CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Some Pertinent Idea

2.1.1 The Concept of Reading

In this concept of reading, the researcher will explain more about Reading,

they are the definition of reading and part of reading.

2.1.1.1 Definition of reading

Most people read without giving much thought to how to they do it. To them,

what is reading? Is a question of little concern? Below there are some definition

reading.

Reading is used to refer to the task of understanding a text of sentence and

phrase which are related in some meaningful way. Improving reading comprehension

is difficult it involves building vocabulary, improving working memory capacity, and

extending the number and availability of retrieval structures, as well as encouraging

the reader to put all these to good use. Reading is an active process that depends on

both an author ability to convey meaning using words and your ability to create
meaning from them. to read successfully, you need to constantly connect what you

already know about the information to the information to the words the author has

written.1

Reading is interacting with language that has been coded into print. Reading

is an active and on going process that is affected directly by an individual’s

interaction with his environment.2 Reading is the meaningful interpretation of printed

1
Deborah Daiek, Critical Reading for College and Beyond, (New York: McGraw Hill,
2004),p.5
2
Arthur W. Heilman, Timothy R. Blair, William H Rupley, Principle And Practice Of
Teaching Reading Fifth Edition (Ohio; Charles E. Merril Publishing Co, 1981) p.4

6
7

or written verbal symbols. Reading is a result of the interpreting between the

perception of graphic symbol that represents language and the reader’s language skill

and knowledge of the world.3 Reading is like detective work. You must be able to

distinguish facts from opinions and specific from generalizations.4

Based on the explanation above, reading is not an easy activity, reading must

always be a meaning getting process and connect what the information words have

the author written, reading is also influenced by the interaction of an individual with
their environment. The teacher can quite students in reading and get the main idea in

their environment. The teacher can quite the students reading and get the main idea

in the passage they are reading.

2.1.1.2 Reading Comprehension

Understanding comprehension processes are crucial to study of reading. Any

definition of comprehension should really be related to a consideration of the

purpose set fir reader, or by the reader, for reading. According to Grabe and Stolle,

Reading comprehension is an ability to understand or to gain information from a

text.5
Goodman states reading comprehension is as an interaction between thought

and language.6 It means that an interaction in reading, it can produce a thought and

then we are thinking, and we have a question for ask someone, that called is

3
Albert J. Harris and Edward R. Sipay, How to Increase Reading Ability, (New York:
Longman Inc, 1975), p.8
4
Three Watson, Reading Comprehension Skills and Strategies Level 7, (United States of
America: Saddleback Education Publishing 2002), P.70
5
Grabe William, and Frederica L stoller, Teaching and Researching Reading, (New York:
Longman, 2002) p.7
6
Otto, Wayne, How to Teach Reading, (Philippines: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company,
Inc, 1979), p.70
8

language. Reading comprehension is a complex intellectual process involving a

number of ability.7

Based on the explanation above, reading comprehension is a complex skill

that requires an active interaction between text elements and the reader. The reader is

an active participant with a text and the reader make sense of how ideas based on the

text relate to one another by interpretive interactions between what the reader gleans

from the text and what the reader already knows, from the statement, it is clearly
understood that the comprehension is the most important in reading. Since

comprehension of the text is the ultimate goal in reading. Understanding

comprehension processes are crucial to study of reading.

2.1.1.3 The Process of Reading Comprehension

Formerly stated, reading is a process of decoding text, and then receiving

information. From this, it can be seen that reading activity involves more than one

process. The reading process itself still involves other language processes like

listening and reading (receptive process), speaking and writing (productive process),

and thinking process (Johnson). Those processes are the main processes which
happened in reading. They occur when readers read the text, clarify the text, and

declare the information of the text. has another thought that process of reading

includes a rapid process, efficient process, comprehending process, interactive

process, strategic process, flexible process, purposeful process, evaluative process,

learning process and linguistic process.

Those processes occur during reading activity. The process of reading

comprehension based on the order how the readers decode the language can be

7
Dorothy Rubin, Diagnosis and correction Reading Instruction, (Simultaneously in Canada,
1982), p.207
9

divided into three categories; bottom-up, top-down and interactive reading. In the

bottom-up process, readers have to identify and decode the language feature of the

text including the letter, the form of the words, and the discourse of the words. In this

process, readers have to be able to decode the text first to comprehend the text.

