CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF LITERATURE

A. Theoretical framework
A research may be based on existing theories of certain fields’ science and
need explanation about the concepts that used in this research. In order to enable
the reader avoid misinterpreting the concep of this study should be clarifying. The
following description of the concepts and terms were consider part of the
theoretical framework that would be support the analysis of the data.

1. Description of Fffect
The effect is language teaching technique according to ricard and redgers
(2001 : 133)"Effect is defined to change of ability that student have after being
treated by using certain teachnigue of teaching". It usually in eksperimental
method in which it is an approach to education research in which the relationship
between subject and variable can be determined.
Effect of teaching in language is related to the change of getting something
into our cognitive system. The final result of learning process which involves
teachers with student which reflected from the knowledge the student have. The
improvement in which achievement by student then are realized in the form of
score is in that will be acknowledge the certain position of the a student in the
class because the score they have reflect their improvement in the learning
prosess.

2. The Description of Approach, Strategy, Method, Technique

2.1 Approach
According to richard and rogers (2001:19) an approach is a set of correlative
assumption dealing with the nature of language and the nature of language
learning and teaching. An approach describes how people acquire their knowledge
of language and makes statement about the conditions which will promote
successful the term "method and approach" are often used in the nature of
language learning. Basically both of those terms do not have the same meaning.
An approach is axiomatic and describe the nature of the subject matter to be
taught. By using an approach, it will make teaching process become more

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effective bacause an approach ia a very important element in managing students in

the classroom.
2.2 Strategy
According to Kemp (in Rusman 2010:132) strategy is learning activity tahat
must be done so that the teacher and students learning abjectives can be achieved
effectively and effeiciently. Dick and Carey (in Rusman 2010:132) stated that,
stretegy is set of learning outcomes on the learner or students. Efforts to
implement lesson plan that have been prepared in real activity so that the goals
can be achieved optimally prepared, we need a method that is used realize a
predetermined strategy. This, one possible teaching strategy could be used
expository lecture as well as question and answer method or even discussion by
utilizing the available resources including the use of instructional media.
Therefore, both of strategy and methods are different. The strategy suggests a paln
of corporation achieving something, while the method is a way in achieving
something
2.3 Method
According to Nunan (2003:5) a language teaching method is a single set of
procedures which teacher are to following the classroom. Method are also usually
based on a set of beliefs about the nature of language and learning. For many
years, the goals of language pedagogy was to “find the right method’’ a
methodological magic. Formula that would work for all learners at all times
(Brown,2002) method are contrans with approaches, which are more general,
philosophical orientations such as communicative language teaching taht can
encompass a range of different procedures.
2.4 Technique
Richard and Rogers (2001:15), started that “a technique is implementation
that which take a place in a classroom’’. Furthermore, when the teacher in a
classroom, she/he must be able to create strategy how to manage the class.
Richards and Rogers, (2001:67) started that technique is an explicit procedure or
strategy used to accomplish a particular learning a second language, based
theoretical approach selected. It involves the design of syllabus for the source,
which in run consist of learning objectives and technique for activating those
adjective.

3. Definition Achievement
The word achievement is derived from the the word “achieve” is a noun
from which mean “(a) to success in reading a particular goal, status or standart,
especially by effort, skill, courage, etc (b) to success in doing something or
caiusing to happen, or to be succesful : to perform well or a thing done
successfully, especially with effort and skill” (Oxford Dictopnary(1995:10), more
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on Webster Dictionary (1995) states taht achievement is the act of achievement or

perfoming and successful performance.
The relationship to the objective of the study in this reseacrh is students
achievement manifest term built a conversation (how to atart a conversation),
keep it going and leave a positive impression based on the Gallery Conversation
Strategies.
We measuring to describe the knowledge and skills of the students or as a
basis for making decision. Measuring achievement is to obtain information on
individual students in learning process. The first point in the larning process is
that we need information about individual students at the beginning of learning.
This information can be used to help us plain a lesson, so that students are more
adaptable to our learning-related and skill. The second information required is
mastery of prerequisite knowledge and skill. The third information needed is what
the subject matter students already known.

