CHAPTER 7: MUSCULAR SYSTEM

 Function: Facilitates movement, maintains

7.1 FUNCTIONS OF THE MUSCULAR SYSTEM posture, and generates heat.
 Composition: Consists of skeletal muscle tissue,
1. Movement of the body.
nervous tissue, connective tissue, and adipose
2. Maintenance of posture. Skeletal muscles constantly tissue.
maintain tone, which keeps us sitting or standing erect.
 Location: Most skeletal muscles are attached to
3. Respiration. Contraction of the skeletal muscles of the bones, but some are attached to skin or
thoracic cage, as well as the diaphragm, helps us breathe. connective tissue sheets.
4. Production of body heat. skeletal muscles contract,  Striations: The presence of striations in skeletal
heat is given off as a by-product. ThiS released heat of muscle is due to the arrangement of contractile
body temperature. proteins (actin and myosin).
 Organ: Individual skeletal muscles are
5. Communication. Skeletal muscles are involved in all
considered complete organs due to their
aspects of communication, including speaking, writing, multiple tissue types working together.
typing, gesturing, and facial expressions.
 Cellular Level: The basic unit of skeletal muscle
6. Constriction of organs and vessels. The contraction of is the muscle fiber, also known as a muscle cell.
smooth muscle within the walls of internal organs and
vessels causes those structures to constrict. Connective Tissue Coverings -Skeletal muscles are
surrounded by three layers of connective tissue that
7. Contraction of the heart. propelling blood to all parts provide support and structure during contraction.
of the body

7.2 GENERAL PROPERTIES OF MUSCLE TISSUE  Epimysium: The outermost layer that encases
the entire muscle, merging with connective
Muscle tissue four major functional characteristics: tissue between adjacent muscles and
connecting to the skin. It separates the muscle
1. Contractility-is the ability of muscle to shorten from surrounding structures.
forcefully, or contract.
 Perimysium: This layer subdivides the muscle
2. Excitability-is the capacity of muscle to respond to a
into bundles of muscle fibers called fascicles. It
stimulus. For skeletal muscle, the stimulus to contract is
provides pathways for blood vessels and nerves
from nerves that we consciously control. SSmooth and to supply each fascicle.
cardiac muscle fibers contract
 Endomysium: The innermost layer that
3. Extensibility - means that a muscle can be stretched surrounds individual muscle fibers within each
beyond its normal resting length and still be able to fascicle. It acts as passageways for nerve fibers
contract. and blood vessels to supply each individual
muscle fiber.
4. Elasticity -recoil to its original resting length after it has
been stretched. -The protein fibers of these three layers blend together
and merge at the ends of muscles to form tendons,
7.3 SKELETAL MUSCLE ANATOMY
which attach muscles to bones.
Whole Skeletal Muscle Anatomy

1. Skeletal Muscle
 Definition: approximately 40% of body weight.
A type of muscle tissue responsible for
voluntary movement, attached to the skeletal
system. Skeletal muscle is also called striated
muscle
CHAPTER 7: MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Skeletal Muscle Fiber Anatomy-

1. Skeletal Muscle Fiber Structure

 Unique Characteristics: Skeletal muscle fibers
are large, multinucleated cells with a striated
appearance.
 Size: They range from 1 mm to 4 cm in length,
with some reaching 30 cm.
 Nuclei: Multiple nuclei are located just beneath
the cell membrane.
 Diameter: Large muscles contain larger-
diameter fibers, while smaller muscles have
smaller-diameter fibers.
 Striations: Alternating light and dark bands,
visible in longitudinal sections, are responsible
for the striated appearance.

2. Muscle Growth and Fiber Number

 Constant Fiber Number: The number of skeletal
muscle fibers remains relatively constant after
birth.
 Muscle Enlargement: Muscle growth, including
hypertrophy due to exercise, occurs through
increasing the size of individual muscle fibers,
not by increasing their number.