Then, in top-down process, readers have to use their background knowledge

to understand about the text, i.e. readers look at the title of the text and relate it to

their knowledge to guess what the text is about. Lastly, in interactive reading, readers
try to combine the bottom-up and top-down processing. Readers not only identify

and decode the language feature of the text but also use their background knowledge

and experience to comprehend the text.

2.1.1.4 Teaching Reading Comprehension

Teaching reading comprehension is essential because reading is the most

important activity in any language class. Besides it becomes a medium to get

information, it is also a mean for expanding students’ background knowledge about

language. The stages of teaching reading according to Brown can be summarized as

follows:
2.1.1.4.1 Before reading

In this stage, the teacher should introduce the topic of the text that the

students will read in order to activate students’ background knowledge. The teacher

should also introduce strategies in reading such as skimming, scanning, predicting,

activating scemata, and the other strategies that can heko students comprehend the

text. The use of prompts such as visuals, realia, photos,etc is recommended.

2.1.1.4.2 Whilst reading

In this stage, the teacher monitors students’ comprehension by encouraging

them to self-questions.
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2.1.1.4.3 After reading

In this stage, the teacher may provide follow-up activities such as discussing

the content of the text, retelling the text, answering the comprehension questions,

learning vocabulary found in the text, etc.

2.1.1.5 Strategies in Teaching Reading

In teaching reading comprehension, the teacher needs some strategies to

make the students comprehend the reading texts. According, the followings are ten
strategies which can be applied in the teaching reading comprehension in the

classroom.

2.1.1.5.1 Identifying the purpose in reading

2.1.1.5.2 Using graphemic rules and patterns to aid in bottom up decoding

(especially for the beginning level learners)

2.1.1.5.3 Using efficient silent reading techniques for relatively rapid comprehension

(for intermediate to advanced levels)

2.1.1.5.4 Skimming the text for the main ideas

2.1.1.5.5 Scanning the text for specific information

2.1.1.5.6 Using semantic mapping or clustering

2.1.1.5.7 Guessing when you are not certain

Some reading strategies above can help students to read comprehensively.

Students can choose some techniques which are appropriates for their reading

purpose. Each technique has its own purpose in reading. Furthermore, not all of the

techniques will be suitable for all students’ ability. However, students can master all

of those strategies if they often practice them.

2.1.1.6 Principle in Teaching Reading Comprehension

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In order to have a good impact on the students’ comprehension, teachers

should teach reading by principles. Anderson proposes eight principles of teaching

reading as follows.

2.1.1.6.1 Exploit the readers’ background knowledge

As it has been stated that background knowledge helps students ro

comprehend the text ( Brown & Yule, McCarthy & Carter, Cook, Nunan in

McDonough & Shaw it is important to activate the students’ background knowledge

in pre-reading activity. The activities can be asking goals, asking questions, making

prediction, teaching text structures, etc.

2.1.1.6.2 Build a strong vocabulary base

It is valuable to teach students how to guess a meaning of difficult word from

the context.

2.1.1.6.3 Teach for comprehension

It is more important to model how to comprehend the text rather than testing

reading comprehension.

2.1.1.6.4 Work on increasing reading rate

The teacher should develop fluent readers, not speed readers. One of the ways

is by reducing students’ dependence of dictionary because they look for every word

in a text so it will take a long time to read.

2.1.1.6.5 Teach reading strategies

Strategic reading is “not only knowing what strategy to use, but also how to

use and integrate a range of strategies.

2.1.1.6.6 Encourage readers to transform strategies into skills

Strategies are conscious actions or plans equipped by learners to achieve a

particular goal or to solve problems they have in reading skills are “strategies that
12

has become automatic”. The teacher should make the strategies automatic to be

employed by students with a lot of practices.

2.1.1.6.7 Build assessment and evaluation into your teaching

Assessment and evaluation could be done quantitatively or qualitatively. In

quantitative assessment, the teacher can assess the students’ reading competency and

reading rate with tests. Meanwhile, qualitative assessment can be done using reading

journal responses, reading interest surveys and responses to reading strategy

checklist.

2.1.1.6.8 Strive for continuous improvement as a reading teacher

Anders, Hoffman, and Duffy in Anderson argue that the good teachers need

to understand the nature of reading process.

