FUNCTION OF MUSCLES  A loose connective tissue called the perimysium

separates muscle fascicles from each other.

1. Movement of the body. Contraction of skeletal
 Each fascicle is then subdivided into separate
muscles is responsible for the overall
muscle cells, called muscle fibers.
movements of the body, such as walking,
 A loose connective tissue called the
running, and manipulating objects with the
endomysium surrounds each muscle fiber.
hands.
2. Maintenance of posture. Skeletal muscles MUSCLE FIBER STRUCTURE
constantly maintain tone, which keeps us sitting
or standing erect. A muscle fiber is a single cylindrical cell, with several
3. Respiration. Muscles of the thorax carry out nuclei located at its periphery.
breathing movements.  The cell membrane of the muscle fiber is called
4. Production of body heat. When skeletal the sarcolemma. (sarco=flesh)
muscles contract, heat is given off as a by-  Along the surface of the muscle fiber, the
product. This released heat is critical to the sarcolemma has many tubelike inward folds,
maintenance of body temperature. called transverse tubules, or T tubules.
5. Communication. Skeletal muscles are involved  T tubules occur at regular intervals along the
in all aspects of communication, including muscle fiber and extend into the center of the
speaking, writing, typing, gesturing, and facial muscle fiber.
expressions.  The T tubules are associated with enlarged
6. Constriction of organs and vessels. The portions of the smooth endoplasmic reticulum
contraction of smooth muscle within the walls called the sarcoplasmic reticulum.
of internal organs and vessels causes those  The enlarged portions are called terminal
structures to constrict. This constriction can cisternae. T tubules connect the sarcolemma to
help propel and mix food and water in the the terminal cisternae to form a triad
digestive tract, propel secretions from organs,  The cytoplasm of a muscle fiber is called the
and regulate blood flow through vessels. sarcoplasm
7. Contraction of the heart. The contraction of  Within the sarcoplasm, each muscle fiber
cardiac muscle causes the heart to beat, contains many bundles of protein filaments.
propelling blood to all parts of the body. These bundles are called myofibrils
GENERAL PROPERTIES OF MUSCLE TISSUE  Myofibrils consist of two major kinds of protein
fibers: actin myofilaments and myosin
1. Excitability – ability to receive and respond to a myofilaments
stimulus
2. Contractility – ability to shorten when an The sarcomere is the basic structural and functional unit
adequate stimulus is received of a skeletal muscle because it is the smallest portion of
3. Extensibility – ability of the muscle to be a skeletal muscle capable of contracting.
stretched beyond its normal length  Structures called Z disks separate one
4. Elasticity – ability of the muscle to recoil to its sarcomere from the next. A Z disk is a network
original length. of protein fibers that forms a stationary anchor
CONNECTIVE TISSUE WRAPPINGS OF for actin myofilaments to attach.
SKELETAL MUSCLE  Each sarcomere consists of two light-staining
bands separated by a dark-staining band. The
 Each skeletal muscle (such as the biceps brachii) light-staining bands are called I bands. I bands
is surrounded by a connective tissue sheath consist of only actin myofilaments.
called the epimysium or muscular fascia.  Each I band includes a Z disk and extends
 Each whole muscle is subdivided into numerous toward the center of the sarcomere to the ends
visible bundles called muscle fascicles. of the myosin myofilaments.
 The central dark-staining band is called an A
band. Each A band extends the length of the
 The axon terminal is the presynaptic terminal.
myosin myofilaments within the sarcomere.
The space between the presynaptic terminal
 The actin and myosin myofilaments overlap for
and the muscle fiber membrane is the synaptic
some distance on both ends of the A band.
cleft.
 In the center of each A band is a smaller,
 The sarcolemma is the postsynaptic
lighter-staining region called the H zone. The H
membrane. Each presynaptic terminal contains
zone contains only myosin myofilaments.
many small vesicles, called synaptic vesicles.
 The M line consists of fine protein filaments
 These vesicles contain the neurotransmitter
that anchor the myosin myofilaments in place
called, acetylcholine, or ACh.
ACTION POTENTIALS  Neurotransmitters stimulate or inhibit
postsynaptic cells.
To initiate a muscle contraction, the resting membrane
potential must be changed. Changes in the resting SLIDING FILAMENT MODEL
membrane potential occur when gated cell membrane
The process of muscle contraction where actin
channels open.
myofilaments slide past myosin myofilaments during
o The increase in positive charge inside the cell contraction is called the sliding filament model of
membrane is called depolarization. muscle contraction.
o If the depolarization changes the membrane
TYPES OF GRADED RESPONSE
potential to a value called threshold, an action
potential is triggered. A muscle twitch is a single contraction of a muscle fiber
o Opening of gated K+ channels starts in response to a stimulus. Because most muscle fibers
repolarization of the cell membrane. are grouped into motor units, a muscle twitch usually
Repolarization is due to the exit of K+ from the involves all the muscle fibers in a motor unit. Because
cell. most muscle fibers are grouped into motor units, a
muscle twitch usually involves all the muscle fibers in a
NERVE SUPPLY AND MUSCLE FIBER STIMULATION
motor unit.
Skeletal muscle fibers do not contract unless they are
A muscle twitch has three phases:
stimulated by motor neurons
1. The lag phase, or latent phase, is the time
 Motor neurons are specialized nerve cells that
between the application of a stimulus and the
stimulate muscles to contract. Motor neurons
beginning of contraction.