3. Muscle Contraction
Electrical Component Structures
 Two Components: Muscle contraction involves
two main components: 1. Key Structures:
 Sarcolemma: The cell membrane of muscle
o Electrical Component: The initiation of fibers, responsible for transmitting electrical
muscle contraction through nerve impulses.
impulses.  Transverse Tubules (T Tubules): Inward folds of
o Mechanical Component: The physical the sarcolemma that extend into the interior of
shortening of muscle fibers due to the the muscle fiber, carrying electrical impulses to
interaction of contractile proteins. the center.
 Sarcoplasmic Reticulum: A specialized smooth
4. Histology of Muscle Fibers endoplasmic reticulum that stores high levels of
 Importance: Understanding the structure of calcium ions (Ca2+). The release of Ca2+ from
muscle fibers is essential for comprehending the sarcoplasmic reticulum triggers muscle
the mechanisms of muscle contraction. contraction.
 Categorization: Muscle fiber components are
categorized based on their role in contraction.
CHAPTER 7: MUSCULAR SYSTEM
2. The Triad: - A critical structure formed by two
 Role: The interaction of actin and myosin
terminal cisternae (enlarged portions of the
myofilaments within sarcomeres provides the
sarcoplasmic reticulum) and their associated T tubule.
mechanical basis for muscle contraction.
 Function: The triad plays a crucial role in muscle
contraction by facilitating the release of Ca2+
from the sarcoplasmic reticulum.

3. Other Organelles:
 Mitochondria: Numerous mitochondria provide
energy for muscle contraction.
 Glycogen Granules: Store energy in the form of
glycogen.

4. Sarcoplasm: The cytoplasm of muscle fibers.

 Composition: Contains various organelles,
including mitochondria, glycogen granules, and
the sarcoplasmic reticulum.

Mechanical Component Structures

Sacromere
1. Myofibrils: Bundles of protein filaments found within
muscle fibers. 1. Sarcomere Structure -The smallest functional unit of
 Structure: Long, threadlike structures extending a muscle fiber responsible for contraction.
the entire length of the muscle fiber.  Boundaries: Defined by Z disks, which serve as
 Diameter: Approximately one-sixth the anchors for actin myofilaments.
diameter of a human hair.  Arrangement: One sarcomere extends from
 Role: The protein filaments within myofibrils one Z disk to the next.
interact to shorten the muscle fiber during  Striated Appearance: The arrangement of actin
contraction. and myosin myofilaments within sarcomeres
creates the striated pattern observed under a
2. Myofilaments: microscope.

 Two types of myofilaments exist within each 2. Sarcomere Regions

myofibril:
o Actin Myofilaments (Thin  I Bands: Lighter-staining regions containing only
Filaments): Composed of the protein actin myofilaments (thin filaments). Each I band
actin. includes a Z disk and extends to the ends of the
o Myosin Myofilaments (Thick myosin myofilaments.
Filaments): Composed of the protein  A Band: Darker-staining region containing both
myosin. actin and myosin myofilaments, with
 Arrangement: Actin and myosin myofilaments overlapping sections.
are organized into highly ordered units called  H Zone: A smaller band within the A band,
sarcomeres. containing only myosin myofilaments (thick
 Sarcomeres: The structural and functional units filaments).
of skeletal muscles.
CHAPTER 7: MUSCULAR SYSTEM

 M Line: A dark line in the center of the H zone,

consisting of protein filaments that hold the
myosin myofilaments in place. Neuromuscular Junction Structure

3. Myofibril Alignment -The point of contact between a motor neuron axon

 Parallel Myofibrils: Myofibrils within a muscle
terminal and a muscle fiber, responsible for
fiber are arranged in parallel, with their A bands transmitting nerve impulses to initiate muscle
and I bands aligned, contributing to the overall contraction.
striated pattern.
 Components:
Actin and Myosin Myofilament Structure o Axon Terminal: The enlarged end of a
1. Actin Myofilaments motor neuron axon, containing synaptic
 Composition: Made up of three proteins: vesicles filled with neurotransmitter.
o Sarcolemma: The plasma membrane of
o Actin: A globular protein that forms a a muscle fiber.
fibrous strand, providing attachment
o Synaptic Cleft: The space between the
sites for myosin heads.
axon terminal and the sarcolemma.
o Tropomyosin: A long, fibrous protein
o Motor End-Plate: The specialized region
that covers the attachment sites on
of the sarcolemma at the
actin in a relaxed muscle, preventing
neuromuscular junction, containing
contraction.
receptors for neurotransmitters.
o Troponin: A complex of three subunits
that regulates tropomyosin's position, 2. Neurotransmitter Release and Action
controlling the availability of
attachment sites.  Acetylcholine (ACh): The primary
 Role in Contraction: Actin filaments provide the neurotransmitter at the neuromuscular
binding sites for myosin heads, which are junction, stored in synaptic vesicles within the
essential for muscle contraction. axon terminal.
 Synaptic Vesicle Release: Action potentials
2. Myosin Myofilaments arriving at the axon terminal trigger the release
 Composition: Consist of many elongated of ACh into the synaptic cleft.
myosin molecules shaped like golf clubs.
 ACh Binding: ACh diffuses across the synaptic
 Structure: Each myosin molecule has a rod cleft and binds to receptors on the motor end-
portion and two myosin heads. plate.
 Myosin Head Properties:  Muscle Fiber Activation: ACh binding opens
o Binding: Myosin heads bind to active ligand-gated ion channels on the motor end-
sites on actin to form cross-bridges, plate, allowing ions to flow across the
which are essential for muscle sarcolemma, initiating an action potential in the
contraction. muscle fiber.
o Hinge Region: The heads are attached
to the rod portion by a flexible hinge
region, allowing for bending and
straightening during contraction.
o ATPase Activity: Myosin heads break
down ATP, releasing energy that
powers the bending of the hinge region
and muscle contraction.
CHAPTER 7: MUSCULAR SYSTEM