2.1.2 Descriptive text

2.1.2.1 The understanding of descriptive text

Descriptive Text is a text which says what a person or a thing is like. Its

purpose is to describe and reveal a particular person, place, or thing. In a broad sense,

description, as explained by Kane is defined like in the following sentence.

Description is about sensory experience—how something looks, sounds, tastes.

Mostly it is about visual experience, but description also deals with other kinds of

perception.

Thus, if we conclude it from Kane’s explanation above, the descriptive text is

meaningful text that describes the experience related to the senses, such as what

shape, sound, taste is. Most descriptive text is about visual experience, but in fact

experience other than the sense of sight, we can also use it to make descriptive text.

But in particular, the descriptive text is, “…… is a text which says what a person or a

thing is like. Its purpose is to describe and reveal a particular person, place, or thing.”
13

So, it can be said that this descriptive text is a text that explains about whether a

person or an object is like, whether its form, its properties, its amount and others. The

purpose of the descriptive text is clear, that is to describe, represent or reveal a

person or an object, either abstract or concrete.

2.1.2.2 Generic Structure of Descriptive Text

When writing descriptive text, there are some generic structures (actually not

mandatory) for our writing to be true. The arrangement is:

2.1.2.2.1 Identification: (contains about the introduction of a person, place, animal or

object would be described.)

2.1.2.2.2 Description: contains a description of something such as animal, things,

place or person by describing its features, forms, colors, or anything related to what

the writer describe.

2.1.2.3 Purpose of Descriptive text

2.1.2.3.1 To describe person, thing or place in specific

2.1.2.3.2 To describe a particular person, thing or place.

2.1.3 Collaborative Strategic Reading (CSR)

2.1.3.1 Definition of Collaborative Strategic Reading (CSR)

Collaborative Strategic Reading (CSR) is one type of comprehension strategy

instruction that is designed to improve learners‟ strategy reading abilities through

small group discussion which it was proposed and developed by Klingner and

Vaughn According to K. Klingner and Sharon Vaughn said that “Collaborative

Strategic Reading is an excellent technique for teaching students reading

comprehension and building vocabulary and also working together cooperatively.” 8

8
Yen Chi, Fan Yen, The Effect of Comprehension Strategy Instruction on EFL Learners’
Reading Comprehension, Asian Social Science, 8 August, 2010
14

It means that CSR is a technique that can improve students‟ reading comprehension,

increase their vocabulary, and also enhanced cooperative skills during reading

activity.

Moreover, Bremer stated that “Collaborative Strategic Reading (CSR) is a

reading comprehension practice that combines two instructional element: Modified

reciprocal teaching and cooperative learning.” 9 In this statement, reciprocal teaching

means teacher and students are working together in predicting, clarifying,

questioning, summarizing, and the reading materials. It means that Collaborative

Strategic Reading (CSR) designed as an activity through some strategies by working

together.

In sum up, Collaborative Strategic Reading (CSR) is a set of comprehension

strategies designed to improve students‟ reading comprehension which the students

learn about reading text by using several strategies (preview, click and clunk, get the

gist, and wrap up through small group discussion).

2.1.3.2 Purpose of Collaborative Strategic Reading (CSR)

There are some purposes of Collaborative Strategic Reading (CSR).

According to Abidin, “The goal of CSR is to improve reading comprehension and

increase conceptual learning in ways that maximize students‟ involvement.” It means

that Collaborative Strategic Reading is designed to help students to be successful and

to maximize students‟ contribution in improving reading comprehension.

2.1.3.3 Procedure Collaborative Strategic Reading (CSR)

9
Janette K.Klingner and Sharon Vaughn, Using Collaborative Strategic Reading, The
Counce For Exceptional Children , July/Aug, 1998,
15

Collaborative Strategic Reading (CSR) can be implemented in two phases:

(a) teaching the strategies, and (b) cooperative learning group activity or students

pairing.

2.1.3.3.1 Phase 1 : Teaching the Strategies

In this phase, students are taught four strategies: preview, click and clunk, get

the gist, and wrap up. Based on Klingner and Vaughn describe the four strategies as

follows.
2.1.3.3.1.1 Preview

The preview strategy is the first strategy to be done in the CSR which

students preview the entire passage before they read each section and make

prediction what the passage might be about.

