Bioethics: Ethics

BIOETHICS

ETHICS
- the study of right and
wrong and how to tell the
difference between them -
also means people's beliefs
about right and wrong
behavior
Ethics can be defined as the
study of ethics.
Ethics defined...

Ethics is not the study of

what people do or how
people act. It is not the

study of what people say or
think one ought to do.

Ethics is an enquiry
into the truth, not into
what people believe is
true.
"Ethics"
- from a Greek word, "ethica,"

whose root is
"ethos.“
- "Ethos" eventually came to
mean a person’s
"interior dwelling place," the
"basic orientation or disposition
of a person toward life."
Ancient Greek philosophers,
especially beginning with
Socrates, became interested in
this question about how people
should fashion their "ethos" in
order to best succeed at life.
This dimension of ethics is

sometimes called "aretaic."
Morality
From the Ancient Romans translated the
Greek word ethos as mos / moris, -The Latin
word means "manners, customs or practices of a
land or people." -The Roman were much more

practically
minded than the Greeks, and their ethics tended
to focus on principles or guidelines for living.
The dimension of ethics that focuses on rules for
action is called "deontic."

Our ethics is not
exclusively aretaic or
deontic.
Ethics and morality are generally

taken as synonyms, because they
originally had the same meaning: the
study of the disposition, character, or
attitude of a specific person, group of
people or culture, and ways of
promoting or perfecting it.
▪ Morality is a unique feature of the life of
human beings. It is deeply influenced by
several cultural factors, such as history,
traditions, education, religious beliefs, etc.
▪ The intellectual analysis of this human

dimension in all of its complexity is the goal
of the discipline called Ethics.
▪ Ethics does not create morality or moral

behavior.
▪ The goal of ethics is much more modest:

to explore the nature of moral experience,
its universality and its diversity.
▪ Values therefore predate the
discipline called ethics, being
promoted by religions, cultural
traditions, history, etc.
▪ Values are the background of many
other moral concepts derived from
them, like principles, norms, laws,
virtues, etc.
▪ One of the most important goals of

ethics is the intellectual analysis of
values and value conflicts, in order to
define our duties.
▪ And duties always involve the values

at stake in each specific situation,
promoting them as much as possible.
ETHICAL TERMINOLOGIES
RIGHT/WRONG: Every action is either

morally right or morally wrong.
Morally wrong = breaks a moral rule or precept.
Morally right =does not break a moral rule, not
morally wrong).
Not breaking a moral rule or precept can be two
things performing an action that is morally
demanded = morally obligatory
performing an action that it would be right to do
and not wrong not to do =
morally permissible
Morally obligatory action: an
action that it would
be right to do and wrong not to
do
performing an action neither

morally demanded nor morally
prohibited = morally
permissible.
Is studying ethics morally
obligatory or just permissible?
– Studying ethics does not break a moral rule,
so it is at least ethical or right to do in the sense
of being morally permissible. Could it be

morally obligatory? – Respect for others, not to
say concern for them and the truth,
requires that if we are going to discuss ethics
with others, and even make ethical decisions, that
we have some ethical training. We must learn to
listen, to think creatively about problems, to seek

common ground, and be able to get certain
issues “unstuck” – Each of us will at some time

have to do this.
Therefore,
study ethics is a moral

obligation.
Common Features of
Ethical Theories
Ethics is about choices
The presupposition of ethics is choices,

no choices, no
ethics. These are about intentional
choices, choices made on
purpose, with some deliberation.
Intentional or chosen omissions count as
much as actions. Ethically significant

choices are those that give rise to
significant good or bad in the world
Ethics is about
evaluation
A second presupposition of ethics is evaluation.
- if good and bad really do not exist, then there
is no possible way to evaluate. Evaluation is

between good and bad, a choice between the
-good and
avoid the bad. Some actions are simply and
clearly good, some actions are simply and
clearly bad; but some are complex, good and bad.
An example is euthanasia destroys a human life, but
brings about a quick and peaceful end for a suffering
patient dying a slow and painful death
Ethics is Normative
Ethical theories are normative,
not descriptive.
Ethics always has striven to
determine what (actually) is
good, not simply what

people think is good; what is
valuable, not simply what
people in fact value
Ethics includes
reasoning
–Good and bad are not sensible
qualities, but can only be
perceived by the mind.
"Morality begins in the mind, with the

apprehension of the good.“
-- Pope John Paul II
Ethics includes
reasoning
– If faced with the challenges of life, we

have to figure out what is truly good for
ourselves and what is truly bad. – Our
traditions are not enough--they sometimes
misguide
us , and they sometimes become obsolete.
"All people seek the good, not the way of

their ancestors."
.......Aristotle
Good and bad is often

only apparent
Bad things appear good, good

things appear bad; good things are
often mixed with bad things. The

ability to figure out good and bad is
distorted by psychological and
social biases beyond our control.
One’s view is always

one's view and in that
sense relative to some
degree to our historical
and psychological
perspectives.
TYPES OR TRADITION OF
ETHICAL THEORY
a) Ethics of "Obligation" or "Duty" –
ACTION- BASED, What should I do?
(Northern European, Protestant,
American, newer
tradition)
Includes: Consequentialism (utilitarianism),
deontology/rights-based theory,
contractualism
b) Ethics of the Good – PERSON-

