Monitoring of processes and operations. ii. Control of processes and operations.
iii. Experimental engineering analysis.
6. Define: Calibration. Why calibration of instrument is important?
Calibration is defined as the process by which comparing the instrument with a
standard to correct the accuracy. The calibration of all instruments is important since it
affords the opportunity to check the instrument against a known standard and
subsequently to errors in accuracy.
7. List the functional elements of the measurement systems.
The three main functional elements of the measurement systems are:
i. Primary sensing element
ii. Variable conversion element
iii. Data presentation element
8. Define static error
Static error is defined as the difference between the true value and the measured value
of the quantity.
Static error = At – Am
where Am =measured value of quantity
At =true value of quantity.
9. Define resolution
Resolution is defined as the smallest increment of quantity being measured
which can be detected with certainty being measured which can be detected with
certainty by an instrument.
10. Define reproducibility
Reproducibility is defined as the degree of closeness with which a given value
may be repeatedly measured. It is specified in terms of scale readings over a given
period of time.
11.Define fidelity
Fidelity is defined as the degree to which a measurement system indicates changes in
the measured quantity without any dynamic error.

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EE6404 Measurements and Instrumentation Department of EEE

12. Define dynamic error

Dynamic error is defined as the difference between the true value of the
quantity changing with time and the value indicated by the measurement system if no
static error is assumed. It is also called measurement error. It is one the dynamic
characteristics.
PART B

1.Describe the functional elements of an instrument with its block diagram.

PRIMARY SENSING ELEMENT: The quantity under measurement makes its first contact with
the primary sensing element of a measurement system.
VARIABLE CONVERSION ELEMENT: It converts the output of the primary sensing element
into suitable form to preserve the information content of the original signal.
TRANSDUCER ELEMENT: Normally ,a transducer sense the desired input in one physical
form and converts it to an output in another physical form. For example, the input variable to the
transducer could be pressure, acceleration or temperature and the output of the transducer may be
displacement, voltage or resistance change depending on the type of transducer element.
Sometimes the dimensional units of the input and output signals may be same. In such cases the
functional element is termed a transformer.
Depending on the transducer signal the signal conditioning may be any one of the
following,
1.Mechanical amplifying elements such as levers , gears or a combination of the two, designed
to have a multiplying effect on the input transducer signal.
2.Hydraulic/Pneumatic amplifying elements employing various types of valves or
constrictions ,such as venturimeter/orificemeter,to get significant variation in pressure with small
variation in the input parameters.
3.Optical amplifying elements in which lenses, mirrors and combinations of lenses and mirrors
or lamp and scale arrangement are employed to convert the small input displacement into an
output of sizeable magnitude for a convenient display of the same.
4.Electrical amplifying elements employing transistor circuits, integrated circuits, etc, for
boosting the amplitude of the transducer signal. In such amplifiers we have either of the following

voltage amplification= output voltage = Vo

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EE6404 Measurements and Instrumentation Department of EEE

input voltage Vi
Current amplification= Output current = Io
Input current Ii
or

Gain= Output power = VoIo

Input power ViI i
Signal filtration: The term signal filtration means the removal of unwanted noise signals
that tend to obscure the transducer signal. The signal filtration element could be any of the
following depending on the type of situation, nature of signal ,etc..
1.Mechanical Filters that consist of mechanical elements to protect the transducer
element from various interfering extraneous signals. For ex: the reference junction of a
thermocouple is kept in a thermos flask containing ice. This protects the system from the ambient
temperature changes.
2.Pneumatic filters consisting of a small orifice or venturi to filter out fluctuations in a
pressure signal.
3.Electrical filters are employed to get rid of stray pick-ups due to electrical and magnetic
fields. They may be simple R-C circuits or any other suitable electrical filters compatible with the
transduced signal.
DATA PRESENTATION ELEMENT:
The information about the quantity under measurement has to be conveyed to the
personnel handling the instrument or the system for monitoring, control or analysis purpose
This system gathers the output of the signal conditioning element and presents the same to
be read or seen by the experimenter. This element should:
1.have as fast a response as possible
2.impose as little drag on the system as possible, and
3.have very small inertia, friction, stiction, etc..(hence using light rays and electron beam
is advantageous).
This element may be either of the visual display type, graphic recording type or a magnetic
tape. In the visual display type element, devices such as pointer and scale/panel meter, multi-
channel CRO, storage CRO, etc.., may be employed. The graphic recording type of element gives
a permanent record of the input data. The device in this element may be pen recorders using
heated stylus, ink recorders on paper charts, optical recording systems such as mirror
galvanometer recorders or ultraviolet recorders on special photosensitive paper. Further , a
magnetic tape may be used to acquire input data which could be reproduced at a later date for
analysis.
In case the output of the signal conditioning element is in digital form, then the same may
be displayed visually on a digital display device. Alternatively, it may be suitably recorded either
on punched cards, perforated paper tape, magnetic type, typewritten page or a combination of
these systems for further processing

2.What are the different types of errors in the measurement and explain in detail?
All physical measurements involve some degree of uncertainty. Whenever the
measurements are taken, a degree of error must always be assumed. In reality, no measurement
can ever be made with pin point accuracy. The three major types of errors are gross errors,
systematic errors and random errors.

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EE6404 Measurements and Instrumentation Department of EEE

GROSS ERROR:
This class of errors mainly covers human mistakes in reading or using instruments and in
recording and calculating measured values. Since this is mainly due to human mistake ,complete
elimination of gross error is probably impossible, one should try to anticipate and correct them.
Some gross errors are easily detected while others may be very difficult to detect.
For ex: observer may, due to oversight, read the temperature as 31.5oC while the actual reading
may be 21.5oC.However they can be avoided by adopting two means. They are
1.Great care should be taken in reading and recording the data.
2.Two,three or even more readings should be taken for the quantity under measurement.
These readings should be taken preferably by different experimenters and the readings should be
taken at a different reading point to avoid re-reading with the same error. Never place complete
dependence on one reading but take at least three separate readings , preferably under conditions
in which instruments are switched OFF-ON.
SYSTEMATIC ERROR:
These types of errors are divided into three categories such as instrumental, environmental
and observational errors
1.INSTRUMENTAL ERRORS:
These errors arise due to inherent short comings in the instrument, misuse of the
instruments and loading effects.
1.Inherent short comings of instruments:
These errors are inherent in instruments because of their mechanical structure. They may
be due to construction, calibration or operation of the instruments or measuring devices.
For ex: if the spring of a permanent magnet instrument has become weak, the instrument will
always read high.
Errors may be caused because of friction, hysteresis or even gear backlash. These errors
may be eliminated or reduced by using the following methods:
1.Correction factors should be applied after determining the instrumental errors.
2.The instrument may be re-calibrated carefully.
3.The procedure of measurement must be carefully planned. Substitution methods or
calibration against standards may be used for the purpose.
2.Misuse of instruments:
Some of the errors caused in measurements are due to the fault of the operator than that of
the instrument. A good instrument used in an unintelligent way may give erroneous results.
For ex: Failure to adjust the zero of instruments, poor initial adjustments, using leads of too high a
resistance etc..,
3.Loading effects:
In any measurement, the loading effect of the instrument should be considered and
corrections for these effects should be made or more suitable instruments should be used.
For ex: A well calibrated voltmeter may give a misleading voltage reading when connected across
a high resistance circuit. The same voltmeter when connected in a low resistance circuit, may give
a more dependable reading and the voltmeter has a loading effect on the circuit, altering the actual
circuit conditions by the measurement process. The errors caused by loading effects of the meters
can be avoided by using them intelligently.
2.ENVIRONMENTAL ERRORS:
These errors are due to conditions external to the measuring device including conditions in
the area surrounding the instrument. These may be effects of temperature, pressure, humidity,
dust, vibrations or of external magnetic or electrostatic fields. The corrective measures employed
to eliminate or to reduce these undesirable effects are:

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1.Arrangements should be made to keep the conditions as nearly as constant as possible.

For ex: temperature can be kept constant by keeping the equipment in a temperature controlled
enclosure.
2.Using equipment which is immune to these effects. For ex; variations in resistance with
temperature can be minimized by using resistance materials which have a very low resistance
temperature co-efficient.
3.Employing techniques which eliminate the effects of these disturbances, For ex: the
effect of humidity, dust etc can be entirely eliminated by hermetically sealing the instrument.
4.In case it is suspected that external magnetic or electrostatic fields can affect the readings
of the instruments, magnetic or electrostatic shields may be provided.
Applying computed corrections; Efforts are normally made to avoid the use of application
of computed corrections, but where these corrections are needed they are incorporated for the
computations of the results.
3.OBSERVATIONAL ERRORS:
There are many sources of observational errors. As an ex :the pointer of a voltmeter rests
slightly above the surface of the scale. Thus, an error on account of parallax will be incurred
unless the line of vision of the observer is exactly above the pointer. To minimise parallax errors,
highly accurate meters are provided with mirrored scales. There are human factors involved in
measurement. The sensing capabilities of individual observers affect the accuracy of
measurement. No two persons observe the same situation exactly the same way, where small
details are concerned.
RANDOM ERROR:
These errors are due to unknown causes and are observed when the magnitude and polarity
of a measurement fluctuate in an unpredictable manner. Some of the most common random errors
are:
1.Rounding error:
This occurs when readings are between scale graduations and the reading is rounded up or
down to the nearest graduation.
2.Periodic error:
This occurs when an analog meter reading swings or fluctuate about the correct reading. In
addition, the meter reading quickly changes in the immediate vicinity of the corrected value, but
changes slowly at the extremes of the swing.
LIMITING ERROR:
Instruments having analog meters are usually guarenteed to the accurate within certain
percentage limits, called limiting errors or guarentee errors. For ex an analog voltmeter may have
a tolerance of 3% of full scale reading.
Limiting error=accuracy * full scale value
On the other hand the percentage error of the actual meter reading is computed from

percentage error =

Relative (fractional)limiting error:

The relative (fractional)limiting error is defined ad the ratio of the limiting error to the
nominal magnitude of a quantity.

Relative limiting error Er=

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EE6404 Measurements and Instrumentation Department of EEE

i.e., Relative limiting error =

3. Explain about the performance characteristics of the instruments.

It consists of two characteristics as follows:
1.STATIC CHARACTERISTICS:
The static characteristics of an instrument are considered for instruments
which are used to measure an unvarying process condition, performance characteristics mostly
obtained by calibration.
a)Accuracy: It is the measure of closeness with an instrument measures the true value of a
quantity.
b)Precision: It is the measure of the consistency or repeatability of a series of measurements.
Although accuracy implies precision, precision does not necessarily imply accuracy. It is given by

Precision = 1-

Where xi is the value of the ith measurement

is the average value of n measurements.

c)Sensitivity: It is a measure of the change in reading of an instrument for a given change in the
measured quantity
d)Resolution: It is the smallest change in the measured quantity that will produce a deductable
change in the instrument reading.
e)Error: It is the deviation from the true value of the measured quantity. Absolute error is defined
as the difference between the expected value of a quantity and the measured value.
Absolute error = Xe - Xm
where Xe is the expected value, Xm is the measured value

% error =

f)Range: The range of an instrument describes the limits of magnitude over which a quantity may
be measured .It is normally specified by stating its lower and upper limits.
g)Span: The span of an instrument is the algebraic difference between the upper and lower limits
of the instrument range.
h)Drift: It is the variation of the measured value with time. Perfect reproducibility means that the
instrument has no drift. There are 3 types of drifts: Zero, span and zonal drift.
i)Dead zone : It is defined as the largest change of input quantity for which there is no output of
the instrument. The factors which produce dead zone are hysteresis and backlash in the
instrument.
j)Threshold: It is clear that if the input into the instrument is increased very gradually from 0,
there will be some minimum value below which no output change can be detected.
k)Significant figure: In stating the numerical results of a measurement, only those figures that are
meaningful should be recorded.
i)Retaining digits: While recording values of known precision, the convention
is to retain the last digit that is not uncertain by more than ten units.
ii)Rounding off:

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Significant figures: After the number of figures to be retained is determined,

the last retained figure is increased by one unit, if the first dropped figure is greater than 5, or is a
5 followed by any other number other than zero.
Significant Zeros: To avoid giving indication of a higher degree of precision that is
warranted, zeros that are not significant, but which serve only to indicate the position of the point,
should not be used in writing a value.
2. DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS:
Speed Of Response: It is defined as the rapidity with which a measurement system responds to
changes in measured quantity. It is one of the dynamic characteristics of a measurement system
Fidelity: It is defined as the degree to which a measurement system indicates changes in the
measured quantity without any dynamic error.
Dynamic Error :It is the difference between the true value of the quantity changing with time and
the value indicated by the measurement system if no static error is assumed. It is also called
measurement error. It is one the dynamic characteristics
Measuring Lag :It is the retardation delay in the response of a measurement system to changes in
the measured quantity. It is of 2 types:

(a)Response with dead time (b)Dead time and dead zone

Retardation type: The response begins immediately after a change in measured quantity has
occurred.
Time delay: The response of the measurement system begins after a dead zone after the
application of the input.
4.Describe the calibration of the measurement system.
All measuring instruments are to prove themselves their ability to measure reliably and accurately.
For this the results of measurements are to be compared with higher standards which are traceable
to National or International standards. The procedure involved is termed as calibration.
It is a set of operations that establish the relationship between the values that are indicated
by the measuring instrument and corresponding known values of measurand.
Thus calibration of a measuring instrument means introducing an accurately known
sample of the variable that is to be measured and then observing the system's response. Then the
measuring instrument is checked and adjusted until its scale reads the introduced accurately
known samples of the variable.