2.1.3.3.1.2 Click and Clunk

Students click and clunk while reading each section of the passage. The goal

of clicking and clunking is to teach students to monitor their reading comprehension

and to identify when they have breakdowns in understanding. Clicks refer to portions

of the text that make sense to the reader: "Click, click, click" – comprehension clicks
into place as the reader proceeds smoothly through the text. When a student comes to

a word, concept, or idea that does not make sense, "Clunk" – comprehension breaks

down. For example, when students do not know the meaning of a word, it is a clunk.

Many students with reading and learning problems fail to monitor their

understanding when they read. Clicking and clunking is designed to teach students to

pay attention to when they are understanding – or failing to understand – what they

are reading or what is being read to them. The teacher asks, "Is everything clicking?

Who has clunks about the section we just read?" Students know that they will be

asked this question and are alert to identify clunks during reading.
16

As with the other strategies, you may teach students the click and clunk

strategy from the beginning of the year and use it in various contexts. Students apply

these fix-up strategies at first with help from the teacher and then in their small

groups. Lucille Sullivan encourages her students to click and clunk throughout the

day. She noted, "Another reason I like this technique is that there is a transfer. The

students will be reading in the cafeteria, and they say 'Hey, look at this clunk word,

what does it mean?' and that just thrills me."

2.1.3.3.1.3 Get the Gist

Students learn to "get the gist" by identifying the most important idea in a

section of text (usually a paragraph). The goal of getting the gist is to teach students

to re-state in their own words the most important point as a way of making sure they

have understood what they have read. This strategy can improve students'

understanding and memory of what they have learned.

When you teach students to "get the gist," prompt them to identify the most

important person, place, or thing in the paragraph they have just read. Then ask them

to tell you in their own words the most important idea about the person, place, or
thing. Teach students to provide the gist in as few words as possible while conveying

the most meaning, leaving out details.

2.1.3.3.1.4 Wrap up

Students learn to wrap up by formulating questions and answers about what

they have learned and by reviewing key ideas. The goals are to improve students'

knowledge, understanding, and memory of what was read.

Teach students to ask some questions about information that is stated

explicitly in the passage and other questions that require an answer not right in the

passage, but "in your head." Encourage students to ask questions that involve higher-
17

level thinking skills, rather than literal recall. With her fifth-grade students, Tiffany

Royal emphasizes that every question can be made into an even better question with

the addition of the phrase, "Why do you think that?"

To facilitate students' ability to generate higher-level questions, you may provide

question stems, such as the following:

• How were ____ and _____ the same? Different?

• What do you think would happen if _____?

• What do you think caused _____ to happen?

• What other solution can you think of for the problem of ____?

• What might have prevented the problem of ____ from happening?

• What are the strengths (or weaknesses) of ____?

To review, students write down the most important ideas they learned from the day's

reading assignment in their CSR Learning Logs. They then take turns sharing what

they learned with the class. Many students can share their best idea in a short period

of time, providing the teacher with valuable information about each student's level of

understanding.
2.1.3.3.2 Phase 2 : Cooperative Learning Group Roles

In cooperative groups, each student must have a key role and responsibility

for their group success. They also need a preparation in order to work productively

and effectively. Moreover, during Collaborative Strategic Reading (CSR) process,

students are divided into small group that consists of 4-6 students each group, and

perform a different role.

2.1.3.4 Teaching Reading Using Collaborative Strategic Reading (CSR)

There are some steps in teaching reading by using CSR, but before involving

students in Collaborative Strategic Reading (CSR), the teacher introduces the

18

procedure of Collaborative Strategic Reading with the benefits students get. Then,

the teacher explains to the students that Collaborative Strategic Reading (CSR)

would be helpful to improve their reading comprehension on descriptive text.

Furthermore, the teacher explains the basic rules in applying CSR in reading

descriptive text.

2.1.3.5 The Materials Used in Collaborative Strategic Reading (CSR)

The following materials may be helpful as a teacher assists students to use

CSR and cooperative learning techniques.