BASED, Who should I be? (Southern
European, Catholic, older tradition)

Ethical Theory: Ethics of
Obligation / Ethics of the
Good
Basic or Fundamental Emphasis:
– Moral obligation or duty:
– actions must accord with duty
– Good of the person: behavior must make our lives

good, more
human
A Basic Assumption:
– People do not naturally tend or desire to live well
– Most everyone naturally seeks to live well, and this

desire is
the starting point of ethics
CRITICISMS OF THE
ETHICS OF OBLIGATION
(EOO)
– Priority of obligation in ethical action is
counter- intuitive. EOO fails to provide
any good answer to

the question Why be Ethical? – Source
of obligations is not clear. Does it have
any
connection to reality? – Moral reasoning
makes theories of ethics
foundational, forcing to get ethical
theory right before we can decide what to

do; forcing us to get agreement about
ethical theory before we can all agree on

courses of action.
– It is difficult to get clear about what
constitutes a “good” life. EOG promotes
selfishness or a selfish notion of ethical

motivation: ethics is about how we all get
along together, not about how we advance
ourselves.
– There is something about the human

condition (call it
the dark side, malice, “original sin”) that
makes natural inclinations unnatural.
CRITICISMS OF THE
ETHICS OF THE GOOD
(EOG)
PROBLEMS WITH RULE-
BASED ETHICS
– There can never be enough rules to cover
everything we recognize as an ethical
situation. – Due to the complexity of life, the
promulgation of rules as the entirety of the
ethical dimension can encourage an

“exception” or loophole mentality...ethics
becomes manipulation. – Rules can conflict.

Do we create more rules to adjudicate
conflicts among rules? What if these rules
conflict? – All rules need interpretation. –

Focusing on rules and actions makes think of
ourselves in
terms of what we do, and not who we are.
So do we simply forget
about rules?
– We really cannot do without some rules.
Everyone has them no matter what. Not to
follow any rules is itself a

rule! – Rules are essential for understanding
the difference
between right and wrong—the main
parameters of what is expected of everyone.
Thus they coordinate human behavior in a

rough and ready way. – Rules function as
helping guidelines or synopses of
cumulative moral experience and wisdom. –
Rules can clarify fundamental issues at stake
in a
practical problem.
An ethical method of
reasoning
First step: Fact deliberation
i The case
ii Deliberation about the facts

Second step: Value deliberation
i Identification of the moral problems
ii Choice of the main problem
iii The values at stake
Third step: Duty deliberation
i Reflecting on the most challenging cases
ii Reflecting on other cases
Fourth step: Testing consistency
Fifth step: Conclusion

There are many moral theories and there is
no one right theory.
They converge and often borrow from one
another.
Three theories will be described here.

Consequentialism
Deontology
Bioethics, a common morality theory,

is a recent theory that dominates
current thinking in health care
settings.
Consequentialism “The
End Justifies the Means”
In consequentialism, the consequence of

an action justifies
the moral acceptability of the means taken
to reach that end. The results of actions
outweigh any other consideration; in other
words, ‘the end justifies the means.’
Consequentialism “The
End Justifies the Means”
Jeremy Bentham was an early and

influential
advocate of utilitarianism, the
dominant consequentialist position.
A utilitarian believes in ‘the greatest

happiness for
the greatest number.’ The more
people who benefit from a particular
action, the greater its good.
Deontology or Kantianism is an obligation-based
theory whose chief author
was Immanuel Kant, who lived in the 18th century.
This theory emphasizes the type of action rather
than the consequences of that action.
Deontologists believe that moral decisions should be
made based on one’s duties and the rights of others.
According to Kant, morality is based on pure reason.
As people have the innate ability to act rationally,
they therefore must act morally, irrespective of
personal desires.
Another way of stating Kant’s theory is
“Act morally regardless of the
Deontology
consequences.” .
Bioethics
Bioethics, the ethics of biology, biological

research and the
applications of that research.
It is an ethical theory that brings together
medicine, the law,
social sciences, philosophy, theology,
politics and other disciplines to address
questions related to clinical decision making
and medical research.
Principles of Bioethics
Some of the early founders of bioethics put

forth four principles which form this
framework for moral reasoning. These four
principles are:
Autonomy – one should respect the right

of individuals to make their own decisions
Nonmaleficence – one should avoid
causing harm Beneficence – one should
take positive steps to help others Justice –
benefits and risks should be fairly
distributed
Principles of Bioethics
One commentator has said, “...the four

principles should...be thought of as the four
moral nucleotides that constitute moral
DNA – capable, alone or in combination, of
explaining and justifying all the substantive
and universal moral norms of health care
ethics...”
In summary, ethics is how we look at and
understand life, while moral theories are
frameworks we use to decide how to act.
Consequentialism is a theory that emphasizes the

results of actions, while
Deontology stresses the requirement to act morally,

irrespective of the outcome.
Bioethics is a principle-based theory that brings

together the ethics of biology,
biological research and their applications.
The four principles of Bioethics are autonomy, the

right of individuals to make their
own decisions; nonmaleficence, one should avoid
causing harm; beneficence, positive steps should
taken to help others; and justice, the benefits and
risks should be fairly distributed.
While no one moral theory is correct, and there

are many more to be considered,
they provide a useful tool to guide ethical
decision making.
Some Bioethical Topics