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It should be further noted that an instrument is calibrated at one place and is put to use at
some other place. Care should be taken to see that the instrument is used at a place where the
environment has the same conditions as that of the place where the instrument was calibrated to
ensure that the instrument gives correct readings.
CALIBRATION PROCEDURE:
The two types of the calibration procedures are as follows:
(a)Primary calibration:
If the instrument is calibrated against primary standards then it is primary calibration.
After the primary calibration, the instrument can be used as a secondary calibration instrument.

Meter

Primary standard
(b)Secondary calibration:
The secondary calibration instrument is used as secondary for further calibration of other
devices of lesser accuracy. This type of instruments are used in general laboratory practice as well
as in the industry because they are practical calibration sources.

Test Meter

Secondary standard
Secondary standard can be further be classified into two types.
(i)Direct calibration:
Direct calibration with a known input source is in general of the same order of
accuracy as primary calibration. So, the instruments which are calibrated directly are also used as
secondary calibration instruments.
For eg:

Voltage Voltmeter
standard

Current standard Ammeter

Fig. Calibration of voltmeter and ammeter

(ii)Indirect calibration
This procedure is based on the equivalence of two different devices adopting same similarity
concept.
Test instrument
Meter 1
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EE6404 Measurements and Instrumentation Department of EEE

Meter 1

Standard instrument

5. a) For the given data, calculate 1. Arithmetic mean, 2. Deviation of each value, 3.
Algebraic sum of the deviation.
X1= 49.7, X3=50.2, X4=49.6, X5= 49.7
Solution:

(i) Arithmetic mean =

=49.86

(ii)The derivations from each value are given by

d1= X1- = 49.7-49.86 = -0.16

d2= X2- = 50.1- 49.86 = 0.24

d3= X3- = 50.2-49.86 = 0.34

d4= X4- = 49.6 - 49.86 = - 0.26

d5= X5- = 49.7 - 49.86 = -0.16

(iii)The algebraic sum of the deviation is
dtotal = -0.16+0.24+0.34 - 0.26 - 0.16
=0
b)Three resistors have the following ratings:
R1 = 36Ω±4%, R2 = 70Ω±4%, R3 = 60Ω±4%, Determine the magnitude and limiting error in
ohm and in percent of the resistance of three resistors connected in series.

Solution:
The values of resistors are

R1 = 36 ± *36 = 36 ± 1.44 Ω

R2 = 70 ± *36 = 70 ± 2.8Ω

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EE6404 Measurements and Instrumentation Department of EEE

R3 = 60 ± *60 = 60 ± 2.4 Ω

The limiting value of resultant resistance

R=(36+70+60) ±(1.44+2.8+2.4)
=166 ± 6.64 Ω
Magnitude of resistance = 166 Ω
Error in ohm = ± 6.64 Ω
Percentage limiting error of series combination of resistors

=± *100

= ± 4%

6.Explain the standards of measurement.

A standard is a physical representation of a unit of measurement. A known accurate
measure of physical quantity is termed as standard. These standards are used to determine the
values of other physical quantities by the comparison method.
Different standards have been developed for other units of measurements and all these
standards are preserved at the International Bureau of Weight and Measures at Serves, Paris.
Based on the functions and applications, substrate are classified into four categories as
(i) International standards
(ii) Primary standards
(iii) Secondary standards
(iv) Working standards
INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS
These are periodically evaluated and checked by absolute measurements in terms of
fundamental units of physics. They represent certain units of measurement to the closest possible
accuracy attainable by the science and technology of measurement. These are not available to
ordinary users for measurements and calibrations.
International ohms:
It is defined as the resistance offered by a column of mercury having a mass of 14.4521
gms, uniform cross sectional area and length of 106.300 cm to the flow of constant current at the
melting point of ice.
International Amperes:
It is an unvarying current, which when passed through a solution of silver nitrate in water
deposits silver at a rate of 0.00111800 gm/s.
PRIMARY STANDARDS :
The principle function of primary standards is the calibration and verification of
secondary standards. These are maintained at the National Standards Laboratories in different
countries. They are not available for use outside the National laboratory. These are the absolute
standards of high accuracy that can be used as ultimate reference standards.

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EE6404 Measurements and Instrumentation Department of EEE

SECONDARY STANDARDS:
Theses are basic reference standards used by measurement and calibration laboratories in
industries.
These secondary standards are maintained by the particular industry to which they belong.
Each industry has its own standards. Each laboratory periodically sends its secondary standards to
the National Standards Laboratory for calibration and comparison against the primary standard.
After comparison and calibration the NSL returns the secondary standards to the particular
industrial laboratory with a certification of measuring accuracy in terms of a primary standard.
WORKING STANDARDS:
Working standards are the principal tools of a measurement laboratory. These standards are used
to check and calibrate laboratory instruments for accuracy and performance.
For example, manufacturers of electronic components such as capacitors, resistors etc., use a
standard called a working standard resistor for checking of resistance value manufactured.

UNIT 2
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS INSTRUMENTS

1. Name the types of instruments used for making voltmeter and ammeter.
The types of instruments used for making voltmeter and ammeter are
i. PMMC type
ii. Moving iron type
iii. Dynamometer type
iv. Hot wire type
v. Electrostatic type
vi. Induction type.
2. State the advantages of PMMC instruments.
The advantages of PMMC instruments are:
i. Uniform scale
ii. No hysteresis loss
iii. Very accurate
iv. High efficiency
3. State the applications of PMMC instruments.
The applications of PMMC instruments are
i. Measurement of D.C voltage and current
ii. Used in D.C galvanometer.
4. How the range of instrument can be extended in PMMC instruments?
The range of PMMC instrument can be extended by
i. connecting a shunt resistor
ii. connecting a series resistor.
5. State the advantages of dynamometer type instruments.
The advantages of dynamometer type instruments are
i. They Can be used for both D.C and A.C measurements
ii. Free from hysteresis and eddy current errors.
6. State the advantages of moving iron type instruments.
The advantages of moving iron type instruments are:
i. Less expensive

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ii.Can be used for both DC and AC

iii. Reasonably accurate.
7. State the advantages of Hot wire type instruments.
The advantages of Hot wire type instruments are:
i. They can be used for both dc and ac
ii. They are unaffected by stray magnetic fields
iii. Readings are independent of frequency and waveform.
8. State the disadvantages of dynamometer type wattmeter.
The disadvantages of dynamometer type wattmeter are:
i. Readings may be affected by stray magnetic fields.
ii. At low power factor it causes error.
9. Name the errors caused in dynamometer type wattmeter.
The errors caused in dynamometer type wattmeter are:
i. Error due to pressure coil inductance
ii. Error due to pressure coil capacitance
iii. Error due to methods of connection
iv. Error due to stray magnetic fields
v. Error due to eddy current.

10. Name the methods used for power measurement in three phase circuits.
The methods used for power measurement in three phase circuits are:
i. Single wattmeter method
ii. Two wattmeter method
iii. Three wattmeter method.
11. What are the special features to be incorporated for LPF wattmeter?
The special features to be incorporate for LPF wattmeter are:
i. Pressure coil circuit
ii. Compensation for Pressure coil current
iii. Compensation for Pressure coil inductance.
12. How voltage coil and current coil is connected in induction type energy meter?
Voltage coil is connected in parallel to supply and load in induction type energy meter.
Current coil is connected in series to the load in induction type energy meter.
13. Why aluminium disc is used in induction type energy meter? Aluminium disc is used in
induction type energy meter because it is a nonmagnetic metal.
14. What is the purpose of registering mechanism?
The purpose of registering mechanism is to record the energy proportional to the rotations.
15. Define creeping.
Creeping is defined as slow but continuous rotation of disc when pressure coil is energized
and current coil is not energized.
16. State the reason why holes are provided in aluminium disc.
Holes are provided on both sides of aluminium disc to avoid creeping.

PART B
1.Derive the torque equation of electrodynamic type instrument
It is also called as electrodynamometer type instrument and it is a type of transfer
instrument. A transfer instrument is one that may be calibrated with a d.c. source and then used
without any modification to measure a.c. Electrodynamometer type instruments are used as a.c.
voltmeters and ammeters both in the range of power frequencies and lower part of the audio
frequency.
Operation principle of electrodynamic type instrument:
It is same as the principle of PMMC instrument in a.c. If an a.c. supply is given to PMMC

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type instrument, an alternating torque will be developed which will make the pointer swing back
and forth around the zero point without showing any reading at low frequency. However in order
that the instrument should be able to read a.c. quantities, the magnetic field in the air gap must
change with the change in current thus producing an unidirectional torque. This is the operating
principle of electrodynamometer type instrument.
Diagram:

Torque equation of electrodynamometer type instruments:

Let i1 = instantaneous value of current in the fixed coil in A
i2 = instantaneous value of current in the moving coil in A
L1 = self inductance of fixed coil in H
L2 = self inductance of moving coil is H
M = mutual inductance between fixed and moving coils is H
The figure shows the electrical equivalent of the electrodynamometer instrument.

Electrical equivalent of a Electrodynamometer Instrument

Flux linkages of coil 1, Ψ1 = L1i1 + Mi2 ---------------- (1)

Flux linkages of coil 2, Ψ2 = L2i2 + Mi1 ------------------- (2)

We know that,

e1 = and e1 = ----------------------- (4)

Substituting equ (4) in equ (3) we get,

Input electrical energy = i1 dt + dt

= i1d Ψ1 + i2d Ψ2 ------------------------ (5)

Substituting equ (1) & (2) in (3) we get

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Input electrical energy = i1d(L1i1 + Mi2) + i2(L2i2 + Mi1)

As L1, L2,M, i1 & i2 are variables,
Input electrical energy = i1 L1di1 + i12d L1 + i1 i2 dM + i1M di2 + i2 L2di2+ i22d L2
+ i2M di1+ i1 i2 dM

Energy stored in the magnetic field = i12 L1+ i22 L2+ i1i2M---------------(6)

Change in stored energy = d ( i12 L1+ i22 L2+ i1i2M )

= i12d L1+ L1i1di1 + i22d L2+ L2i2di2+ i1M di2+ i2M di1+ i1 i2 dM-----------(7)

From the principle of conservation of energy,

Total input electrical energy = change in store energy + mechanical energy
Mechanical energy = Total input electrical energy - Change in stored energy -------------(8)
Mechanical energy = =i1 L1di1 + i12d L1 + i1 i2 dM + i1M di2 + i2 L2di2+ i22d L2

+ i2M di1+ i1 i2 dM - i12d L1+ L1i1di1 - i22d L2

+ L2i2di2 - i1M di2- i2M di1- i1 i2 dM

Mechanical energy = i12d L1+ i22d L2+ i1 i2 dM -------------------------------(9)

Since the self inductances L1,& L2 are constants dL1 = 0 and dL2 = 0
Hence , Mechanical energy = i1 i2 dM -------------------------------------(10)
Suppose Ti is the instantaneous deflecting torque and d is the change in deflection, then
Mechanical energy = Work done = Ti d -----------------------------------(11)
Equating equ (10 & 11) we get
Ti d = i1 i2 dM

Ti = i1 i2 ----------------------------------(12)

Equations (12) gives the expression for the instantaneous deflecting torque of an electrodynamic
type instrument.
Operating with D.C :
In case of D.C measurement we can consider the rms value of current as the constant value.