4. Definition of Reading
Reading is on the most poorly developed of our daily skills and yet a vital
medium of communication. In our society, as knowledge rapidly accumulates and
is commited to print, greater demands are continually being made on the ability of
people to read.
Grabe and Stoller (2002:9) said that reading is the ability to draw meaning
from the printed page in interprent this information appropriatel. However this
definition is inadequate to explain the definition of true nature of reading because
in reading there are number of wats to engage.
Reading is a fluent process of readers combining information from a text
and their own background knowledge to build meaning. The goal of reading is
comprehension. Strategies reading is defined as the ability of the reader to use a
wide variety of reading strategies to accomplish a purpose for reading. Grabe
(1991:68) points out the complexity of even defining reading bby stating that :a
description of reading has to account for the notions that fluent reading is rapid,
purposeful, interactive, comprehending, flexible, and gradually developing’’
Early work on second language reading assumed a rather passive, bottom-
up view. Problem of second language reading and reading comprehension were
viewed as being essentially decoding problems, deriving from the print. While
reading, readers, readers should be able to construct a meaning from which they
can assimilate the original meaning of the author.
In order to be active reader, the learner should develop various reading skill.
Which she/he can employ for the purpose of gaining a full comprehension of what
is read. Reading involves a variety of skills :
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1. Previewing
2. Skimming
3. Scanning
4. Identifying topic
5. Understanding paragraphs
6. Predicting
7. Identifying clauses
8. Guessing words meaning
9. Using dictionary
10. Understnding contextual reference
Most of students read the text without giving musch thought to who
they do it. In reading, students just pronounce the words without having
understanding the context. Alexander, (198:4) indicates that reading is a
communication proces between the writer and the reader untilizing language.
Grabe and Stoller,(2002:9) idicated that reading in the ability to drow meaning
from the printed page and interpret this information appropriately.
4.1 Purpose of Reading
Grabe and Stoller (2002:3) classified the reading purpose as followes :
1. Reading to search for simple information is a common reading
ability. Thought some researchers see it as relatively independent
congnitive process. It used to often in reading texts that is probably
best see as a type of reading ability. In reading to search, we
typicaly scan the texts for a specific piece of information or
specific piece word. Reaing the skim is a common part of many
reading texts an useful skill in its own right. It involves in essence
a combination of strategies for guessing where important might be
in texts.
2. Reading to learn texts
Reading to learn typically in academic and profesional contexts in which a person
needs to learn a considerable amount from a text. It
require abilities to :
a) Remember main ideas as well as a number of details that
elaborate the main and supporting ideas in the text.
b) Link the text to the reader knowledge based.
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3. Reading to integrate information, write and critique texts reading to

integrate information requires additional decision about the relative
importance of complementary, mutually supporting bor conflicting
information to accomodate from multiple source.

5. Reading Comprehension
Comprehension is the ultimate goal and the driving force of reading. It is
viewed as the purpose of reading. While comprehension is often considered the
end product of reading and is assessed after reading, it actually takes place
throughout the reading process. Thomas N Tunner (1987:159) said that reading
comprehension involves taking meaning to a text in order to obtain meaning from
the text. When read a text reader is not merely saying the word in the text in the
conventional way of sound, but however abel to drive meaning from the world
necessary vocalizing it. Peading must be a meaning from interacting internally
with the material this is read.
Grabe and Stoller (2002:17) said that reading for general comprehension
is most abvious sense, the ability to understand information in a text and interpret
itappropriettelly. However comprehension ability are much more complex that
defenition sugest. To offer a more accuaretc picture of reading comprehension, we
define reading comprehension by it self, but together that process required for
fluent reading.
According to Cook (2004:4) reading comprehnsion is a dynamic
interactive process of constructing meaning by combining the readers exisiting
knowledge with the text information with the context of the reading situation.
William (1984:3) said the comprehension is the minds act or power
understanding what has been written. From quotation above, it means that is terms
of comprehension reader are expecting to understand. This it is clear that.
Reading comprehension is the ability to read text, process it and
understanding its mening. An individual’s ability to comprehend text is
influenced by their traits and skiil, one of which is the ability to make inferences.
If word recognotion is difficult, students use too much of their processing
capacity to read individual words, which interferes with their ability to
comprehend what is read. There are a number of approaches to improve reading
comprehension, including improving one’s and reading strategies.
5.1 Level of Comprehension
A good reader must have a good comprension. It is also that a good
reader must be abel to read at all level of comprehension. In this case, levels
means different depts of understanding different analysis of what it means. Bruns,
et, al (1984:177) says that there are four levels of comprehension that must be
achieved in reading comprehension, they are :
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1. Literal Comprehension
Literal Comprension refers to the ability to understand what is stated by the writer
taking the ideas and fact as directly stated on the printed page.
2. Inferential Comprehension
Inferential Comprehension refers to the ability to go beyond what is stated direcly,
to understand what the writer means by looking for the meaning.

3. Critical Comprehension
Critical Comprehension refers to the ability to make analysis, evaluation,
judgements and proposal reacting about the idea and information writer offers ina
passage.
4. Creative Comprehension
Creative Comprehension refers to the ability of reader to use hir/her imagination
when reading the passage.