 Action Potential: A brief electrical signal that Sliding Filament Model

travels along the axon of a neuron or the
sarcolemma of a muscle fiber. 1. Muscle Contraction
 Primary Function: The primary function of
 Synapse: The junction between two neurons or
between a neuron and a target cell. skeletal muscle is to generate force by
contracting, or shortening.
 Presynaptic Terminal: The axon terminal of a
 Sliding Filament Model: The interaction of actin
neuron, where neurotransmitters are released.
and myosin myofilaments within a sarcomere,
 Postsynaptic Membrane: The membrane of the which causes muscle contraction, is explained
target cell, where neurotransmitters bind to by the sliding filament model.
receptors.
 Sarcomere Shortening: During contraction,
 Neurotransmitter: A chemical messenger that actin and myosin filaments slide past each
transmits signals between neurons or between other, shortening the sarcomere without
neurons and target cells. changing the length of the filaments
 Ligand: A molecule that binds to a specific themselves.
receptor protein.  Myofibril and Muscle Fiber
 Ligand-Gated Ion Channel: A membrane Shortening: Shortening of sarcomeres leads to
transport protein that opens or closes in the shortening of myofibrils (composed of
response to the binding of a specific ligand. joined sarcomeres) and ultimately the entire
muscle fiber.
 Muscle Fascicle and Muscle Shortening: Groups
of muscle fibers (muscle fascicles) and multiple
fascicles (whole muscle) also shorten during
contraction

2. Muscle Relaxation

 Sarcomere Lengthening: Sarcomeres lengthen

during muscle relaxation, which is caused by an
external force (other muscles or gravity).
 Joint Movement: Muscle contraction causes
joint flexion, while relaxation allows for
extension.

7.4 SKELETAL MUSCLE FIBER PHYSIOLOGY

Excitability of Muscle Fibers

1. Plasma membranes are polarized, which means that

a charge difference, called the resting membrane
potential, exists across the plasma membrane.

2. The plasma membrane becomes polarized because

the tendency for K+ to diffuse out of the cell is resisted
by the negative charges of ions and molecules inside the
cell.
CHAPTER 7: MUSCULAR SYSTEM
3. Ion channels are responsible for membrane tropomyosin to move and expose active sites on actin
permeability and the resting membrane potential. to myosin.

4. Ion channels are responsible for producing action 5. Contraction occurs when myosin heads bind to active
potentials. sites on actin, myosin changes shape, and actin is pulled
past the myosin.

Action Potentials 6. Relaxation occurs when calcium is taken up by the

sarcoplasmic reticulum, ATP binds to myosin, and
1. The charge difference across the plasma membrane tropomyosin moves back so that active sites on actin
of cells is the resting membrane potential. are no longer exposed to myosin.

2. Depolarization results from an increase in the Cross-Bridge Movement

permeability of the plasma membrane to Na+
1. ATP is required for the cycle of cross-bridge
3. The depolarization phase of the action potential formation, movement, and release.
results when many Na+ channels open in an all-or-none
fashion. 2. ATP is also required to transport Ca2+ into the
sarcoplasmic reticulum and to maintain normal
4. The repolarization phase of the action potential concentration gradients across the plasma membrane.
occurs when the Na+ channels close and the K+
channels open briefly. Muscle Relaxation

5. A synaptic cleft separates the presynaptic terminal of 1. Calcium ions are transported into the sarcoplasmic
the axon from the motor end-plate of the muscle fiber. reticulum.

6. Acetylcholine released from the presynaptic terminal 2. Calcium ions diffuse away from troponin, preventing
binds to receptors of the motor end-plate, thereby further cross-bridge formation.
changing membrane permeability and producing an
action potential.