Ks = I1 I2

= ------------------------------(13)

Operation with A.C :

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= where is the final steady deflection in radian.

2.Give the construction and principle of operation of single phase induction type energy
meter.
Induction type of energy meters are universally used for measurement of energy in domestic
and industrial a.c circuits because of the following advantages.
(i)Have the lower friction and higher torque/weight ratio.
(ii)Inexpensive
(iii)Accurate over a wide range of loads and temperature conditions.
Basic principle:
It is an integrating type instrument which works on the principle of induction.(i.e) In this
type of instrument, alternating fluxes are produced because of 1 A.C supply. This alternating
fluxes induces the generation of eddy current in the moving systems which interacts with each
other to produce a driving torque which causes the aluminium disc to rotate and thus records the
energy.
Construction details:
Four main parts of the induction type energy meter are,
(i)Driving system:
It consists of two electromagnets whose core is made up of silicon steel laminations. The
coil of one of the electromagnets which is excited by the load current is called coil and the
corresponding electromagnet is called series magnet. The coil of the second electromagnet which
is connected across the supply carries a current proportional to the supply voltage and is called
pressure coil and the corresponding electromagnet is called shunt magnet. Adjustable copper
shading bands are provided on the central limb of shunt magnet whose function is to bring the flux
produced by the shunt magnet exactly in quadrature with the applied voltage

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Induction Type Single Phase Energy Meter

(ii)Moving system:
The moving system consists of an aluminium disc mounted on a light alloy shaft. The disc is
positioned in the air gap between the series and shunt magnets. The moving system is connected
to a hardened steel pivot which is screwed to the foot of the shaft. The pivot is supported by a
jewel bearing. In this type of energy meter as there is no controlling torque, continuous rotation
of the disc is produced due to the driving torque only.
(iii)Braking system:
It consists of a permanent magnet positioned near the edge of the aluminium disc. The
aluminium disc moves in the field of this magnet and thus provides a braking torque can be
adjusted.
(iv)Registering/counting mechanism:
The function of this is to record continuously a number which is proportional to the
revolutions made by the moving system. By a suitable system, a train of reduction gears on the
pinion of the shaft which drives a series of 5 or 6 pointers. The pointer rotates on round dials
which are marked with ten equal divisions.
PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION:
When the pressure coil wound on the shunt magnet is connected across the supply voltage, it
carries a current Ip proportional to the supply voltage, thus producing an alternating flux p is
alternating in nature, it induces an emf Eep in the disc which inturn produces eddy current Iep. When
the current coil wound on the series magnet carries the load current I, it produces an alternating
flux c. This flux c induces an emf Eec in the disc which inturn produces eddy current I ec. Now the
eddy current Iep interacts with c and produces a torque T1. Eddy current Iec interacts with p and
produces the another torque T2.
Let V = supply voltage
Ip = Current through the pressure coil which is proportional to supply voltage.

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I = Load current
 = Phase angle of load
p = Flux produced by the current through pressure coil
c = Flux produced by the current through current coil
Eep = Eddy emf induced by flux p
Eec = Eddy emf induced by flux c
Iep = Eddy current due to flux p
Iec = Eddy current due to flux c
Net driving torque, Td  T2 - T1

Phasor diagram of Induction Type Energy Meter

As the pressure coil is highly inductive in nature, I p lags V by 90o, neglecting the resistance in
pressure coil. Since  is the phase angle of load, load current I lags the supply voltage by the angle
 .However p will be in phase with Ip as p is the flux produced due to current Ip .Similarly c will
be in phase with I, as c is the flux produced due to load current I.
Let T1 = c Iep cos(angle between c and Iep )
T1 = c Iep cos(90o + 90o - )
T1 = c Iep cos(180o -  ) -----------------------------------------(1)
T2 = p Iec cos(angle between p and Iec )
T2 = p Iec cos ------------------------------------------(2)
Net driving torque Td  T2 - T1
Hence Td  p Iec cos - = c Iep cos(180o -  ) --------------------------------------(3)
Since cos(180o -  ) = - cos
Td  p Iec cos + c Iep cos -------------------------------------------(4)
We know that, p  Ip  V
Iep  Eep  V, Hence in equ (4)
p can be replaced by V
Iec can be replaced by I

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c can be replaced by I
and Iep can be replaced by V
Now equ (4) becomes,
Td = K1 VI cos + K2 VI cos
Td = (K1 + K2)VI cos -------------------------------------------(5)
Td  VIcos i.e., power consumed by the load----------------------------------(6)
Now, braking torque is proportional to the speed of revolution of the disc. Hence Tb  N
where, Tb = braking torque
For constant speed of operation Tb = Td
N  VIcos --------------------------------------(7)
Multiplying the equ (7) by t on both sides we get
Nt  VItcos is the energy consumed by the load.----------------------------------(8)
From the above equ it is clear that the number of revolutions in time t is directly proportional to
the energy consumed by the load.
3. Describe the construction and working PMMC instrument. Derive the equation for
deflection if the instrument is spring controlled.
The PMMC instruments are used to give accurate reading in d.c measurements.
Basic principle:
PMMC instruments mainly works on motoring principle. When a current carrying conductor
is placed is a magnetic field produced by a permanent magnet, the coil experiences a force and
hence moves. As the coil is moving and the magnet is permanent, this instrument is called PMMC
instrument. This basic principle is called D'Arsonval principle which is the main principle of
operation of Galvanometer. The amount of force experienced by the coil is proportional to the
current passing through the coil.
Construction details:
It consists of a moving coil which is either rectangular or circular in shape, which has
number of turns of fine wire. The coil is suspended so that it is free to turn about its
vertical axis. The coil is placed in uniform horizontal and radial magnetic field of a
permanent magnet in the shape of a horse-shoe. The iron core is spherical if the coil is
circular and is cylindrical if the coil is rectangular. Due to iron core, the deflecting torque
increases, which inturn increases the sensitivity of the instrument.
Controlling torque is provided by the method of spring control with the help of two
phosphor bronze hair springs.
Damping torque is provided by the method of eddy current damping which is obtained by
the movement of the aluminium former in the magnetic field produced by the permanent
magnet.
The pointer is connected to the spindle and it moves over a uniformly graduated scale, it is
light weighted and deflects rapidly.
The mirror is placed below the pointer to get an accurate reading without parallax error. In
PMMC the deflection of the pointer is directly proportional to the current passing through
the coil, which is the quantity measured in case of ammeter and it is proportional to the
voltage to be measured in case of voltmeter. Hence a linear scale is used in PMMC
instrument.

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(a)PMMC Instruments

TORQUE EQUATION:
The deflecting torque of a moving coil instrument can be derived from the basic equation of
the electromagnetic torque.
Deflecting torque, Td = NBAI
where Td = deflecting torque in N-m
N= Number of turns of the coil
A=Effective coil area in m2
I= Current passing through the moving coil in ampere
B= Flux density in air gap in Wb/m2
Let G = NBA = constant
Now Td = GI
Controlling torque is provided by the spring and is proportional to the angular deflection of the
pointer.
Tc  
Tc = Ks 

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where
Tc = Controlling torque in N-m
Ks = Spring constant in Nm/rad or Nm/deg
 = angular deflection in rad or degree
For the final steady deflection i.e., at equilibrium
Tc = Td
Ks  = GI

= ,, Hence   I------------------(1)

From the equ (1) ,it is further noted that the deflection of the pointer is directly proportional
to the current i.e.., quantity to be measured.
As the direction of the current through the coil changes, the direction of the deflection of the
pointer also changes. Hence PMMC instruments are well situated for the d.c., measurements.
In micro-ammeters and low range milli-ammeters upto 20 mA, the entire current to be
measured can be sent through the moving coil, because the instrument springs serve as current
leads to the moving coil. The current carrying capacity of the springs limit the current they can
carry safely to about 20 mA.

4.With neat block diagram state the operation of ramp type digital voltmeter. Draw
necessary waveforms.
In this type of digital voltmeters , the reference voltage used for comparison is a ramp signal
and hence it is named so. Depending upon the type of ramp signal the two types of ramp
DVM(Digital voltmeters).
Linear ramp type DVM:
In this the ramp signal used is a linear ramp signal which decreases or increases between the
range of voltages. i.e., the signal will decrease linearly from the max point and after reaching the
mini point it will increase linearly until it reaches the max point

If the range of the ramp is ± 12V , then the range of the voltmeter is ± 10V, as the unknown
voltage to be measure should be less than the max point but greater than the mini point of ramp
signal.

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Working principle
This linear type DVM works on the principle of voltage to time conversion technique.
Initially the sampled rate multivibrator generates a reset signal and send it to the counter
and digital display.
Hence both the counter and display reset to zero.
The unknown voltage is fed to one end of the input comparator after attenuation by the
attenuator block.
At the same time the linear ramp signal generated by the ramp generator is fed to the second
input of the input comparator.
When the voltage of the ramp signal becomes equal to the unknown voltage, then the input
comparator generates a start pulse which opens the gate.
An oscillator is used to generate a clock pulses and it is connected to the counter through the
gate. Hence when the gate is opened, the counter counts the number of clock pulses
generated by the oscillator. This counting process continues until the gate is closed.
At the same time, the linear ramp signals goes on decreasing and reaches 0V or ground
potential.
One input of ground comparator is connected to ramp generator while the other input is
connected to ground i.e., 0V. Hence when the ramp voltage becomes 0V, the ground
comparator generates a stop pulse and send it to the gate. As the gate receives the stop
pulse it is closed. Hence the counter stops counting the clock pulse.

Number of clock pulses counted in the counter gives the time interval between the opening
of gate and closing of gate which inturn gives the magnitude of unknown voltage. The rate at
which the measurement cycle are initiated is given by the sample rate multivibrator.

Advantages of linear ramp type DVM:

(i)low cost
(ii)Easy circuit design

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(iii)Voltage is converted to time, which can be easily digitized

(iv)As the resolution is directly proportional to the frequency of the local oscillator, better
resolution can be obtained by adjusting the frequency of the oscillator.
Disadvantages of linear ramp type DVM:
(i)Accuracy of the reading depends on slope of the ramp and stability of the local oscillator.
(ii)Large errors are possible because of interruption of noise with input signal.
STAIRCASE RAMP TYPE DVM:
In this ramp type DVM, the ramp signal used is a staircase ramp signal which increases in
steps according to the clock pulses.
Initially the logic control circuit send a rest signal to the counter and Digital to Analog
converter , thus resetting the above two devices. Then the logic control circuit sends the start pulse
to the gate, thus opening the gate.
Now the clock pulses from the oscillator passes through the gate to the counter and the
counter starts counting the clock pulses, until the gate is closed. The gate will be closed when it
receives the stop signal from the logic control circuit. The output of the counter is given to the
digital to analog converter which generates the ramp signal using reference voltage source.