6. Description of Metacognitive Reading Strategies

Metacognition basically refers to thinking about thinking. According
to Flavell (1979), metacognition involves one’s knowledge about his thinking
processes and products, active monitoring, and regulation of cognitive processing
activities. It is categorized into four components: 1) the metacognitive knowledge
which refers to the person’s awareness or perceptions about the factors (i.e.
person, task, strategy) influencing cognitive activities; 2) the metacognitive
experiences which refer to the individual’s mental or emotional responses
pertaining to any cognitive activity; 3) the goals / tasks which refer to the purpose
or objective of any cognitive undertaking; and 4) the actions / strategies which
refer to activities carried out by learners to fulfill their purpose or metacognitive
objectives (Iwai, 2011). It has three main aspects: metacognitive knowledge,
metacognitive monitoring, and self-regulation and control (Pintrich, Wolters &
Baxter, 2000) and is viewed in two dimensions: 1) the knowledge of cognition
which is made up of three factors such as declarative knowledge (abilities and
characteristics that affect cognitive processing), procedural knowledge (using or
implementing strategies), and conditional knowledge (assessment and reflection
on the effectiveness of the strategies used) and 2) the regulation of cognition
which includes planning, monitoring, testing, revising, and evaluating strategies
used (Iwai, 2011).
Louca (2003) describes metacognition as cognition about cognition
because it entails examining the brain’s processing during the reading / thinking
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process. Reading as a cognitive process implies that metacognition or awareness

and regulation of one’s thinking during the reading process could lead to better
comprehension. According to Iwai (2011), metacognition is key to reading
comprehension since it is found essential in the development of some linguistic,
cognitive, and social skills.
In the field of reading, metacognitive strategies are those activities
that make students aware of their thinking as they do reading tasks. The New
South Wales Department of Education and Training (2010) defines metacognitive
reading strategies as planned, intentional, goal-directed, and future-oriented
mental activities and processes that help a reader think about and check how he
progresses in fulfilling a cognitive task. In fulfilling a task using metacognition, a
learner plans and activates, then monitors, controls, reacts, and reflects (Pintrich,
Wolters, & Baxter, 2000). Iwai (2011) summarizes the process of metacognition
in three steps: 1) Planning; 2) Monitoring; and 3) Evaluation.
Metacognitive reading strategy awareness plays an important role
in reading comprehension and educational process (Ditzel, 2010; Mytcowicz,
Goss, & Steinberg, 2014; Ahmadi, Ismail, & Abdulla, 2013). Awareness and use
of metacognitive reading strategies have positive and direct relationship with
reading comprehension performance; thus, students who use these strategies
perform better in reading proficiency tests / courses (Yuksel & Yuksel, 2012;
Pressley, et al., 1998; Ahmadi, Ismail, & Abdullah, 2013; Al-Sobhani, 2013;
Tavakoli; 2014; Magogwe, 2013; Hong-Nam, 2014; Zhang & Seepho, 2013;
Memis & Bozkurt, 2013; Phakiti, 2006; Kummin & Rahman, 2010). Therefore,
learning metacognitive reading strategy skills can be one solution to the problem
of poor reading comprehension, hence, the need for it to be developed and
emphasized in the EFL teaching and learning processes.
In the study of Estacio (2013), it was revealed that the use of the
metacognitive reading strategies is a predictor of reading comprehension test
scores. Ilustre (2011) also investigated if metacognitive reading strategies are
better predictor of text comprehension and she found out that Problem Solving
Strategies correlated positively with reading comprehension.
Ismail and Tawalbeh (2015) conducted a quasi-experimental study
examining the effect of the metacognitive reading strategies on EFL low achievers
in reading. The study revealed that training on the use of metacognitive strategies
among low achieving EFL readers improves reading comprehension performance.
Sen (2009) also conducted a similar study in Turkey. His study revealed the
potential of metacognitive reading strategies in developing effective and
successful readers. Royanto (2012) also examined the effectiveness of an
intervention program based on scaffolding to improve metacognitive strategies in
reading. She found out that the program activated unused metacognitive
strategies, leading to the conclusion that the learners have the metaknowledge.
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While most studies found positive correlations and effects of

metacognitive strategies on reading comprehension, some found quite the
opposite. In Indonesia, Pammu, Amir and Maasum (2014) found out that
Indonesian EFL learners use different metacognitive reading strategies but their
use of metacognitive reading strategies did not bring corresponding improvements
in the observed reading performances. In Russia, Korotaeva (2012) examined the
metacognitive strategies in reading comprehension of education majors and found
out that the respondents exhibited extremely ineffective metacognitive strategy
use.
Alsamadani (2009) explored the frequency and type of metacognitive
reading strategies used by the Saudi EFL college-level students and correlated
them to their EFL reading performance. He found out that Saudis more frequently
use planning strategies than attending and evaluating strategies. He also found out
that the students’ use of metacognitive reading strategies does not influence their
comprehension level. Also, in the study of Pei (2014), it was revealed that
metacognitive reading instruction did not result in better reading comprehension
performance of Chinese students. Mehrdad, Ahghar, and Ahghar (2012) also
found out that use of cognitive and metacognitive instruction does not always
have a positive effect on the EFL students’ reading comprehension performance.
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