Research issues:
– Should Scientists be held to some

standard of integrity and honesty? Who
should enforce this? Why is peer review so
important? Should scientists be held
responsible for creating or discovering
technology that can be used to harm others
or have unforeseen side effects (chemical,
nuclear warfare?
Reproductive Technologies:
–In vitro fertilization, surrogacy, pre

implantation, embryo screening,
cloning. Is there as significant
difference between cloning sheep for
pharmaceutical production and
cloning humans?
Human Genome Project
Should employers be able to screen

job applicants for specific genetic
conditions? Who should have access
to this information: family members,
lawyers, insurance agencies?
Gene Therapy
What are the potential ramification of

somatic and germ-line gene therapy?
Should genes be tinkeed with and if
so what limits should be placed on
this technology?
Fetus Rights
Does a fetus have rights? If so, what
are they and who is responsible for
representing the interest of the fetus?
Does a fetus have rights that
supersede the mothers? Can
government step in to ensure the
heath of the fetus if the mother is not?
What about embryos?
AIDS
issues involving disclosure, privacy,

discrimination, insurance coverage
Euthanasia
What is the right to die? How does

withdrawing or withholding treatments
differ from physician assisted suicide?
Who has the right o decide when and
how a person dies? Should doctors be
held legally responsible if they assist a
patient’s death? What laws should be
passed to protect doctors and
patients?
Health Care Allocation
How do we decide who gets access to

health care, particularly expensive
equipment and therapies? How do we
decide who gets access to
transplanted organs? Should the
government pay for the health care
when a person cannot afford it?
Environmental Issues
How do we decide between

conservation and economic interest.
How much land should be allocated to
other species and to parks? Should
industries be responsible for the
damage done to the environment by
them (pollution)?
Animal Right Issues
Is animal testing acceptable when it

benefits humans? Does animal
research be justified by its benefits to
mankind?
Population Control
Who has the right to decide who

should have children and how many?
What measures should be taken to
control the population of the world?
Minors and Medicines

What medical procedures should
minors have available to them without
parental consent? Do doctors have an
obligation to inform parents of
conditions a teen has (pregnancy,
AIDS) even if the teen does not wish
it?
Genetically Modified Crops
What rights do consumers have?

What rights do farmers have to grow
GM crops, who decides whether food
is safe?

Bioethics: Ethics

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Bioethics: Ethics

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Bioethics: Ethics

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

BIOETHICS

Ethics is not the study of

what people do or how

people act. It is not the

think one ought to do.

into the truth, not into

what people believe is

- from a Greek word, "ethica,"

This dimension of ethics is

word means "manners, customs or practices of a

land or people." -The Roman were much more

minded than the Greeks, and their ethics tended

to focus on principles or guidelines for living.

The dimension of ethics that focuses on rules for

action is called "deontic."

Ethics and morality are generally

▪ The intellectual analysis of this human

▪ Ethics does not create morality or moral

▪ The goal of ethics is much more modest:

▪ One of the most important goals of

▪ And duties always involve the values

RIGHT/WRONG: Every action is either

Morally right =does not break a moral rule, not

performing an action neither

– Studying ethics does not break a moral rule,

so it is at least ethical or right to do in the sense

of being morally permissible. Could it be

with others, and even make ethical decisions, that

we have some ethical training. We must learn to

listen, to think creatively about problems, to seek

issues “unstuck” – Each of us will at some time

study ethics is a moral

The presupposition of ethics is choices,

much as actions. Ethically significant

is no possible way to evaluate. Evaluation is

clearly bad; but some are complex, good and bad.

An example is euthanasia destroys a human life, but

brings about a quick and peaceful end for a suffering

patient dying a slow and painful death

Ethics always has striven to

determine what (actually) is

good, not simply what

"Morality begins in the mind, with the

– If faced with the challenges of life, we

"All people seek the good, not the way of

Good and bad is often

Bad things appear good, good

often mixed with bad things. The

social biases beyond our control.

One’s view is always

a) Ethics of "Obligation" or "Duty" –

ACTION- BASED, What should I do?

(Northern European, Protestant,

b) Ethics of the Good – PERSON-

European, Catholic, older tradition)

Basic or Fundamental Emphasis:

– Moral obligation or duty:

– actions must accord with duty

– Good of the person: behavior must make our lives