Staircase ramp type DVM

At every count of clock pulse, there is an incremental change in the magnitude of the
generated ramp signal. Thus a staircase ramp is generated at the output of the D/A converter
which is given to the second input terminal of the null detector whereas the first input terminal of
the null detector is fed from the attenuator which supplies the attenuated unknown voltage.
When the logic control device receives a pulse from the null detector , it will send a stop
pulse to the gate, thus closing the gate. Now the counter stop counting the clock pulse. As the
counter is connected to the D/A converter, it stops the incremental change in ramp signal. The
counter reading will be displayed in the digital display.
Advantages of staircase ramp type DVM:
(i) Highly accurate than linear ramp type DVM

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(ii)Simple in design
(iii)Cost is cheap
(iv)High input impedance
Disadvantages of staircase ramp type DVM:
(i)Accuracy of this meter depends on the accuracy of the D/A converter. Hence a highly accurate
D/A converter should be used.
(ii)Speed of measurement is less
(iii)Introduction of noise in the input will cause error.
5.Give a detailed notes on Instrument transformers:
The transformers used in conjunction with measuring instruments for measurement purpose
are called instrument transformers. These transformers find a wide application in protection
circuits of power systems for the operation of over current, under voltage , earth fault and various
other types of relays.
CURRENT TRANSFORMER:
It cosits of two windings called primary and secondary and transfers the energy from one
side to another by changing the voltage and current. It is a device used to decrease the current
level by stepping up the voltage and keeping the energy as constant. Hence these are basically step
up transformers.

Current Transformer
In the above circuit, the primary of the C.T is connected in series with the line carrying the
current to be measured and therefore the 10 current is dependent on the load connected to the
system whose current is to be measured,The 2 o is connected to the low range ammeter. As the 2 o
winding has more number of turns compared to the 1o winding and the voltage is higher in this.
The secondary current is less than the primary current.
where, = Number of turns of primary winding

= Number of turns of secondary winding

We know that,

For a C.T, = =

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where they represent the primary current in A, Secondary current in A, Primary and secondary
voltage in V.
From the above equ it is clear that, if the range of C.T is 500:5

Therefore., n= = 100

= 100

V2 =100V1

In order to decrease the secondary current by 100 times, the secondary voltage should be
increased by 100 times.
Effect of secondary winding open:
(i) C.T. are always used with the secondary winding closed
 Never open the secondary windings circuit of a C.T. while its primary winding is
energized
 Failure to this may lead to serious consequences for both.

(ii)In case of P.T., the current flowing in the primary winding is largely the reflection of that
flowing in the secondary circuit.
 whereas, in case of a C.T., the primary winding is connected in series with the
line whose current is being measured.
 This current is in no ways controlled or determined by the condition of secondary
winding circuit.
(iii)Under normal operating conditions, both primary and secondary windings produces mmf,
which act against each other
(iv)If the secondary winding is open-circuited when the primary winding is carrying current
 the primary mmf remains same while the open secondary mmf reduces to zero
therefore, the resultant mmf is very large (i.e., equal to primary mmf =IpNp) – this
large mmf produces a large flux in core till it saturates
 this large flux linking the turn of secondary winding would induce a high voltage
in the secondary winding which could be dangerous to the transformer insulation
and to the person operating it
 Also, the eddy current and hysteresis loses would be very high under this
condition
• thus the transformer may be overheated and completely damaged
• Even if this does not happen, the core may become
permanently magnetized and give erroneous results.

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POTENTIAL TRANSFORMER(P.T):
The basic principle of P.T is same as that of C.T., i.e., the primary winding is connected
across the high voltage line whose voltage is to be measure and the secondary is connected to the
low range voltmeter coil. One end of the secondary winding is always grounded for safety
purpose.

Measurement of power using C.T and P.T:

The circuit below shows the circuit for measurement of power in high voltage and high
current circuit using wattmeter and instrument transformers.

Potential Transformer
From the above circuit diagram it is clear that the primary winding of C.T is connected in
series with the load and the secondary is connected in series with an ammeter and the current coil
of a wattmeter. The primary winding of P.T is connected across the supply voltage and the
secondary is connected across voltmeter and the pressure coil of the wattmeter.
Measurement of Energy using C.T and P.T :
The circuit connections of single phase energy meter is exactly similar to the connections
of wattmeter along with C.T and P.T for power measurement. The only difference in that, the
pressure coil of wattmeter is replaced by pressure coil of energymeter and the current coil of
wattmeter is replaced by current coil of energy meter.
Advantages of Instrument transformers:
(i) High voltage and high current can be measured using low range voltmeter and ammeter
along with the instrument transformer
(ii)The rating of low range meter can be fixed irrespective of the value of high voltage or
current to be measured.
(iii)Wide range of voltage or current can be measured using a single low range meter.
(iv)A single transformer can economically feed several instruments.

The disadvantage the instrument transformers can be used only for a.c circuits and not for d.c
circuits.

6.The iron loss in a sample is 200 W at 50 Hz with eddy current loss component 5 times as

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big as the hysteresis loss component. At what frequency will the iron loss be double if the
flux density is kept the same?

Solution:

If the value of flux density is kept constant, then hysteresis loss, PG = K1f
Eddy current loss, Pe = K2f2
Total from loss, Pi = PG + Pe
Pi = K1f + K2f2
Iron loss at 50 Hz ,(Pi)50 Hz = 200W
then, 200 = K150 + K2502
50K1 +2500 K2 = 200
K1 +50 K2 = 4 ------------------------(1)
Given that, Pe = 5Ph
hence
K2f2 = 5 K1f
K2502 = 5 K1 * 50
K2 = 0.1 K1 ------------------------------(2)
Substituting equ (2) in (1) we get
K1 + 50* 0.1 K1 = 4
6 K1 = 4
K1 = 0.67
=> K2 = 0.1 *0.67 = 0.067
If iron loss is doubled at frequency f1 keeping the flux density constant
Pi = 2* 200 = 400W
Pi = PG + Pe
Pi = K1f1 + K2f12
400 = 0.67 f2 + 0.067 f12
f1 = -82.46 Hz or 72.42 Hz.
Frequency cannot be negative
Hence f1 = 72.42 Hz for the iron loss to be doubled keeping the flux density constant.

UNIT 3

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COMPARISON METHODS OF MEASUREMENTS

1. What is the basic principle used in potentiometer?

Basic principle used in potentiometer is that the unknown emf is measured by comparing it
with a standard known emf.
2. State the applications of potentiometer.
The applications of potentiometers are
i. measurement of unknown emf
ii. ammeter calibration
iii. Voltmeter calibration
iv. wattmeter calibration
3. State the advantages of crompton potentiometer.
The advantages of crompton potentiometer are:
i. More accuracy ii. Easy to adjust
4. What are the practical difficulties in A.C potentiometers?
The practical difficulties in A.C potentiometers are:
i M.ore complicated
ii. Accuracy is seriously affected
iii. Difficulty is experienced in standardization.
5. Classify AC potentiometers.
AC potentiometers are classified as
i. Polar potentiometer
ii. Coordinate potentiometer.
6. List any two AC potentiometers.
The two AC potentiometers are
i. Drysdale Tinsley potentiometer
ii. Gall Tinsley potentiometer.
7. State the advantages of AC potentiometers.
The advantages of ac potentiometers are
i. They can be used for measurement of both magnitude and phase angle
ii. They can be used for measurement of inductance of the coil.
iii. They are used in measurement of errors in current transformers.
8. State the applications of AC potentiometers.
The applications of AC potentiometers are
i. Measurements of self inductance.
ii. Ammeter calibration
iii. Voltmeter calibration
iv. Wattmeter calibration..
9. Name the methods used for low resistance measurement.
The methods used for low resistance measurement are
1. Ammeter – voltmeter method
2. Potentiometer method
3. Kelvin double bridge method
4. Ohm meter method.
10. What are the types of DC potentiometers?
The types of DC potentiometers are
i. Crompton’s Potentiometer
ii. Duo-Range Potentiometer
iii. Vernier Potentiometer
iv. Brook’s Deflectional Potentiometer
11. What are the types of AC bridges?

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The types of AC bridges are

i. Capacitance comparison bridge
ii. Inductance comparison bridge
iii. Schering bridge
iv. Maxwell’s Inductance and capacitance bridge
v. Hay’s bridge
vi. Anderson bridge
vii. Wien bridge
12. Define: Q-factor of the coil
Q-factor of the coil is defined as the ratio of power stored in the coil to the power
dissipated in the coil.
13. Name the faults that occurs in cables.
Faults that occur in cables are
i. Break down of cable insulation
ii. Short circuit fault
iii. Open conductor fault
14. State the disadvantage of wein bridge.
The disadvantage of wien bridge is a standard variable capacitor. Variable capacitor is
more costly.
15. State the disadvantages of Hay’s bridge.
The disadvantages of Hay’s bridge is the balance equation is dependent of frequency and
therefore any changes in frequency will affect the measurement
PART B
1.Draw Maxwell's AC bridge and give the balance equation in terms of resistance
AC bridge:
When the four resistive arms of the basic Wheatstone bridge are replaced by impedances
and the bridge is excited by an AC source and it is shown in the figure.

Basic AC bridge
It is capable of measuring complex impedances. Unlike the Wheatstone bridge, two balance
conditions must be statisfied. Such a bridge must balance both the resistive and reactive
components before the detector indicates a null. In general, the balance equations, in polar form, of
the bridge are
(Z1 1)(Zx x) = (Z2 1)(Z3 x)

Z1 Zx  1  X ) = Z 2 Z3 2 3)

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Balance for the resistive component in an AC bridge is usually obtained by the adjustment of a
precision variable resistance. Balance for the reactive component is obtained from a similar
reactance in an adjacent arm of the bridge, or from an opposite reactance in an opposite arm. In
most circuits, the reactance is in the form of a fixed precision capacitor, either in series or parallel,
with a variable resistance. Two conditions must be met for the AC bridge to be balanced. The first
condition requires that the magnitudes of the four impedances satisfy this relationship.

Z1 Zx = Z2 Z3

The second condition relates the impedance angles.

1 + x = 2 + 3

As a consequence , when the bridge is balanced, the voltage across Z x and Z2 must be equal both
in amplitude and phase.

Maxwell bridge:

The Maxwell bridge or Maxwell-Wien bridge is used to measure both a given inductance and its
series resistance by comparison to a standard capacitance. Using a capacitance as a standard offers
several advantages. Capacitors are easy to shield and they produce almost no external field of their
own. In addition, they are compact and fairly expensive.

The Maxwell bridge

For balance, the resistors R 1 and R2 are variable and R3 and C1 are fixed value standards. At
balance, the equations are

Z x = Z2Z3Y1 ---------------------------(1)

where Y1 is the admittance of arm 1.

Therefore Z3 = R3; Z2 = R2 and Y1= + jC1

Substituting these values in equ (1)

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Zx = Rx + jLx = R2 R3( + jC1)

Equating the real and imaginary terms

Rx = and Lx = R2 R3 C1

The balance is independent of frequency. When used in a balanced commercial bridge with
calibrated dials, both the values of the inductance and Q factor are read directly from the dial
settings. Using the Q factor for a series L-R equivalent circuit, the series resistance can be

found from Rx =

Advantages:

(i) The frequency does not appear in any of the two equations
(ii) The two balance equations are independent, if the values of R 1 and C1 as variable elements
(iii) This bridge yields simple expression for unknown L x and Rx in terms of known bridge
elements.
(iv) This bridge is very useful for measurement of a wide range of inductance at power and
audio frequencies.
Disadvantages:
(i)This bridge is limited to measurement of low Q coils (1< Q < 10)
(ii)It requires a variable standard capacitor which may be very expensive if calibrated to a high
degree of accuracy.
2. Explain the working of a Kelvin double bridge and how it is used in the measurement
of low resistance. Derive the conditions for balance. (A.U/EEE-Dec 2008)

Kelvin's double bridge

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This consists of the double bridge. Because it incorporates a second set of ratio arms. The
second set of arms, m and l, connect the galvanometer to a point f at the appropriate potential
between c and d and it eliminates the effect of the resistance R y. The ratio of the resistances of
arms m and l is the same as the ratio of R 1 and R2.The galvanometer indication is zero when
the potentials at a and f are equal. Vab = Vbef
But,

Vab = ---------------------(1)

and V= I

Substituting for V in equ (1), we get

---------------------(2)

Similarly,

but

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3. Explain in detail about the wheat stone bridge.

