Definition of Reading

Reading is the process of constructing meaning through the dynamic interaction among the reader’s
existing knowledge, the information suggested by the written language, and the context of reading
situation.

Here are known facts about reading:

1. Reading involves both an organic or physiological process and a mental or cognitive processes.
2. In the physiological process, the most basic step is for the eyes to see, identify, and recognize the
printed word or images (illustration, diagram, picture).
3. The light patterns from the printed symbols hit the foveal areas or closely packed sensory cells of
the retina.
4. In turn, this induces chemical changes that create patterns of nerve currents into the optic nerve
fiber.
5. Then these currents travel to a center in the mid-brain.
6. The stage of reading revolves around the ability to identify and recognize words which are the
smallest unit of visual identification and meaningful recognition. But the act of reading does not take
place if the letters are perceived in isolation.
7. Finally, using the currents that travel to the mid-brain, the cerebral cortex interprets the symbols
(with the help of traces of the memory’s store of experiences, also by associations that enable the
reader to perceive the meaning of the word).

Facts discovered by Specialists:

• Children display dominance in the two spheres of their brain, such is the case with those who
are left-handed or left-eye dominant. But researchers have shown that such manifestations
don’t affect the ability to read. So, it is advised that children be allowed to display their left-
handed or left-eye dominant techniques.
• Handicapped children may display spatial or directional disorientation. Thus, they may have
difficulties in differentiating letters, especially in case of letters which are alike such as f and t, p
and b, g and d.
• Intellectual or emotional maturation lag is a cause for reading retardation.
• There is a close correlation between intelligence and reading achievement. Those with high
I.Q. will acquire higher reading skills than those with lower I.Q.
• Basic to success in reading are:
a) visual acuity with eyes integrating images well and
b) auditory acuity with clear hearing of the sounds of words.
• Reading is intertwined with language, and so non-speakers of a language will have more
difficulties reading a second language.
• Reading and listening (particularly sounds of words) are closely related. Proficiency in listening
is conducive to proficiency in reading.

Several Eye Movements in Reading:

1. FIXATION or the eyes stopping or getting fixated on the word or words.
- The duration of fixation is the length of time the eyes has to pause. Most readers take four eye
pauses per second, while poor readers need more time to pause in order to see with accuracy.
2. INTER-FIXATION or the eyes moving from stopping point to the other (horizontally from left to
right, up coming down or under).
3. RETURN SWEEPS with the eyes swinging back from the end line to the beginning of the next
line.
4. REGRESSIONS or backward right-to-left movement in case there is a need to double check
what is being read.
5. Short quick hop and jump movements called SACCADES, done especially by literate people, to
move ahead on a line of print.
6. SPAN OF RECOGNITION or the eyes’ recognition of a group of words. It is believed that readers
can add to their reading ability by widening the span of recognition by means of chunking of
phrases, a focus on the total word pattern.

Theoretical Models of the Reading Process:

1. Bottom-up is the process of forming meanings about the text. This is also called data-driven
processing. It is important that the readers recognize every word in a selection so that they can
comprehend it.
2. Top-down is the process of formulation of meaning that proceeds from the reader to the author, that
is, the reader must first use of his prior knowledge or background experiences to understand the
author’s viewpoint. Schemata refer to all knowledge the reader has stocked or stored in his memory
since the time he was conceived. When a reader reads, he recalls or activates these schemata or stored
knowledge. An abstract representation of this old knowledge in his mind is called schemata.
3. Interactive utilizes both top-down and bottom-up either simultaneously or alternately to
comprehend a text. The major benefit of Interactive is the opportunity for differentiation.
4. Transactional indicates that comprehension or understanding is the result of the transaction between
the reader and the text.

Components of the Reading Process

1. Decoding refers to the act of associating the sounds with the letters to form a word resulting in an
oral pronunciation or silent thinking of the word. It is also called Alphabetic Principle.
2. Comprehension refers to the process of constructing meanings.
These two components occur simultaneously, thus, as the reader sounds the letter, immediately
meaning is associated with the word formed.

Kinds of Reading
1. Skimming is reading to get an overview of the selection.
2. Scanning is reading for specific information in the selection.
3. Idea reading is reading for main idea.
4. Exploratory reading is reading to know how the whole selection is presented.
5. Analytic reading is careful examination of a selection for the purposes of identification word
relationships.
6. Critical reading is reading to weigh facts, information or ideas presented in the selection.
7. Narcotic reading is reading to get rid of everyday troubles, depressions, problems, etc.