7. After an action potential occurs, acetylcholinesterase

splits acetylcholine into acetic acid and choline. Choline
is reabsorbed into the presynaptic terminal to re-form
acetylcholine.

Muscle Contraction

1. Invaginations of the sarcolemma form T tubules,

which wrap around the sarcomeres.

2. A triad is a T tubule and two terminal cisternae (an

enlarged area of sarcoplasmic reticulum).

3. Action potentials move into the T tubule system,

causing Ca2+ channels to open and release Ca2+ from
the sarcoplasmic reticulum.

4. Calcium ions diffuse from the sarcoplasmic reticulum

to the myofilaments and bind to troponin, causing
CHAPTER 7: MUSCULAR SYSTEM
Phases of a Twitch

1. Lag Phase (Latent Phase)

 The time delay between the application of a

stimulus to a motor neuron and the onset of
muscle contraction.
 Duration: This phase is relatively short.
 Events: During this phase, the action potential
travels along the motor neuron axon, triggers
the release of acetylcholine at the
neuromuscular junction, and the action
potential spreads across the sarcolemma,
leading to the release of calcium ions (Ca2+)
from the sarcoplasmic reticulum.

2. Contraction Phase

 The period when the muscle fiber is actively

shortening and generating force.
 Duration: This phase is shorter than the
relaxation phase.
7.5 Whole Skeletal Muscle Physiology  Events: Calcium ions (Ca2+) bind to troponin,
exposing the myosin-binding sites on actin. This
The Muscle Twitch allows cross-bridge formation between actin
The three phases are (1) lag, (2) contraction, and (3) and myosin, leading to cross-bridge cycling and
relaxation. muscle shortening.

3. Relaxation Phase

 The period when the muscle fiber is returning

to its resting length.
 Duration: This phase is longer than the
contraction phase.
 Events: Calcium ions (Ca2+) are actively
transported back into the sarcoplasmic
reticulum, reducing their concentration in the
sarcoplasm. This causes troponin to re-cover
the myosin-binding sites on actin, preventing
cross-bridge formation and allowing the muscle
to relax.
CHAPTER 7: MUSCULAR SYSTEM

Types of Muscle Contractions Force of Contraction in Individual Muscle Fibers

1. Muscle Contractions 1. Graded Muscle Contractions:

 Types: There are two main types of muscle  Definition: The ability of muscles to generate
contractions: varying levels of force in response to stimuli.
o Isometric Contractions: The muscle  Mechanism: Muscle fibers can generate
does not shorten, but tension increases. different amounts of force depending on the
This occurs when trying to lift a heavy number of cross-bridges formed between actin
object or when maintaining posture. and myosin filaments.
o Isotonic Contractions: The muscle
shortens, increasing tension and 2. Cross-Bridge Formation and Force:
decreasing length. This happens during
limb movements to lift and move  Cross-Bridges: Connections between actin and
objects. myosin filaments that drive muscle contraction.
 Force Generation: Increasing the number of
2. Muscle Twitch cross-bridges increases the force of contraction.

 Definition: A single, brief contraction of a  Analogy: Similar to multiple people lifting a

muscle fiber, motor unit, or whole muscle. heavy object, more cross-bridges mean more
force.
 Characteristics: The characteristics of a twitch,
such as the lag phase, can vary depending on 3. Stimulus Frequency and Contraction:
the force required.
 Everyday Movements: Muscle contractions in  Low Frequency: At very low frequencies,
everyday movements are smoother and more muscle twitches are all-or-none events, with
complex than a single twitch. complete relaxation between contractions.
 High Frequency: As stimulus frequency
3. Muscle Contraction Strength increases, the muscle exhibits:
o Wave Summation: Successive twitches
 Factors: The strength of muscle contraction merge, increasing force.
depends on two factors:
o Summation: The amount of force o Incomplete Tetanus: Twitches partially
generated by an individual muscle fiber. merge, resulting in sustained
contraction with slight relaxation.
o Recruitment: The number of muscle
fibers contracting in a whole muscle o Complete Tetanus: Twitches
completely merge, leading to a
4. Motor Unit sustained, maximal contraction without
relaxation.
 Definition: A motor neuron and all the muscle
fibers it innervates. 4. Mechanisms of Wave Summation and Tetanus:

 Importance: Understanding motor units is  Calcium Accumulation: Repeated stimulation

essential for understanding how muscle leads to increased calcium accumulation in the
contractions are controlled. sarcoplasm, preventing complete relaxation
between twitches.
CHAPTER 7: MUSCULAR SYSTEM
 Cross-Bridge Persistence: The increased and connective tissue injury, especially in
calcium levels promote more cross-bridge activities like downhill running.
formation, leading to stronger and more
sustained contractions. 7.6 MUSCLE FIBER TYPES

Contractions in Whole Muscles Slow-Twitch Muscle Fibers

1. Muscle Tone -Slow-twitch muscle fibers break down ATP slowly and
have a well-developed blood supply, many
 Definition: A state of constant, partial mitochondria, and myoglobin.
contraction in skeletal muscles, even when at
rest. It's responsible for maintaining posture Fast-Twitch Muscle Fibers
and body position.
 Mechanism: A small percentage of motor units  Fast-twitch muscle fibers break down ATP
are constantly contracting out of phase with rapidly.
each other, resulting in a sustained, low-level o 1. Type IIa muscle fibers have a well-
tension. developed blood supply, more
mitochondria, and more myoglobin.
 Importance: Essential for maintaining posture, o 2. Type IIb muscle fibers have large
keeping the back straight, head upright, and amounts of glycogen, a poor blood
abdomen flat. supply, fewer mitochondria, and little
myoglobin.

2. Types of Muscle Contractions Distribution of Fast-Twitch and Slow-Twitch Muscle

Fibers
 Isotonic Contractions: Muscle contractions that
involve a change in muscle length. -People who are good sprinters have a greater
o Concentric Contractions: The muscle percentage of fast-twitch muscle fibers in their leg
shortens as it contracts, overcoming muscles, and people who are good long-distance
resistance. Example: lifting a weight. runners have a higher percentage of slow-twitch muscle
o Eccentric Contractions: The muscle fibers.
lengthens as it contracts, controlling the
movement against resistance. Example: Effects of Exercise
lowering a weight slowly.
 1 Muscles increase (hypertrophy) or decrease
 Isometric Contractions: Muscle contractions
(atrophy) in size because of a change in the size
that involve no change in muscle length.
of muscle fibers.
Example: holding a weight in a static position.
 2. Anaerobic exercise develops type IIb muscle
fibers. Aerobic exercise develops type I muscle
3. Key Points:
fibers and changes type IIb muscle fibers into
type IIa fast-twitch muscle fibers.
 Motor Unit Recruitment: Variations in motor
unit recruitment are crucial for maintaining
7.7 ENERGY SOURCES FOR MUSCLE CONTRACTION
muscle tone and generating different types of
contractions.
Adenylate Kinase and Creatine Kinase
 Incomplete Tetanus: The frequency of nerve
impulses causes incomplete tetanus in muscle Adenylate kinase, or myokinase, transfers one
fibers, contributing to muscle tone. phosphate from one ADP to a second ADP, resulting in
 Eccentric Contractions and Injury: Repetitive one ATP and one AMP
eccentric contractions can lead to muscle fiber
CHAPTER 7: MUSCULAR SYSTEM

Creatine Kinase During periods of rest, muscle fibers

accumulate extra ATP. This extra ATP is utilized in
muscle fibers to transfer a phosphate from the ATP to a 7.9 GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF SKELETAL MUSCLE
small protein synthesized by muscle fibers called ANATOMY
creatine.
The following are seven common characteristics used to
Anaerobic Respiration name muscles:

 The ATP synthesized by anaerobic respiration (1) location, (2) size, (3) shape, (4) orientation of
provides energy for a short time during intense fascicles, (5) origin and insertion, (6) number of heads,
exercise. Anaerobic respiration produces ATP and (7) function
less efficiently but more rapidly than aerobic
respiration. Lactate levels increase because of
anaerobic respiration.

Aerobic Respiration

 The ATP synthesized by aerobic respiration

produces energy for muscle contractions under
resting conditions or during exercises such as
long-distance running. Although ATP is
produced more efficiently, it is produced more
slowly.
 The first step of anaerobic respiration is the
enzymatic pathway, called glycolysis
 In glycolysis, one glucose molecule is broken
down into two molecules of pyruvate,
producing a net gain of two ATP molecules.

ATP Production as Exercise Progresses

 Aerobic respiration produces more ATP than

anaerobic respiration, but at a slower rate.

Muscle Fatigue

Muscle Soreness

Oxygen Deficit and Excess Postexercise Oxygen

Consumption

7.8 SMOOTH MUSCLE AND CARDIAC MUSCLE