Reading materials. When selecting reading materials for CSR, the following

factors are recommended for consideration: (a) reading materials at students‘

instructional level, which generally refers to students being able to decode eabout

80% of the words correctly, (b) reading materials having themes and supporting

details, (c) reading materials consisting of several paragraphs, and (d) reading

materials containing clues/pictures for predicting

Clunk cards. Each of the four clunk cards contains one fix-up strategy. Fix-up

strategies included in the clunk cards are: (a) reread the sentence with the clunk and
look for key ideas to help you figure out the word — think about what makes sense,

(b) reread the sentences before and after the clunk looking for clues, (c) look for a

prefix or suffix in the word that might help, and (d) break the word apart and look for

smaller words that you know.

Cue cards. Cue cards outline the procedures tobe followed in a cooperative

learning group.They remind students of each step of CSR foreach role. Each role

comes with a corresponding cue card that explains the steps to be followed to fulfill

that role.
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Learning log. CSR learning logs serve two roles: (a) written documentation

of learning, assuring the individual accountability that facilitates cooperative

learning, and (b) research guides for students.

Timer (optional). Timers that students set by themselves can help groups to

remain on task.

Score card (optional). The scorekeeper in a group follows a cue card to find

out when to award points, and records these points on a score card.
2.1.3.6 Process of Collaborative Strategic Reading (CSR)

The basic steps to apply CSR in a cooperative learning group

Step 1: Whole class introduction. The teacher introduces the topic, teaches

key vocabulary, and provides instructions.

Step 2: Cooperative group activity (during preview,click and clunk, get the

gist, and wrap up). Each group member plays an assigned role and fillsout a CSR

learning log during the activity.

Step 3: Whole class wrap up strategy. A teacher discusses the day‘s reading

passage, reviews clunks, answers questions, or shares some review ideas.

The teaching steps above will be applied in a series of phases of conducting

Collaborative Strategic Reading (CSR). In preliminary strategy implementation, the

teacher as a learning facilitator sets the class into 2 phases, namely: (1) teaching the

strategies; and (2) applying CSR in cooperative learning group. In sum, the teacher

will introduce the strategy and then group the class to follow the intended activities

in CSR. At last, discuss together the day‘s reading passage, reviews clunks, answer

questions, etc.
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2.1.3.7 The Advantages and Disadvantages of Collaborative Strategic Reading

(CSR) The Advantages of Collaborative Strategic Reading (CSR) According to

Standish the advantages of CSR are as follows:

2.1.3.7.1 The students with content area reading disabilities will improve their

reading comprehension.

2.1.3.7.2 The students can improve their words identification and fluency.

2.1.3.7.3 The students will spend a great amount of classroom discussion so that
they can assist one another.

2.1.3.7.4 CSR is not only teaching readers with cognitive (top down and bottom up)

approach but also teaching readers how to use the strategies metacognitively.

2.1.3.7.5 Promoting student and academic achievement.

2.1.3.7.6 Increasing students retention.

2.1.3.7.7 Enhancing student satisfaction with their learning experience.

2.1.3.7.8 Helping students develop skills in oral communication.

2.1.3.7.9 Developing students‘ social skills.

2.1.3.7.10 Promoting students self –esteem.

2.1.3.7.11 Helping to promote positive race relation.

2.1.3.7.12 Cooperative learning concept in CSR promotes students to be active,

collaborative as well as cooperative in achieving similar learning goals. m. CSR can

improve students‘ comprehension in technical terms used in content area reading.

2.1.3.8 The Disadvantages of Collaborative Strategic Reading (CSR)

According to Klingner and Vaughn disadvantages of Collaborative Strategic

Reading such as:

2.1.2.8.1 CSR strategy requires much time to teach to students and much time may

be wasted in negotiations about who would perform a specific role.

21

2.1.2.8.2 To implement CSR, teachers need to be given an intensive collaborative

professional development program.

2.1.2.8.3 Teaching CSR in content area reading may need more attention than in

foreign language subject because content area teachers lack of English

comprehension.

2.1.2.8.4 In bilingual class program in which content area teachers use two

instructional languages (LI and L2) for teaching, CSR needs to be taught
collaboratively in team teaching. The teacher of L1 (Indonesian) requires his/her L2

(English) teacher partner‘s help to deliver the strategy. It may cause an effective

instruction because L2 teacher sometimes assists L1 teacher to translate the terms in

L2 so that it will spend much time.