Concerns of Teaching Reading:

1. schema activation
2. vocabulary development
3. comprehension development
4. understanding text organization
5. application
Principles in Teaching Reading:
1. Instructional activities have a teaching rather than a testing focus.
2. Lessons should be divided into pre-reading, during reading, and post-reading.
3. The major activity of the reading lesson is students reading the texts.
4. Reading instructional materials and tasks are authentic as they require students to find and work on
complex real-life problems. Authentic materials are those which were not created or edited expressly
for language users (Nunan & Miller, 1995). e.g. pictures of road, labels, business cards, film, menus,
internet websites, receipts, newspaper, brochures, and music
5. Reading activities must promote grand conversations.
6. Reading activities must develop or activate students’ background knowledge.
7. Reading activities must provide opportunities for reading, writing, listening and speaking.
8. Reading activities must promote higher-level thinking.
9. Reading activities must be appropriate for a heterogeneous groups of students.

Developmental Reading - is a comprehensive reading program consisting of several stages. Different

books offer different stages.
*Suggestion 1
1. Reading readiness (nursery and kindergarten);
2. Beginning reading (Grades 1 and 2);
3. Rapid Growth and development (Grades 3 and 4); and
4. Refinement and Wide Reading (Grades 5 and 6, high school, and college).

*Suggestion 2
1. Early literacy (below grade 1)
2. Decoding (Grade 1 and beginning Grade 2)
3. Fluency (Grades 2-3)
4. Using Reading for Learning (Grades 4-8)
5. Multiple Viewpoints (Grades 9-12)
6. Construction and Reconstruction (College and beyond)

*Suggestion 3
1. Emergent reader (environmental print)
2. Beginning Reader (understanding of the alphabet and words: concepts of prints)
3. Transitional Reader (recognizing and manipulating within word differences)
4. Intermediate Reader (fluency and problem-solving about the meaning)\
5. Advanced Reader (reading to learn)

Grace Godell’s Reading Skills Ladder

1. Basic sight words
2. Using phonetic analysis
3. Using structural analysis
4. Using contextual clues
5. Vocabulary building
6. Finding the main idea
7. Finding the supporting details
8. Interfering meanings and drawing conclusions
9. Classifying and organizing facts
10. Using parts of the book
11. Using the dictionary
12. Using encyclopedias and other reference books
13. Borrowing library books for research and enjoyment
14. Starting your private library collection
[Link] to reading from mass media
16. Reading from the Internet

Some Approaches, Methods, Strategies in Reading Instruction:

1. Phonics is a method of teaching children the relationship between the letters and the individual
sounds for them to read and write words.
2. Whole Language Approach emphasizes meaning and integrates all literacy tasks within reading
instruction. It utilizes authentic literature.
3. Content-Based Instruction (CBI) is based on the common underlying principle that successful
language learning occurs when students are presented with target language material in a
meaningful, contextualized form, with the primary focus on acquiring information and
knowledge.
4. Basal reader involves sequencing all vocabulary, and skills, stilted sentences, pieces of stories,
literature out of context, etc. that end up with boring and artificial readings. Teachers need to
heed the warning of Goodman who cautioned against the “basilazation” of literature by treating
books simply as vehicles for practicing skills.
5. Literature Based Approach emphasizes the use of genuine literature to introduce the children
to the world of reading. It utilizes literary pieces which received the Caldecott Medal and the
Newberry Medal awards.
6. Guided Reading is a small-group reading instruction designed to provide differentiated
instruction to support the students in developing their reading proficiency.
7. Language Experience Approach utilizes activities and stories developed from personal
experiences of the learners.
8. Cooperative learning can be effective in teaching reading, especially for less competent
students to develop skills with assistance from more competent classmates.
9. Flexible Student Grouping – Students are arranged based on readiness, learning profiles, or
interests.
10. Collaborative Strategic Reading combines cooperative learning and reading comprehension
strategy instruction which is designed to promote content learning, language acquisition, and
reading comprehension in diverse classrooms.
11. Individualized Reading Instruction implies at least 4 things:
1) The children are at their seats or at reading tables (not in group);
2) Each child has a different book – a book that he himself selected (self-selection);
3) Each child receives individual help from the teacher (pupil-teacher conference); and
4) The pupil progresses at his own pace (self-pacing).