The simplest form of bridge is for the purpose of measuring resistance and is called the
wheatstone bridge. This bridge is widely used for precision measurement of resistance from 1Ω to
the low mega ohm range. It is the most accurate method available for measuring resistance and is
popular for laboratory use.

Wheatstone bridge

This bridge consists of four resistive arms, together with a DC source V and null detector. The
null detector may be galvanometer (G) or other sensitive current meter.

The current through the galvanometer depends on the potential difference between C and D.
When the current through the galvanometer is Zero, the circuit said to be balanced. Here the
bridge is balanced when the potential difference across C and D is zero.

i.e., I 1 R1 = I2 R2 -----------------------(1)

If the galvanometer current is zero, the following conditions should be satisfied.

I1 = I 3 =

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I2 = I 4 =

Substituting the values of I1 and I2 in equation (1) we get

The above equ is the well known expression for balance of the wheatstone bridge. Here, the
unknown resistor is R4 and R4 can be focused as follows;

The resistors R1 and R2 are called ratio arms and resistor R3 is called standard arm of the
bridge.

The measurement of the unknown resistance i.e.., R 4 is independent of the characteristics or

the calibration of the null detecting galvanometer, provided that the null detector has sufficient
sensitivity to indicate the balance position of the bridge with the required degree of precision.

Guarded Wheatstone bridge:

The basic wheatstone bridge circuit is useful in most cases, but its performance deteriorates
substantially when measuring high resistances, such as the insulation of cables and other
materials.

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Resistances of this type are generally greater than 1 MΩ. The major problem of high
resistance measurement is the leakage current that travels around and over the binding post of the
resistor being measured. Because these currents can bypass the resistor being measured and flow
through the detector branch, they affect the measurement.

To reduce this measurement error, the leakage current is diverted away from the unknown
resistance by using a guard wire and guarding. The guarding surrounds the positive terminal post
of the bridge circuit , and minimizes the leakage current by minimising the potential difference.
Only the current flowing through Rx flows through the detector , as a result , of which a true
reading is obtained.

Applications of wheatstone bridge:

(i) To measure the D.C resistance of various types of wire either for the purpose of quality control
of the wire itself, or of some assembly in which it is used.

(ii)This bridge is also used extensively by telephone companies and others to locate cable faults.

Disadvantages;

(i0For low resistance measurements, the resistance of the leads and contacts become significant
and introduces an error. This error can be eliminated by kelvin's double bridge.

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(ii)The other main difficulty in wheatstone bridge is the change in resistance of the bridge arms
due to the heating effect of current through the resistance. The rise in temperature causes a change
in the value of the resistance and excessive current may cause a permanent change in value.

5(a).Find the equivalent parallel and capacitance that causes a wien bridge to null if the
following components are given:R1 = 8kΩ, C1 = 6µF, R2 = 30kΩ, f= 2.5 kHz, R3 = 1kΩ, R4 =
100kΩ. (A.U.Chennai/EEE-Dec 2008)

Solution:

Figure shows wien bridge circuit.

 = 2f = 2  3.14  2500 = 15.7 k rad/sec.

= 375.16 Ω

= 589.13 mF.

(b)A Maxwell bridge is having bridge constants at balance as C1=0.01µF,R1 =470kΩ , R2

=5.1kΩ and R3 =100kΩ .Find the series equivalent of the unknown impedance.
Solution:
Figure shows the circuit diagram of Maxwell bridge.

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6. What is electromagnetic interference in instruments?

Definition:
If the parameter to be measured is at the place at which a measurement is to be displayed or
used for control purposes is at some distance from the point of measurement, then it can lead to
various problems. The main one is electrical noise or interference being superimposed on the
measurement signal. This is called electromagnetic interference.
Sources of Electromagnetic interference:
Electromagnetic interference often affects instrument signals, particularly when operating
with very sensitive instruments which are close to equipment that produces a log of electrical
noise.
For example:
Some of the instruments which are close to the measuring instrument include thyristor
drives for AC motors which produce high-frequency spikes. Drives for DC motors also produce
noise, but at lower frequencies than AC drives, as do solid state relays and other equipment with
high inductance or capacitance , such as induction heating equipment.
Electromagnetic compatibility:
The Electromagnetic Compatibility(EMC) regulations are designed to eliminate radio
frequency interference emissions from electrical machines and to ensure that these machines are
immune to such radiation from external sources.

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Limiting Interference Problems:

To help limit interference problems, the following steps are taken:
(i) Signal and power cables are routed as far as possible from one another.
(ii)Sensors such as load beams are electrically insulated from other equipment
(iii)Shielding is used where necessary and appropriate earthing is done.
(iv)Sometimes the problem itself can be reduced by using, for example, DC instead of AC motors
and drives.
(v)Molybdenum (Mo) metal is useful for mechanical shielding of electrically 'noisy' components.

UNIT 4
STORAGE AND DISPLAY DEVICES
1. List the components of a magnetic tape recorder.
The components of a magnetic tape recorder are:
i. Recording head
ii. Magnetic head
iii. Reproducing head
iv. Tape transport mechanism
v. Conditioning devices.
2. What are the advantages of magnetic tape recorders?
The advantages of magnetic tape recorders are :
i. They have a wide frequency range from D.C. to several MHz.
ii. They have low distortion,
iii. They have a wide dynamic range which exceeds 50dB. This permits the linear
recording from full scale signal level to approximately 0.3% of full scale.
iv. The magnitude of the electrical input signal is stored in magnetic memory and this
signal can be reproduced whenever desired. The reproduced signal can be
analyzed by automatic data reduction methods.
3. List the advantages of direct recording.
The advantages of direct recording are:
i. This recording process has a wide frequency response ranging from 50 Hz to about

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2 MHz for a tape speed of 3.05 m/s. It provides the greatest bandwidth
obtainable from a given recorder.
ii. It requires only simple, modulately priced electronic circuitry.
iii. It is used to record signals where information is contained in the relation
between frequency and amplitude, such as spectrum analysis of noise.
iv. It can be used for recording voice and in multiplexing a number of channels of
information into one channel of tape recording
4. What is drop out ?
In direct recording, some portions of the tape may not be perfectly recorded owing
to dirt or poor manufacture and this is called drop out.
5. Define: percentage deviation
Percentage deviation is defined as the carrier deviation to centre frequency. i.e. Percentage
deviation or modulation index, m =(∆f/fc) x 100,
where ∆f = carrier deviation from centre frequency
fc = centre or carrier frequency
6. Define: Deviation ratio
Deviation ratio is defined as the ratio of carrier deviation from centre frequency to signal or
modulating frequency.
Deviation ratio, ♪ = (∆f/fm) where, fm = data signal
7. What is the operation of a serial printer?
The operating of serial printer is to produces a single character at a time, usually
moving from left to right across a page. It prints 200 characters per second.
8. List the classification of printer.
Printers are classified into three broad categories. They are
i. Impact and non-impact printers.
ii. Fully formed character and dot matrix character printer
iii. Character at a time and a line at time.

9. Give short notes on dot-matrix printers.

In dot-matrix printers, the characters are formed by printing a group of dots to
form a letter, number or other symbol. It can print any combination of dots with all
available print position in the matrix.
10. List the important features of CRTs.
The important features of CRTs are :
i. Size
ii. Phosphor
iii. Operating voltages
iv. Deflection voltages
v. Viewing screen
11. What is meant by recurrent sweep in cathode ray tube ?
When the sawtooth, being an A.C. voltage alternates rapidly, the display occurs
respectively, so that a lasting image is seen by the eye. This repeated operation is known as
recurrent sweep
12. What is intensity modulation in CRT?
In some applications, an A.C. signal is applied to the control electrode of the CRT. This
causes the intensity of the beam to vary in step with signal alterations. As a result, the trace is
brightened during the positive half cycle and diminished or darkened during negative half cycle.
This process is called intensity modulation or z-axis modulation.
13. How are LCDs created ?

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LCDs are created by sand witching a thin (10 to 12um) layer of a liquid-crystal fluid
between two glass plates. A transparent, electrically conductive film or backplane is put on the
rear glass sheet. Transparent sections of conductive film in the shape of the deviced character are
coated on the front glass plate. When a voltage is applied between a segment and the backplane,
an electric field is created in the region under the segment. This electric field change the
transmission of light through the region under the segment film
14. Write the two writing patterns of dot matrix displays.
The two writing patterns of dot matrix displays are :
i. Common anode or common cathode connection (uneconomical).
ii. X-Y array connection (economical and can be extended vertically or horizontally using
a minimum number of wires).
15. 35. State the purpose of a lissajous pattern in CRO.
The lissajous pattern is used for determining the frequency. The particular pattern results
when sine waves are applied simultaneously to both pairs of the deflection plates

PART B
1. Explain the FM method of magnetic tape recording and explain its advantages and
disadvantages.
Magnetic tape recorder is an instrument used for recording the data by use of magnetic
heads in electrical form.
FM RECORDING:
In the FM system, the input signal is used to frequency modulate a carrier which is then recorded
on the tape in the usual way. The central frequency is selected with respect to the tape speed and
frequency deviation selected for the tape recorders is ±40% about the carrier frequency. The
reproduce head reads the tape in the usual way and sends a signal to the FM demodulator and low
pass filter and the original signal is reconstructed.

The signal to noise ratio of an FM recorder is of the order of 40-50 db, with an accuracy of
less than ± 1%. This ±1 db flat frequency response of FM recorder can go as high as 80kHz at 120
in/s tape speed, when using frequency is not needed and with a view to conserving tape, a tape
speed range selector is generally provided. When the tape speed is changed , the carrier frequency
also changes in the same proportion.
Input to the tape recorders is generally at 1V level and so most transducers require
amplification before recording. In a FM recording system, a carrier oscillator frequency f c, called
the centre frequency, is modulated by the level of the input signal.
When there is no input signal, the modulation is at centre frequency f c .If a positive input
signal is applied, the frequency deviates from the centre frequency by some amount in a certain
direction, the application of a negative input voltage deviates the carrier frequency in the opposite
direction.

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The output of the modulation, which is fed to the tape, is a signal of constant frequency for
DC inputs and varying frequency for AC inputs. The variation of frequency is directly
proportional to the amplitude of the input signal. On playback, the output of the reproduce head is
demodulated and fed through a low pass filter which removes the carrier and other unwanted
frequencies produced due to the modulation process.
The operation of FM modulation can be easily checked by applying a known output voltage
and measuring the output frequency with an electronic counter. This signal is applied to the tape
with no further conditioning, as the signal is independent of the amplitude.
The FM demodulator converts the difference between the centre frequency and the
frequency on the tape, to a voltage proportional to the difference in the frequencies. This system
can thus record frequencies from DC to several thousand Hertz. Residual carrier signals and out of
band noise are removed by a low pass filter.
Advantages:
(i)DC component of the input signal is preserved.
(ii)Wide frequency range
(iii)No drop out effect due to in homogeneities of the tape material.
(iv)Accurately reproduces the wave form of the input signal.
Disadvantages:
(i)Extremely sensitive to tape speed fluctuations
(ii)Limited frequency response
(iii)Requires a high tape speed
(iv)Requires a high quality of tape transport and speed control.