generate action potentials that travel to skeletal
2. The contraction phase is the time during which
muscle fibers.
the muscle contracts
 Each branch forms a junction with a muscle
3. Relaxation phase is the time during which the
fiber, called a neuromuscular junction.
muscle relaxes.
 A more general term, synapse, refers to the
cell-to-cell junction between a nerve cell and Summation, individual muscles contract more
either another nerve cell or an effector cell, forcefully. Rapidly stimulating individual muscle fibers
such as in a muscle or a gland prevents relaxation, or detachment of cross-bridge.
 Neuromuscular junctions are located near the
Tetanus is a sustained contraction that occurs when the
center of a muscle fiber.
frequency of stimulation is so rapid that no relaxation
 A single motor neuron and all the skeletal
occurs.
muscle fibers it innervates constitute a motor
unit. It should be noted, however, that complete tetanus is
 The neuromuscular junction consists of several rarely achieved under normal circumstances and is
enlarged axon terminals resting in indentations more commonly an experimentally induced muscular
of the muscle fiber’s sarcolemma. response
o The majority of our muscles extend from one
bone to another and cross at least one joint. At
Recruitment, more motor units are stimulated, which
each end, the muscle is connected to the bone
increases the total number of muscle fibers contracting.
by a tendon
Thus, the muscle contracts with more force.
o Aponeuroses are broad, sheetlike tendons.
ENERGY FOR MUSCLE CONTRACTION o A retinaculum is a band of connective tissue
that holds down the tendons at each wrist and
 Aerobic respiration, which occurs mostly in
ankle.
mitochondria, requires O2 and breaks down
o The origin is the most stationary, or fixed, end
glucose to produce ATP, CO2, and H2O. Aerobic
of the muscle. In the case of multiple origins,
respiration can also process lipids or amino
each origin is called a head.
acids to make ATP.
o The insertion is the end of the muscle attached
 Anaerobic respiration, which does not require
to the bone undergoing the greatest
O2, breaks down glucose to produce ATP and
movement.
lactate.
o The specific body movement a muscle
TYPES OF MUSCLE CONTRACTIONS contraction causes is called the muscle’s action.
o The action of a single muscle or group of
There are two types of muscle contractions: isometric
muscles (agonist) is opposed by that of another
and isotonic.
muscle or group of muscles (antagonist).
1. Isometric (equal distance) contractions increase o Members of a group of muscles working
the tension in the muscle without changing its together to produce a movement are called
length. Isometric contractions are responsible synergists.
for the constant length of the body’s postural o Among a group of synergists, if one muscle
muscles, such as the muscles of the back. plays the major role in accomplishing the
2. Isotonic (equal tension) contractions have a desired movement, it is called the prime mover.
constant amount of tension while decreasing o Fixators are muscles that hold one bone in
the length of the muscle. Movements of the place relative to the body while a usually more
arms or fingers are predominantly isotonic distal bone is moved.
contractions.
- Concentric contractions are isotonic TYPES OF BODY MOVEMENTS
contractions in which muscle tension increases o Flexion- Decreases the angle of the joint and
as the muscle shortens brings 2 bones closer together (Bending the
- Eccentric contractions are isotonic contractions knee or elbow)
in which tension is maintained in a muscle, but o Extension – Opposite of flexion- increases the
the opposing resistance causes the muscle to angle between 2 bones (Straightening the knee
lengthen or elbow)
FIVE GOLDEN RULES OF SKELETAL MUSCLE ACTIVITY o Hyperextension- Extension >180 degrees
(Tipping your head back so your chin points
1. With a few exceptions, all muscles cross at least toward the ceiling)
one joint o Rotation- Movement of a bone around its
2. Typically, the bulk of the muscle lies proximal to longitudinal axis; Common with ball and socket
the joint crossed joints  describes the movement with the atlas
3. All muscles have at least 2 attachments  origin around the dens of the axis (Shaking your head
& insertion “no”)
4. Muscles can only pull; they never push o Abduction – Moving a limb away from the
5. During contraction, the muscle insertion moves midline of the body; Fanning movement of
toward the origin fingers, toes
General Principles o Adduction – Movement of a limb towards the
body midline; Opposite of abduction
o Circumduction – Combination of flexion,  Muscle cells are elongated (muscle cell = muscle
extension, abduction and adduction. Proximal fiber)
end of limb is stationary, distal end moves in a  Contraction of muscles is due to the movement
circle Limb as a whole outlines a cone of microfilaments
 All muscles share some terminology:
Special Movements
o Prefix myo refers to muscle
o Dorsiflexion - Lifting the foot so that its superior o Prefix mys refers to muscle
surface approaches the shin o Prefix sarco refers to flesh
o Plantar flexion -Pointing the toes
Types of Muscle Tissue
o Inversion - To invert the foot- turn the sole
medially Skeletal muscle
o Eversion -To evert the foot- turn the sole
 Most are attached by tendons to bones
laterally
 Cells are multinucleate
o Supination- Forearm rotates laterally so that
 Striated – have visible banding
the palm faces anteriorly, and the radius and
 Voluntary – subject to conscious control
ulna are parallel (Carry “soup” --> “soup”-
 Cells are surrounded and bundled by connective
inating)
tissue
o Pronation- Forearm rotates medially so the
palm faces posteriorly (Face down)
o Opposition- Action by which you move your
thumb to touch the tips of the other fingers on
the same hand Connective Tissue Wrappings of Skeletal Muscle