Reading Cue Systems

1. Semantic cue system (meaning) involves story sense, prior knowledge, text, or illustrations.
2. Syntactic Cue System (structure) involves natural language, knowledge of English, grammatical
patterns or language structures.
3. Graphophonic cue system (visual) involves sounds and symbols, and print conventions.
4. Pragmatic cue system (situation/context)
Components of reading fluency:
1. Rate
2. Accuracy
3. Prosody is reading aloud with pitch, stress, and timing to convey meaning

Disorders that Affect Reading

1. ADHD (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder) is a syndrome of disordered learning and
disruptive behavior that is not caused by any serious underlying physical or mental disorder and
that has several subtypes characterized primarily by symptoms of inattentiveness or primarily by
symptoms of hyperactivity and impulsive behavior or by the significant expression of all three.
3 Types:
a. Predominantly Inattentive Type
b. Predominantly Hyperactive-Impulsive Type
c. Combined Type

2. Myopia is a condition of the eye that makes it difficult to see objects that are far away.
3. Hyperopia is a condition in which visual images come to a focus behind the retina of the eye and
vision is better for distant than for near objects.
4. Dyslexia is a condition in the brain that makes it hard for a person to read, write, and spell.

Library Skills
Kinds of Reading Materials in the Library:
a. General collection of books which can be borrowed
1. Fiction – novels, short stories, drama, etc.
2. Non-fiction – books of information, about real things, people, places, etc.

b. General reference books

1. Dictionary contains words listed in alphabetical order and that gives information about the words’
meanings, forms, pronunciation, etc.
2. Encyclopedia is a book or set of books containing information on all important subjects.
3. Index is a detailed alphabetical list of persons, places, etc. that are mentioned in a book, indicating
their exact positions in the volume.
4. Yearbook is a publication which includes useful information like report of government offices and
officials, or of scientific and educational societies.
5. Almanac is a yearly publication which contains miscellaneous information and statistics, current
events, recent laws, sports records, social, political and commercial statistics that are liable to change
from year to year.
6. Atlas is a book that contains maps showing the entire surface of the earth.
7. Gazetteer is a list of names of places with some information about each place.
8. Bibliography is a list of all the books used by the writer in preparing the book.
9. Directory contains an alphabetical list of names of people, business, etc.
10. Bibliographical Dictionary gives information about distinguished people living or dead.
Graphic and Pictorial Materials
a. Graph uses dots and lines to show a system of relationships between things.
Four basic types of graphs:
1. Pie or circle graph shows how a whole is divided into different parts.
2. Line graph shows development or progress of a trend over a period of time.
3. Bar graph is good for showing comparative figures and relationships.
4. Pictograph uses sketches of figures to represent the concept under discussion.

b. Tables, Charts, and Diagrams – Tables and charts are often considered synonymous. They may
be single column, multi-column (vertical or horizontal) charts. A diagram, on the other hand, is
used to show the parts of a thing or stages of a process.
c. Maps and Globes present a representation of the surface of the earth. Maps are flat, and show
the whole surface of the earth or just a part of it, while globes are spherical and represent the
entire surface of the earth.

Study Skills
Study skills refer to skills of locating and gathering information, interpreting graphic and pictorial
materials, and organizing information. These skills are also called life skills or survival skills.

Categories of Study Skills

1. Locating Information refers to one’s skill in alphabetization, in using parts of a book and in using the
different library materials and card catalog.
2. Organizing Information refers to classifying information and identifying topic sentence, main idea and
supporting details.

Topic sentence captures all the ideas in the paragraph. Position of topic sentence in a paragraph:
a. initial
b. medial/central
c. final

Basic Parts of topic sentence:

a. topic
b. controlling idea Main Idea is the central or most significant thought of the paragraph.

Supporting details are those that support the main idea.

a. Classifying information
b. Identifying main idea and supporting details
c. Outlining requires the reader to identify the main idea and the supporting details following the order
of their occurrence in the selection. Outlines may come in different forms: phrases, sentences, or
paragraphs.
d. Summarizing refers to a concise way of presenting information.
e. Taking Notes requires the reader to write down in his note card or notebook important items of
information for easy remembering.
Types of Main idea:
a. stated main idea
b. unstated or implied main idea

3. Interpreting Graphic and Pictorial Materials

4. Adopting Study Habits and Techniques

Reading/Study Methods
1. SQ3R (Survey, Question, Read, Review, Recite)
a. Survey the titles, illustrations, or opening lines of each paragraph.
b. Question – Students raise questions resulting from their survey of the title, illustration and the text.
c. Read the text with the questions raised in mind.
d. Review the text to determine which of the questions raised were answered and which ones were not
answered. And which information obtained for which no questions were raised.
e. Recite the information obtained from the text.

2. PQRST (Preview, Question, Read, Summarize, Test)

a. Preview – advance organizers, titles and subtitles, illustrations, summaries, comprehension questions
b. Question – Raise questions.
c. Read the text with questions in minds.
d. Summarize the information obtained.
e. Test oneself as to the answers obtained to the questions raised.