2.What is an X-Y recorder? How do you distinguish X-t from Y-t recorders?
In most research fields , it is often convenient to plot the instantaneous relationship between
two variables[Y=F(x)], rather than to plot each variable seperately as a function of time.
In such cases, the X-Y recorder is used, in which one variable is plotted against another
variable
In an analog X-Y recorder, the writing head is deflected in either the x-direction or the y-
direction on a fixed graph chart paper. The graph paper used is generally square shaped and is
held fixed by electrostatic attraction or by vaccum.
The writing head is controlled by a servo feedback system or by a self balancing
potentiometer . It consists of one or two pens, depending on the application.
In some cases, the X-Y recorder is also used to plot one physical quantity as a function of
another physical quantity, by using an appropriate transducer, which produces an output
proportional to the physical quantit

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X-Y Recorder
The motion of the recording pen in both the axes is driven by servo-system, with reference
to a stationary chart paper. The movement in x and y directions is obtained through a slicing pen
and moving arm arrangement.
Each of the input signals is attenuated in the range of 0-5mV, so that it can work in the
dynamic range of the recorder. The balancing circuit then compares the attenuated signal to a
fixed internal reference voltage. The output of the balancing circuit is a DC error signal produced
by the difference between the attenuated signal and the reference voltage. This DC error signal is
then converted into AC with the help of a chopper circuit. This AC signal is not sufficient to drive
the pen/arm drive motor, hence it is amplified by an AC amplifier. The amplified signal is then
applied to actuate the servomotor so that the pen/arm mechanism moves in an appropriate
direction in order to reduce error, thereby bringing the system to balance. Hence as the input
signal being recorded varies, the pen/arm tries to hold the system in balance, producing a record
on the paper.
Some X-Y recorders provides x and y input ranges which are continuously variable between
0.25 mv/cm and 10 v/cm, with an accuracy of ±0.1% of full scale. Zero offset adjustments are also
provided. The accuracy of X-Y recorder is about ±0.3%.
Applications
(i)Speed torque characteristics of motors
(ii0Regulation curves of power supply
(iii)Plotting characteristics of active devices such as vacuum tubes, transistors, zener diode,
rectifier diodes etc..,
(iv)Plotting stress-strain curves, hysteresis curves etc..,
(v)Electrical characteristics of materials such as resistance versus temperatures.
3.Explain the segmental and DOT matrix display in detail with the diagram
The two types of the segmental displays are as follow;
Segmented Gas Discharge Display:
It works on the principle of gas discharge glow, similar to the case of Nixie tubes. They are
mostly available in 7 segment or 14 segment form, to display numeric and alphanumeric
characters.

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Each segment of the 7 segment display formed on a base has a separate cathode. The anode
is common to each member of the 7 segment group which is deposited on the covering face plate.
The space between the anode and cathode contains the gas.
For each group of segments 'a keep alive ' cathode is also provided. For improving the
switching speeds of the display a small constant current is passed through this keep alive cathode,
which acts as a source of ions. Pins are connected to the electrodes at the rear of the base plate,
with the help of which external connections can be made.
The major disadvantage of this gas discharge tube is that high voltage is required for
operating it. Therefore high voltage transistors in the range of 150-200V are required as switches
for the cathodes. A major advantage is that the power consumed is extremely small, because
bright display can be obtained even for currents as low as 200µA.
Segmental LED Display:
In this it is usual to employ a single LED for each segment. For conventional 7 segment
LED display the wiring pattern is simplified by making one terminal common to all LED's and
other terminal corresponding to different segments. The terminals can be either of the common
anode from or common anode type displays require an active low configurations for code
converter circuitry, whereas an active high output circuit is necessary for common cathode LED
type display.
Both multi digit and segmental displays require a code converter. One code converter per
character for static display systems and a single code converter for time shared and multiplexed
dynamic display systems, which are illuminated one at a time.

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The typical schemes described here are only of the decimal numeric character. An 8 digit
display system, operating on this principle is suitable for digital instrumentation.

It is also possible to generate hexadecimal numeric characters and conventional

alphanumeric characters using 7 segment and 14 or 16 segment LED display units respectively,
with a proper code converter. Both static and dynamic displays can be realised using LCD's either
in a common format or in single or multi character.

DOT matrix Displays:

Excellent alphanumeric characters can be displayed by using dot matrix LED's with an LED
at each dot location. Commonly used dot matrices for the display of prominent characters are 57,
58, and 79 .

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It is very popular due to economic considerations. The two wiring patterns of dot matrix
display are,
(i) Common anode or common cathode connection
(ii)X-Y array connection
4. Explain in detail about the data loggers
It is used to automatically make a record of the readings of instruments located at different parts
of the plant. It measures and records data effortlessly as quickly as often and as accurately desired.
It can measure electrical output from virtually any type of transducer and log the value
automatically. Automatic data loggers are capable of giving plant performance computation and a
logic analysis of alarm conditions during emergency. Presently these are mainly used in power
generation plants, petrochemical installations, continuous process plants, engine testing,
component etc..,
The input scanner is an automatic sequence switch which selects each signal in turn. Low
level signals, if any are multiplied to bring them up to a level of 5V. If the signal are not linearly
proportional to the measured parameter, these signals are linearised by the signal conditioner .
The analog signals are converted into digital signals by using same A/D type. These signals are
suitable for driving the recording equipment.
The programmer is mainly used to centre size the sequence operation of the various items of
the logger. It tells the scanner when to stop to a new channel and receive information from the
scanner, converter and recorder.
The real time clock is incorporated to automate the system. The clock commands the
programmer to sequence one set of measurements at the intervals selected by the user.
OPERATION
Input signals
The input signal fed to the input scanner of there data logger can be of the following types.
(i0 High level signals from pressure transducers
(ii) Low level signals from thermocouple
(iii)AC signals
(v)Pneumatic signals from pneumatic transducers
(vi)Pulse train from tachometer.
Input scanners:
The scanners select each input signal in turn the data logger requires only one signal
amplifier and conditioner , one A/D converter and a single recorder
Signal conditioning:
Transducer outputs must often be conditioned to provide signals suitable for the data logger
board , signal conditioning accessories amplify low level signals, isolation, filter, oscillation and
bridge complete transducers to provide high levels for the data logger board
The low level thermocouple signals are amplified by amplifier circuit. It is also used to
increase resolution and reduced noise. The isolation is very important in signal conditioning.It is
mainly used to isolate the transducer signal from the computer for safety purposes. Then the
unwanted signals are removed by using the filter circuit.
Analog to digital converter:
The converter converts analog signal to digital signal. Here we can use any one type of A/D
converter.

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Recorders:
The output from the data logger can be printed on any one of the following:
(i) Type writer
(ii)Strip printer or digitally recorded on punched tape or magnetic tape for further analysis in a
digital computer.
Programmer:
(i)Set amplifier gain for individual point, i.e.., gain of the amplifier has to be adjusted that for a
max value of input signal, the A/D converter records a full scale reading
(ii)Set linearisation factor so that the adjusted output from the signal amplifier is directly
proportional to the measured quantity
(iii)Set high and low alarm limit
(iv)Initiate alarm for abnormal condition
(v)Start A/D conversion
(vi)Display reading
(vii)Reset logger.
5. Explain the recorders and its types in detail:
A recorder is a device that records electrical and non-electrical quantities as a function of
time. The recorder should be consistent with the tag of system for which it is required. The
recorders are classified as two types.
1.Analog recorders:
If we are dealing with an analogue system, then analog recorders should be used.
2.Digital recorders:
If we are dealing with digital output, digital recorders should be used.
Classification of analog recorders:
(a)Graphic recorders
(i)Strip chart recorders
(ii)X-Y recorders
(iii)Circular chart recorder
(b)Magnetic tape recorder
(c)Oscilloscope recorder
Strip chart recorder:
It consists of a long roll of graph moving vertically. This paper is driven by a driven system.
The speed of this drive system can be controlled by chart sector B. chart speed of 1-100 mm/sec is
normally used.
A stylus S is used for marking on the moving graph paper. This stylus moves horizontally in
proportional to the quantity being recorded. A stylus driving system D moves the stylus in a
nearly exact replica or analog of the quantity being recorded.

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Range of selector switch E is used so that input to the recorder drive system is within the
acceptable level. Most recorders use a pointer attached to the stylus. This pointer moves over a
calibrated scale showing the instantaneous value of the quantity being recorded. An external
control circuit is also used for the stylus.
The paper drive system A should move the paper at a uniform speed. In most of the
recorders a synchronous motor is used to drive the paper. The various types of marking
mechanism are
(i)Making with ink filled stylus
(ii)Making with heated stylus
(iii)Electric stylus marking
(iv)Electrostatic stylus
(v)Optical marking
Advantages:
1.These generally require the use of servo mechanism to position the pointer. Therefore more than
adequate power is available , there being no real limitation on the weight of pointer, pressure
between pointer and paper or length of the paper.
2.Relatively large amount of paper can be inserted at one time in the form of roll.
3.The conversion of data is easier when rectangular co-ordinates are used.
Disadvantages:
1. The mechanism is more complicated.
2.Taking observing the behaviour system chart takes more time.
Applications:
It is mainly used to measure voltage, current frequency, temperature power factor etc...,
6. With neat figure explain the working principle of a digital CRO. What are its advantages
over analog CRO.
A digital oscilloscope dignities the input signal, so that all subsequent signals are digital. A
conventional CRT is used, and storage occurs in electronic digital memory. The input signal is
digitised and stored in memory in digital form. In this state it is capable of being analysed to
produce a variety of different information. To view the display on the CRT the data from memory
is reconstructed in analog form.

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Block diagram of digital storage oscilloscope

Digitising occurs by taking a sample of the input waveform at periodic intervals. In order to
ensure that no information is lost, sampling theory states that the sampling rate must be at least
twice as fast as the highest frequency in the input signal. If this is not done then aliasing will occur
in the output.

(a)Input signal (b)Aliased signal

This requirement for a high sampling rate means that the digitiser, which is an analog to
digital converter, must have a fast conversion rate. This usually requires expensive flash analog to
digital converters, whose resolution decreases as the sampling rate is increased. It is for this
reason that the bandwidth and resolution of a digital oscilloscope is usually limited by its analog
to digital converter.
One method of overcoming the need for a high performance converter is to use an analog
store in front of ADC.
The input signals are sampled and these are store in an analog shift register. They can then
be read out at a much slower rate to the analogue to digital converter , and the result stored in a
digital store.
The disadvantage is that the oscilloscope cannot accept data during the digitising period and
so it has a blind spot.
Many different input channels are used with digital storage oscilloscope. However if all
these channels share a common store, through a multiplexer, then the memory available to each
channel is reduced.
Working:
The input is amplified and attenuated with input amplifier as in any oscilloscope. The
sample and hold circuit effectively snaps a picture of the voltage level. The output of S/H circuit

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is connected to an ADC. Then the given signal are converted in to digital and stored in a digital
memory.
CRT accepts only the analog signals and thus the signal in the digital memory is converted
in to an analog signal by means of digital to analog converter.

UNIT 5
TRANSDUCERS AND DATA ACQUISITION SYSTEMS
1. Define: Transducer
A transducer is defined as a device that receives energy from one system and transmits it to
another, often is a different form.
2. Write the parameters of electrical transducer.
The parameters of electrical transducer are:
i. Linearity
ii. Sensitiviy

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iii Dynamic range

iv. Repeatability
v. Physical size
3. List the advantages of electrical transducers.
The advantages of electrical transducers are:
i. Electrical amplification and attenuation can be easily done.
ii. Mass-interia effects are minimized.
iii. Effects of friction are minimized.
iv. Using very small power level.
v. Electrical output can be easily used, transmitted and processed for the purpose of
measurement.
vi. The output can be indicated and recorded remotely at a distance from the sensing
medium.
4. Define: Viscosity
Viscosity is defined as the property which determine the magnitudes of the resistance of
the fluid to a shearing force.
5. Give the types of potentiometer.
The types of potentiometer are:
i. Translatory
ii. Rotational
iii. Helipot
6. Give the limitations of thermistor.
Limitations of thermistor are:
i. Non-linearity in resistance Vs temperature characteristics.
ii. Unsuitable for wide temperature range.
iii. Very low excitation current to avoid self-heating.
iv. Need of shielded power lines, filters etc., due to high resistance.
7. In what principles, inductive transducer works?
i. Variation of self-inductance.
ii. Variation of mutual-inductance.
8. Write a short notes on LVDT.
LVDT(Linear Variable Differential Transformer) converts the mechanical energy into
differential electrical energy. It has single primary winding, and two secondary windings wound
on a hollow cylindrical former. An movable soft iron core slides within the hollow former and
therefore affects the magnetic coupling between the primary and the two secondaries.
9. List the limitations of LVDT.
The limitations of LVDT are:
i. Large displacements are required for appreciable differential output.
ii. They are sensitive to stray magnetic fields.
iii. Dynamic response is limited.
iv. Temperature also affects the transducer.
10. List out the features of piezo-electric accelerometer.
The features of piezo-electric accelerometer are
i. Useful for high input frequencies and the response is poor at low frequencies.
ii. The crystal is a source with a high output impedance and in order to avoid loading
effect, a voltage monitoring source of a high input impedance should be used.
11. Define: Inductive Transducer
Inductive transducer is defined as a device that converts physical motion into a change in
inductance. It may be either of active or passive type.
12. Give the principle of capacitive transducers.
Capacitive transducer principle is a linear change in capacitance with changes in