2.2 Previous Research Findings

The study using Collaborative Strategic Reading (CSR) technique was done

by Refi Ranto Rozak at MAN 1 Bojonegoro, in this study the data analysis shows

that there is not interaction between teaching strategy and intelligence in teaching

content area reading.10

Research conducted by desi Olivia riani (2013) applied collaborative strategic

reading implementation to improve students’ reading comprehension. The researcher

finding the study proved that CSR improved students’ reading comprehension.

Students’ mean score of reading test in the beginning of the study was 67,

meanwhile, after applying CSR as reading strategy, their mean scores improved to

8811.

10
Refi Ranto Rozak, The Effectiveness of Collaborative Strategic Reading To Teach Content
Area Reading Comprehension Viewed from Students’ Intelligance (2013).
11
Desy Olivia Riani. Collaborative strategic reading implementation to improve students’
reading comprehention.(2013); English Review; Journal of English education.
22

Umar Anas (2017) also has proved that CSR can improve students’ reading

comprehension. The finding of the research are the mean of pretest I was 55,3 and

the mean of posttest II was 90,6 the mean of pretest II was 60,8 and the mean of

posttest II was 88. T-calculation results shows that the t-calculation of cycle I was

9,2 and in cycle II was 12.1.12

According to some previous finding above it is shown that all of the using

Collaborative Strategic Reading but different way. The first one focus on teaching
area content, second one using pre experiment research and the last one using

Classroom Action Research. Thus, in this case the research interests to use

collaborative strategic reading to improve the students’ reading comprehension in

different way, which is using quasi-experimental research.

2.3 Conseptual Framework

Some experts defined the conceptual framework, Sugiono in his book states

that framework is a conceptual model of how theory relates to a variety of factors

that have been identified as an important issue.13 The following is the conceptual

framework which is underlying this research.

12
Anas Umar. The Use of Collaborative Strategic Reading To Improve The Students’ Reading
Comprehension (Classroom Action Research)(2017).
13
Sugiono, Metode Penelitian Pendidikan Kuantitatif Kualitatif, (Cet. 22;Bandung: Alfabeta,
2015), p. 91
23

INPUT

Reading Material
Descriptive text

PROCESS PROCESS

Experimental Group Control Group

Teaching CSR to improve Teaching Reading
students’ in Reading comrehension with
comprehension usual strategy.

OUTPUT : The Students’ Reading comprehension

The two of variables above input, treatment, and output are briefly discuses as

follows:

1 Input: This variable refers to reading comprehension as focus to improve

students` ability.

2 Process: this section is a process. It divided into two groups. The first was an

experimental group. In the experimental group, the researcher will implement

“CSR to improve students` Reading Comprehension. The second is a control

group, the researcher implement teacher usual strategy. The researcher will

give the different treatment for experimental and control group to compare

the students` improvement in Reading comprehension.

3 Output: This section refers to find out the implement of students` reading

comprehension.

2.4 Hypothesis

Arikunto states the hypothesis is temporal answer toward the statement of the

problem. She also adds that hypthotesis is a formal statement about an expected
24

relationship between two or more variables which can be tested through an

experiment. H0 or null hypothesis an Ha or alternative hypothesis. Every research

does not always use hypothesis. In this thesis, the researcher would like to formulate

the hypothesis as follows:

1. Null Hypotheses (Ho) : The use of Collaborative Strategic Reading is not

able to improve the students’ Reading Comprehension at the eighth grade of

MTs Albadar.
2. Alternative Hypothesis (Ha) : The use of Collaborative Strategic Reading is

able to improve the students’ Reading Comprehension eighth grade of MTs

Albadar.

2.5 Variable and Operation Definition

2.5.1 Variable

There are two variables involved in this research, which are dependent

variable and independent variable. The independent variable is Collaborative

Strategic Reading and the dependent variable is Reading Comprehension.

2.5.2 Operational Definition

2.5.2.1 Reading comprehension is a complex skill that requires an active interaction

between text elements and the reader

2.5.2.2 Collaborative Strategic Reading (CSR) is a technique that will help students

to comprehend the text easily, which this technique designed to improve

students’ reading comprehension which the students learn about reading text

by using several strategies (preview, click and clunk, get the gist, and wrap

up through small group discussion).