Vocabulary Improvement
A. Methods of Increasing Vocabulary
1. Configuration is knowing the meaning of the term by using the arrangement and structure of the
word – its size, shape, and length as clues to the correct meaning.
2. Clining shows the degree of difference or unlikeness of a group of words having almost the same
meaning by ranking them in a slanting position.
3. Clustering is the act of grouping words with the same meaning. Semantic Mapping is a visual strategy
for vocabulary expansion and extension of knowledge by displaying categories words related to one
another. Classification is a method of deriving meanings by knowing how the words in a group are
related with one another basing on a certain criterion.
4. Collocation is a way of deriving word meaning by putting two or more words together or side by side
to show word relationships or different shades or meanings (rich man, rich ideas, rich word / here and
there, hammer and chisel).
5. Completion
6. Neologism refers to the act of coining new words (autoist-driver, co-ed-female student)
7. Antonomasia or Allusion refers to the use of words derived from the Bible, history, myths, legends,
etc. (Eden-paradise)
8. Structural analysis is the splitting up of word into its parts to discover its meaning (uncomfortable –
un/comfort/able).
9. Contextual Clues are words or phrases acting clues to the meaning of an unfamiliar word.
Types of Context Clues
1. Definition or Restatement - The meaning of the vocabulary word is in the sentence itself, usually
following the vocabulary word. e.g. Jack's duplicity – crafty dishonesty – caused him to steal his co-
worker's pensions by funnelling their money into an offshore account.
2. Synonym - The sentence uses a similar word to help explain the meaning of the vocabulary word. e.g.
The baseball coach punished the team's duplicity or deceitfulness after they admitted to using steroids
to boost their batting averages.
3. Antonym /Opposite/Contrast - The sentence uses a word with an opposite definition to give the
meaning of the vocabulary word. e.g. It was your duplicity that caused me to break up with you! Had
you been honest, I wouldn't have felt the need.
4. Example or Explanation - This type of context clue uses examples to help the reader infer the meaning
of the vocabulary word. e.g. His duplicity involved lowering his employee's salaries, increasing their
stock options, and then stealing the money he saved by doing so.
5. Cause and Effect - The clues that indicate an unfamiliar word is the cause of and or the result of an
action, feeling, or idea. e.g. Constant drought and windstorm conditions caused the erosion of fertile
topsoil that crops needed to grow.