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the physical position of the moving element may be used to provide an electrical
indication of the elements position.
C=KA/d
Where K= dielectric constant.
A= total area of capacitor surfaces.
d = distance between two capacitive surfaces.
13. What is meant by digital transducers?
Digital transducers are also called as encoders. They are normally in the form of linear or
rotary displacement transducers. Hence they require analog to digital converter to realize the
digital data.
14.Mention some advantages of fibre optic sensor.
1.Simplicity
2.Low cost
3.Small size
4.High reliability
5.Capability of working in many kinds of hostile environment.
15.What is smart sensor?
Smart sensors are sensors with integrated electronics that can perform one or more of the
following functions.
logic functions,
two-way communication,
make decisions.
16 Marks
1.How transducers are classified and explain the different forms.
The transducers can be classified as follows;
(i)On the basis of transduction form used
(ii) as primary and secondary transducers
(iii)as active and passive transducers
(iv)as analog and digital transducers
(v) as transducers and inverse transducers.
(i)Classification based upon principle of transduction;
The transducers can be classified on the basis of principle of transduction as resistive,
inductive, capacitive etc.., depending upon how they convert the input quantity resistance ,
inductance or capacitance respectively. They can be classified as piezoelectric, thermoelectric,
optical, magnetorestrictive etc..,
(ii)Primary and secondary transducers:
Transducers on the basis of methods of applications, may be classified into primary and
secondary transducers.
 When the input signal is directly sensed by the transducer and physical phenomenon
is converted into electrical form directly then such a transducer is called the primary
transducer.
For ex:
A thermistor used for the measurement of temperature falls in this category. The thermistor senses
the temperature directly and causes the change in resistance with the change in temperature.
 When the input signal is sensed first by some detector or sensor and then its output
being in some form other than input signals is given as input to a transducer for

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conversion into electrical form, then such a transducer falls in the category of
secondary transducers.
For ex:
In case of measurement, bourdon tube is a primary sensor which converts pressure first into
displacement , and then the displacement is converted into an output voltage by an LVDT . In this
case LVDT is a secondary transducer.
(iii)Active and passive transducers:
Transducers , on the basis of method of energy conversion used, may be classified into
active and passive transducers.
An active transducer generates an electrical signal directly in response to the physical
parameter and does not require an external power source for its operation. Such transducers draw
energy from the system under measurement. Active transducers are also called self generating
type transducers.
Typical example of active transducers are tacho-generators used for measurement of angular
velocity, thermocouples used for measurement of temperature, piezoelectric crystal used for
measurement of force.
Transducers, in which electrical parameters i.e., resistance, inductance or capacitance
changes with the change in input signal, are called the passive transducers. These transducers
require external power source for energy conversion. These transducers may draw some energy
from the system under measurement. Typical examples are strain gauges, thermistor etc...
(iv) Analog and Digital Transducers:
Transducers , on the basis of nature of output signal, may be classified into analog and
digital transducers.
Analog transducer converters input signal into output signal, which is a continuous function
of time such as thermistor, strain gauge, LVDT, thermocouple.
Digital transducer converts input signal into the output signal, which is in the form of
pulses, i.e., it gives discrete output.
(v)Transducers and Inverse Transducers:
An inverse transducer is defined as a device which converts an electrical quantity into a
non-electrical quantity. It is a precision actuator having an electrical input and a low power non-
electrical output.
For ex:
A piezoelectric crystal and translational and angular moving coil elements can be employed
as inverse transducers. Many data indicating and recording devices are basically inverse
transducers. An ammeter or voltmeter converts electric current into mechanical movement and the
characteristics of such an instrument placed at the output of a measuring system are important.
Inverse transducers are most widely used in feedback measuring system.
2.Explain the different types of inductive transducers and explain the LVDT.
Inductive transducers may be either of the self generating or the passive type. The self
generating type utilises the basic generator principle. An inductive transducer is a device that
converts physical motion into a change in inductance. Transducers on the variable inductance type
work upon one of the following principles.
1.Number of turns
2.Geometric configuration

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3.Permeability of the magnetic material or magnetic circuits

Transducer based on principle of change in self inductance with Number of turns;
The output may be caused by a change in the number of turns. The transducers shown below
are transducers used for the measurement of displacement of linear and angular movement
respectively. In both cases, as the number of turns are changed , the self inductance and the output
also change.

Transducers working on the principle of change in self inductance with change in

permeability:
In this the inductive transducer works on the principle of variation of permeability causing a
change in self inductance. The iron core is surrounded by a winding. If the iron core is inside the
winding, its permeability is increased , and so is the inductance. When the iron core is moved out
of the winding, the permeability decreases, resulting in a reduction of the self inductance of the
coil. The transducer can be used for measuring displacement

Variable permeability inductive transducer

Variable reluctance inductive transducer:

Variable reluctance type inductive transducer for measurement of linear displacement is
shown below, In such a transducer, length of magnetic path varies with the displacement and
reluctance of the magnetic circuit changes causing change in self inductance of the coil.

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Variable reluctance inductive transducer

1.Linear Variable Differential Transformer(LVDT)
Construction:
The most widely used inductive transducer to translate the linear motion into electrical
signals is the linear variable differential transformer. LVDT is a differential transformer consisting
of a single primary winding P and two secondary windings S 1 and S2 wound over a hollow bobbin
of non-magnetic and insulating material. The secondary winding has the equal number of turns
and are identically placed on either side of the primary winding. A movable soft iron core is
placed inside the former. The displacement to be measured is applied to the arm attached to the
soft iron core. In order to overcome the problem of eddy current losses in the core, nickel-iron
alloy is used as core material and is slotted longitudinally.
Working:
Primary winding is connected to an ac source of voltage varying from 5 to 25 V and of
frequency ranging from 50Hz to 20 Hz. Since the primary winding is excited by an alternating
current source , it produces an alternating magnetic field which in turn induces alternating
voltages. The output voltage of secondary winding S1 is E S1 and that of secondary into a single
voltage signal, the two secondaries S1 and S2 are connected in series opposition. Therefore the
output voltage of the transducer is the difference of the two voltages.
Differential output voltage E0 = Es1 = Es2
When the core is at its normal (NULL) position , the flux linking with both the secondary
winding are equal and hence equal emfs are induced in them. Thus at null position E s1 = Es2 .Since
the output voltage of the transducer is the difference of the two voltages, the output voltage E 0 is
zero at null position.
Now if the core is moved to the left of the NULL position, move flux links with winding S 1
and less with winding S2 . Hence output voltage Es1 , of the secondary winding S1 , is more than
Es2, the output voltage of secondary winding S2 . The magnitude of the output voltage is , thus , E 0
= Es1 = Es2 and the output voltage is in phase with the primary voltage.

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Construction
Similarly, if the core is moved to the right of the null position, the flux linking with
winding S2 becomes larger than that linking with winding S1.Hence output voltage Es2 of the
secondary winding is more than Es1, the output voltage of secondary winding S 1 . The magnitude
of output voltage is thus, E0 = Es1 = Es2 and is 180o out of phase with the primary voltage.
Thus the LVDT output voltage is a function of the core position. The amount of the voltage
change in either secondary winding is proportional to the amount of movement of the core. Here,
we have an indication of amount of linear motion. By noting which output voltage is increasing
or decreasing we can determine the direction of motion. Any physical displacement of the core
causes the voltage of one secondary winding to increase while simultaneously reducing the
voltage in the other secondary winding. The amount of output voltage may be measured to
determine the displacement.

Basic circuit
The figure shows the variation of the output voltage against displacement for various
position of the core. The curve is practically linear to small displacements. Presence of harmonics
in input supply voltage or harmonics produced in the output voltage because of saturation of iron
core also contributes to residual voltage. Stray magnetic fields may also be the cause for residual

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voltage, which may be overcome by using a magnetic shield slotted longitudinally and fitted over
the transducer.

Advantages:
1. The output of LVDT is practically linear for displacements upto 5mm. The LVDT have a very
high range of measurement of displacement.
2. LVDT has infinite resolution as it gives stepless output and it has got no mechanical element to
change output in discrete steps.
3.LVDT has high sensitivity. It usually varies from 10 mv/mm to 40 v/mm.
4.The LVDT gives a high output and many time there is need for amplification.
5.Most LVDTs consume less than 1W of power.
3.Explain about the Data Acquisition system and its types.
Data acquisition system consists of individual sensors with the necessary signal
conditioning, data conversion, data processing, multiplexing, data handling and associated
transmission, storage and display system.
Data acquisition generally relates to the process of collecting the input data in digital form
as rapidly, accurately, and economically as necessary. The basic instrumentation used may be a
standard digital panel meter with digital output, a shaft digitizer or a sophisticated high-speed high
resolution device. To increase the speed with which information is accurately converted, sample
and hold(S/H) circuits are used.
Objectives of Data Acquisition system:
1. It must acquire the necessary data, at correct speed and at the correct time.

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2.Use of all data efficiently to inform the operator about the state of the plant
3.It must be able to collect, summarise and store data for diagnosis of operation and record
purpose.
4.It must be able to compute unit performance indices using on-line, real time data.
5.It must be reliable , and not have a down time greater than 0.1%
Classification of Data Acquisition system:
1.Analog data acquisition system:
The components of the analog data acquisition system are as follows;

(a)Transducer:
It is used to convert the physical quality into an electrical signal. The transducers such as
strain gauge , thermocouple piezoelectric devices, photosensitive devices are used. The transducer
generates an emf proportional to the physical quantity being processed.
(b)Signal conditioner:
It is for amplifying, modifying or selecting certain portions of such signals.Signal
conditioning equipment includes any equipment that assists in transforming the transducer output
to the desired magnitude or form required by the next stage of the data acqisition system.
(c)Multiplexing:
It is the process of sharing a single channel with more than one input. It accepts multiple
analog inputs with the help of multiplexer, we can transmit more than one quantity using same
channel. It becomes necessary in measurement systems when the distance between transmitting
and receiving point is large and many quantities are to be transmitted. Multiplexing is commonly
accomplished by either time or frequency sharing of the transmission channel between the
individual quantities.
(d)Calibrating Equipment:
Before each test there is a pre-calibration, and often after each test there is a post-
calibration. This usually consists of a millivolt calibration of all input circuits and shunt
calibration of all bridge type transducer circuits
(e)Integrating Equipment:
This block is used for integration of summation of a quantity. The digital techniques are
normally used for integration purposes.
(f)Visual Display devices:
These are necessary to monitor the input signal continuously. These devices include panel
mounted meters, numerical displays, single or multichannel CROs and storage CROs.
(g)Analog Recorders:
These are required to record type output signal. Analog recorders include strip chart
recorders, Duddell's oscillograph, magnetic tape recorders.
(h)Analog computers:
The function of a DAS is not only to record data acquired by the transducers and the sensors
but also to reduce this data to the desired form. An analog computer may be used as a data
reduction device. The output voltage of an analog computer can either be recorded in analog form
or be converted to a digital form for further computations.
(i)High speed cameras and T.V equipment:

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In any industrial process such as engine testing, and aerodynamic testing it is not possible
for the test operator to have a view of the equipment being tested. Therefore , closed circuit TV is
used to enable the operator to make visual observation of the test. Also high speed cameras are
employed to obtain a complete visual record of the process for further analysis.

2.Digital Data Acquisition system:

The essential functions of a digital data acquisition system are as follows;
(i) It handles the analog signals.
(ii) It performs measurement
(iii)It convertes analog signal into digital data and handles it.
The various components of the digital data acquisition system are as follows;
(i)Transducers:
Transducer converts physical parameters into electrical quantities Electrical quantities also
may be measured directly.
(ii)Signal conditioners:
Signal conditioner usually includes the supporting circuitry for the transducer. This circuitry
nay provide excitation power, balancing circuits and calibration elements. Strain gauge bridge
balance and power supply unit is an example of a signal conditioner.
(iii)Multiplexers:
The multiplexer accepts multiple analog inputs and connects them sequentially to one
measuring instrument.
(iv)Signal converter:
Signal converter translates the analog signal to a form acceptable by the analog to digital
converter. An example of this is an amplifier for amplifying low level voltage produced by strain
gauge or thermocouples.
(v)Analog to Digital converter:
It converts the analog voltage to its equivalent digital form. The output of ADC may be
displayed visually and is also available as voltage outputs in discrete steps for further processing
as recording on a digital recorder.
(vi)Auxilliary Equipment:
It consists of instruments for system programming functions and digital data processing.
Typical Auxilliary functions include linearising and limit comparison. Such functions may be
performed by individual instruments or by a digital computer.
(vii)Digital Recorder:
It records digital information on punched cards, perforated paper tape, magnetic tape,
typewritten pages or a combination of such systems. A digital printer used provides a high quality
hard copy for records amd minimising the labour of the operating staff.

4.What are the different types of ADC converters and explain any two.
Analog to digital converters is a digital network which converts analog signal in digital
signal. Analog to digital converter has two additional control signals. One is START and another
one is EOC.
Analog to digital converters are classified into two groups.
1.Direct type

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2.Indirect type
Direct type are classified as
1.Flash type converter
2.Stair type converter
3.Tracking or servo converter
4.Successive approximation type converter
Indirect type are classified as
1.Charge balancing analog to digital converter
2.Dual slope analog to digital converter.

1.Successive Approximation Method:

The figure shows an 8-bit converter which requires 8 clock pulses to obtain digital output. It
consists of successive approximation register, operational amplifier, and D/A converter. SAR is
used to find the required value of each bit by trial and error.

When START command is given, SAR sets MSB, d 1=1 with all other bits to zero so that the
trial code is 10000 0000. The output Vd from DAC is now compared with analog input Va. If Va 
Vd , then 1000 0000 is less than correct digital representation.
The MSB will remains at '1' and next bit is made '1' and further tested. But, when V a  Vd it
indicates that 1000 0000 is greater than correct digital representation. Now MSB is reset to '0' and
goes on to the next lower significant bit.
This procedure is repeated for all subsequent bits, one at a time , until all bit positions have
been tested. When DAC output crosses Va the comparator changes the state and this is taken as
end of conversion command. Now, the data available on SAR will be the digital equivalent of the
given analog signal.
Advantages:
1.High resolution
2.It is very versatile
3.High speed.

2.Dual slope Integration type ADC:

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In this ADC, the voltage to time conversion process is used twice. It is a widely used (in
DVM & DMM ) type of ADC, based on integration of input voltage for a constant time, followed
by measurement of time required to discharge the integrating capacitor with a constant current.
In the dual slope technique, an integrator is used to integrate an input voltage for a fixed
period of time. The same integrator is then used to integrate with reverse slope, the reference
voltage, and the time required to return to the starting voltage is measured.

Schematic diagram of the integrator in DVM

The output of integrator shown is ;

------------(1)

where Vin = Input voltage

Vout = Output voltage
R,C = Integrator time constant components
t= Elapsed time from when the integration began

Block diagram of dual slope ADC

The figure above shows the typical dual slope conversion circuit. The system has a ramp
generator, comparator, AND gate, counter, display, clock and electronic switch.
The input of ramp generator is switched between the analog input voltage (V in ) and a
negative reference voltage (-Vref). The analog switch is controlled by the most significant
bit(MSB) of the counter. When the MSB is logic zero, the voltage being measured is connected to
the ramp generated input and when the MSB is logic one, the negative reference voltage is
connected to the ramp generator.

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The conversion cycle can be divided into two distinct steps. First the counter is reset and V in
is connected to the input of the ramp generator. This causes a positive going ramp voltage.
Assuming an eight bit counter, the counter will count up from 00000000 2 to 011111112. The slope
of the ramp, during this period is given by Vin/RC.
When the binary count reaches 100000002, - Vref is connected to the input of the ramp
generator(integrator). This causes the ramp to go negative with a slope equal to -V ref/RC, and the
counter continues to count, until the ramp voltage again reaches zero. When the ramp voltage goes
below zero, the comparator output goes low, disabling the AND gate to the clock signal and
stopping the counter. The counter output is converted to decimal form and is displayed.

Charging and discharging slopes

A large input signal produces a large slope(that of line A) and a smaller input signal
produces a smaller slope.(that of line C) .
Since t1 , the time for the MSB of the counter to reach a logic one is constant, the peak value
of ramp is proportional to the value of V in. The slope of the negative going ramp is constant ,
meaning that large values of the peak ramp voltage take proportionally longer time than smaller
values to return to zero. Thus time t2 is a linear function of the value of Vin and the number of
clock pulses counted during the time period t2 is proportional to the analog input voltage Vin. The
MSB of the count is not included in the final display value, as it is used only to control the
selection of Vin or - Vref.
The time period t1 produces full count, time period t2 must not exceed t1 or MSB of the
counter will again change to a logic zero on the way down, preventing the ramp from reaching
zero. This then establishes upper range limit for Vin i.e., equal to the absolute value of - Vref.
The products of the slope and time must be equal during the time period t 1 and t2, because the
changes in ramp values are equal.

-----------------(2)

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-------------------(3)

where N1 and N2 are decimal counts proportional to t1 & t2 respectively.

Advantages:
1.High accuracy
2.Very high input impedance
3.High series mode rejection
4.Kick-back signal is low
5.Low cost
6.Less sensitive to temperature variations and weather conditions
Diadvantages:
Slow conversion.

5.Explain about the Digital to Analog converters and its types.

Digital to Analog converters are those which is used to convert digital signals into analog
signals. The role of DAC in instrumentation systems are that, in some applications it is required to
convert digital to analog signal before processing like computer driver CRT display and digital
control of automatic process control systems etc..,

The input is n-bit binary word and is combined with reference voltage to give an analog output
signal. The output of digital to analog converter is either a voltage or current.
The output voltage of n-bit DAC is given by,

where VR - Reference voltage

d1, ,.... - n-bit binary words

d1 - MSB with weight of

dn - LSB with weight of

The different types of digital to analog converters are

1.Binary Weighted Resistor DAC:

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The binary weighted resistor DAC uses operational amplifier to sum n binary weighted
currents derived from a reference voltage VR VIA current scaling resistors 2R,4R,8R....2nR.

Here, the switch positions are controlled by the digital inputs. When the digital input is one,
the corresponding switch is closed and digital input is zero, the switch is opened.
Here, the operational amplifier is used as a summing amplifier. Due to the high input
impedance of op-amp, summing current will flow through feedback resistor R f .Now the total
current is,

The output voltage is the voltage drop across Rf and it is given as

when Rf = R, the output voltage becomes,

From the above equation analog output voltage is directly proportional to the input digital data..

2.R-2R Ladder:

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In this the input to the ladder must switch from a voltage representing '1' to ground
representing '0'. It should never be left open circuited. The resistor which is load, is same for all
bits of digital input.
The switch positions d1, d2, d3 correspond to the binary word '100'. The circuit can be
simplified to the equivalent form. From the figure above , the equivalent resistance at node A with
respect to ground is R.

The resistance between node B and ground = R+R =2R.

Now, the equivalent resistance at node B = 2R||2R =R
The resistance between node C and ground =R+R=2R
Now from the figure, the equivalent resistance at node C with respect to ground

The voltage at node C is calculated as

Then , output voltage

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The output voltage of digital to analog converter is proportional to the sum of the weight
represented by the switches.
Advantages:
1.High resolution
2.High accuracy
3.It requires only two values of resistors, R and 2R, regardless of number of bits digital
input.

3.Inverted R-2R ladder DAC:

The current produced by the reference voltage Vref at the node A is given by

This splits equally into two branches I which also have equal resistance, each of value 2R. The
current I2 on the horizontal line, then splits equally into two branches at node B and so on(I/4, I/16
and so on) resulting in the binary weighted currents. These currents are summed by the op-amp.
By the principle of superposition, the output voltage is

(since R=R0)

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For n-bit R-2R inverted DAC, the output voltage is given by

The R-2R ladder and inverted R-2R ladder network is called as 'current switched ' R-2R ladder.
Advantages:
1.It is constructed by resistors having two values only. They are R and 2R.
2.The R-2R ladder networks are available on monolithic ICs, thus giving a high degree of
precision.
Disadvantage:
1.One additional resistor is required for each bit as compared to the weighted resistor DAC.
6.What is meant by piezoelectric transducer and explain its modes of operation:

A piezoelectric material is one in which an electric potential appears across certain

surfaces of a crystal if the dimensions of the crystal are changed by the application of a
mechanical force. This potential is produced by the displacement of charges. The effect is
reversible also., i.e., if a varying potential is applied to the proper axis of the crystal, it will change
the dimensions of the crystal thereby deforming it.

This phenomenon is known as piezoelectric effect. The word piezo is a Greek word
meaning force or pressure. Elements exhibiting piezoelectric qualities are called electro-resistive
elements .

Materials for piezoelectric transducers:

Common piezoelectric materials include rochelle salt, ammonium dihydrogen
phosphate(ADP), quartz and ceramics made with barium titanate, dipotassium tartrate, potassium
dihydrogen phosphate and lithium sulfate and these are used in real applications.

The piezoelectric effect can be made to respond to mechanical deformations of the

material in many different nodes. The modes can be
(a)thickness expansion

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(b)transverse expansion
(c)thickness shear
(d)face shear
The mode of motion employed depends on the shape of the body relative to the crystal
axis and location of the electrodes. A piezoelectric element used for converting mechanical
motion to electrical signals may be thought as charge generator and a capacitor. Mechanical
deformation generates a charge and this charge appears as a voltage across the electrodes. The
output voltage E0 = Q/C. The piezoelectric effect is direction sensitive. A tensile force produces a
voltage of one polarity while a compressive force produces a voltage of opposite polarity.
A crystal is placed between a solid base and the force summing member. An externally
applied force, entering the transducer through its pressure port, applies pressure to the top of the
crystal. This produces an emf across the crystal proportional to the magnitude of applied pressure.
The magnitude and polarity of the induced surface and charges are proportional to the
magnitude and direction of the applied force.
----------(1)
where d= crystal charge sensitivity in coulombs per newton (C/N)and is constant for a given
crystal cut.
F= applied force in newton
The force F causes a change in thickness of the crystal by in metre and so

--------(2)

where A= area of crystal in m2

E= Youngg's modulus of elasticity in N/m2
t=thickness of the crystal in m
The change at the electrodes gives rise to an output voltage E0 and is given by the expression

---------------(3)
where Cp =Capacitance between the electrodes of the crystal

Since ;

p= is the pressure in pascals applied on the crystal.

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where is the voltage sensitivity on the crystal

Above expression can also be written as

Modes of operation of piezoelectric crystals:

The piezoelectric crystals are used in many modes. These are (i)Thickness shear(ii)Face
shear(iii)Thickness expansion and (iv)Transverse expansion.

Equivalent circuit of piezo-electric transducers

The basic equivalent circuit of a piezoelectric transducer is

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The source is a charge generator. The value of the charge is Q=dF. The charge generated is
across the capacitance Cp of the crystal and its leakage resistance is Rp.
The charge generator can be replaced by an equivalent voltage source having a voltage of

Advantages of piezoelectric transducers:

1.Piezoelectric transducers are generally small in size, light in weight and very rugged in
construction
2.These transducers are self generating type as they do not need external power
3.These transducers have very good high frequency response. They provide flat frequency
response from 1Hz to 20 kHz, the natural frequency being of the order of 50 kHz.
4.Their outputs are quite large
Disadvantages of piezoelectric transducers:
1.The output voltage is affected by temperature variations of the crystal
2.It can be used for dynamic measurements only

Education is the mother of Invention

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