10. Creativity – Use of Names of Persons, Places – is a way of increasing one’s vocabulary by creating or
coining a word through one’s imagination, and through borrowed terms. (saute -French, kindergarten-
German, ad hoc-Latin, etc.)
11. Clipping, Blending, Acronym, Anagram
Clipping is a process of forming words by cutting off the beginning or end of a word (ad-advertisement).
Blending is the merging of two words into one, usually the first part of the first word and the last part of
the other one, so that the resultant blend consists of both original meanings. Acronym is a kind of
clipping that uses only the initial letter of the word to stand for the whole term (UNO-United Nations
Organization).
Anagram is a way of forming different words from a given word by just rearranging the letters of the
given word (team-mate, meat, tame).
12. Use of Synonyms, Antonyms Synonym is a word that has the same meaning as another word in the
same language (beautiful-pretty). Antonym is a word with a meaning that is opposite to the meaning of
another word (ugly-beautiful).
13. Homonyms, Heteronyms, Homophones Homonyms are words with the same spelling and
pronunciation but different in meaning (bat-an object, bat- a mammal). Homophones are words with
the same pronunciation but different in spelling and meaning (aisle, isle). Homographs are words with
the same spelling but different in sound and meaning. They are also called heteronyms. (REcord,
record).
14. Derivation and Derivational suffixes (beauty-beautiful)
15. Words with Multiple Meanings – Some English words have more than one meaning (Cast means the
ff.: throw, let fall, shape by squeezing into mold to harden, select to take part in a play, the actors in a
play, etc.)
16. Classification
17. Knowing the Difference between General and Specific Terms
18. Use of Figure of Speech – Figure of speech is an expression of comparisons, a device or arrangement
of words by which a writer seeks to deviate from the direct and literal use of the language, to speak
more strikingly, picturesquely, or accurately.
a. Personification - Personification is all about adding a human trait to an inanimate object or an
abstraction. e.g. The picture in that magazine shouted for attention.
b. Simile - is a figure of speech that compares two unrelated things or ideas using "like" or "as" to
accentuate a certain feature of an object by comparing it to a dissimilar object that is a typical example
of that particular trait. e.g. The stock market is like a roller coaster ride--up and down.
c. Analogy – is a figure of speech that equates two things to explain something unfamiliar by highlighting
its similarities to something that is familiar. This figure of speech is commonly used in spoken and
written English. e.g. Questions and answers, crying and laughing, etc.
d. Metaphor - compares two different or unrelated things to reveal certain new qualities in the subject,
which you might have ignored or overlooked otherwise. e.g. The streets of Chennai are a furnace.
e. Alliteration - is the duplication of a specific consonant sound at the start of each word and in quick
succession. Although alliterations are all about consonant sounds, exceptions can be made, when
vowels sounds are also repeated. This figure of speech is commonly seen in poems. e.g. "Guinness is
good for you" - Tagline for Guinness
f. Hyperbole – is a far-fetched, over exaggerated description or sentence is called as hyperbole and is
commonly used in jokes and making backhanded compliments. e.g. When she smiles, her cheeks fall off.
g. Onomatopoeia - is partly pleasure and partly business. It is used to replicate sounds created by
objects, actions, animals and people. e.g. Cock-a-doodle-do, quack, moo, etc.
h. Euphemism - is a figure of speech where an offensive word or expression is replaced with a polite
word. e.g. She passed away yesterday.
i. Assonance - is a repetition of the vowel sounds. Such a figure of speech is found most commonly in
short sentences or verses. e.g. And murmuring of innumerable bees.
j. Allusion - is an indirect or subtle reference made about a person, place or thing in a work of literature.
e.g. I am no Prince Hamlet. (Herculean, Oedipus complex, Midas touch, Aphrodisiac, Damocles sword,
Jovial mood, Good Samaritan, Adonis, Achilles’ heel, Exodus)
k. Antithesis - is a figure of speech where two very opposing lines of thought or ideas are placed in a
somewhat balanced sentence. e.g. Man proposes, God disposes.
l. Apostrophe - is used when a person who is absent or nonexistent is spoken to. e.g. "Twinkle, twinkle,
little star, How I wonder what you are. Up above the world so high, Like a diamond in the sky."
m. Metonymy - A metonymy is a figure of speech where one word or phrase is used in place of another.
With metonymies, a name of a particular thing is substituted with the name of a thing that is closely
related to it. e.g. "We have always remained loyal to the crown."
n. Oxymoron - Oxymoron involves the usage of contradictory terms to describe an object, situation or
incident. e.g. open secret, tragic comedy, exact estimate, original copies, etc. o. Synecdoche - This is
figure of speech where a part of a particular object is employed to throw light on the whole thing.
e.g. Check my new wheels.

19. Use of idiomatic expressions. An idiom is a phrase or expression with a meaning not logically
suggested by the words (in hot water, in the same boat, dead beat, break the ice, catch red-handed,
thick headed).

Word-Analysis Skills
1. consonant blends are groups of two or three consonants in words that make a distinct consonant
sound. e.g. brown, block
2. consonant digraphs are groups of two or three consonants in words that make one consonant sound.
e.g. shoes
3. long and short vowels
4. syllabication
5. r-controlled vowels are those that are changed by letter “r”. e.g. turtle, bird, butter
Phonemic-awareness skills
1. Phonemic deletion skill – is the ability to recognize the word that remains when a phoneme is
removed from another word. (smile-mile)
2. Phonemic substitution skill – is the ability to replace one phoneme for another. (ban-van)
3. Phonemic segmentation skill –is the ability to break the word into individual sounds. (green {g-r-i-n}
4. Phonemic Categorization skill – is the ability to recognize a word in a set of three or four words that
has the odd sound.

Detecting Propaganda or Bias (Prejudice)

Propaganda means spreading of ideas, facts or allegations deliberately to further one’s cause or damage
on opposing cause. Bias or prejudice, on the other hand, refers to opinion for or against somebody or
something without adequate basis.

Types of Propaganda:
a. Bandwagon claims that everyone is doing it, hence the reader must do it, too.
b. Compare and Contrast – The author compares and contrasts products or ideas to convince the reader
that one is better than the other one. However, the claim made for the better one is difficult to prove.
c. Emotional Words – The author uses words to arouse the feelings of the reader rather than to give
information to him.
d. Faulty-Cause-Effect – The author says or directly states that a thing gives rise to another thing, but
there’s no real proof or evidence to prove this is true.
e. Name-Calling – The author uses names or terms that will make a person or group appear bad.
f. Repetition – The author makes the reader remember the person by using the word repeatedly.
g. Testimonial – The author tells that prominent people like actors, experts, celebrities, etc. are in favor
of such kind of product. These famous people find the item good, hence, it is also good to the reader.
h. Transfer technique – The author tells that respectable and dignified people are using the product,
hence, such product will become qualitative or valuable. There is a transfer of the respect accorded to
the person to the object.