 Endomysium – around single muscle fiber

 Perimysium – around a fascicle (bundle) of
fibers
 Epimysium – covers the entire skeletal muscle
 Fascia – on the outside of the epimysium

Skeletal Muscle Attachments

 Epimysium blends into a connective tissue

attachment
 Tendon – cord-like structure
 Aponeuroses – sheet-like structure

Sites of muscle attachment:

 Bones
 Cartilages
 Connective tissue coverings

The Muscular System- muscles are responsible for all Smooth Muscle
types of body movement  Has no striations
Three basic muscle types are found in the body:  Spindle-shaped cells
 Single nucleus
1. Skeletal muscle  Involuntary – no conscious control
2. Cardiac muscle  Found mainly in the walls of hollow organs
3. Smooth muscle
Cardiac Muscle
Characteristics of Muscles
 Has striations
 Usually has a single nucleus  Neurotransmitter attaches to receptors on the
 Joined to another muscle cell at an intercalated sarcolemma
disc  Sarcolemma becomes permeable to sodium
 Involuntary (Na+)
 Found only in the heart  Sodium rushing into the cell generates an action
potential
Microscopic Anatomy of Skeletal Muscle
 Once started, muscle contraction cannot be
o Cells are multinucleate stopped
o Nuclei are just beneath the sarcolemma
The Sliding Filament Theory of Muscle Contraction
o Sarcolemma – specialized plasma membrane
o Sarcoplasmic reticulum – specialized smooth  Activation by nerve causes myosin heads
endoplasmic reticulum (crossbridges) to attach to binding sites on the
o Myofibril- bundles of myofilaments. Myofibrils thin filament
are aligned to give distinct bands  Myosin heads then bind to the next site of the
o I band = light band thin filament
o A band = dark band  This continued action causes a sliding of the
o Sarcomere- contractile unit of a muscle fiber myosin along the actin
 The result is that the muscle is shortened
Organization of the sarcomere (contracted)
o Thick filaments = myosin filaments. Composed
of the protein myosin and has ATPase enzymes
o Thin filaments = actin filaments. Composed of
the protein actin Contraction of a Skeletal Muscle
o Myosin filaments have heads (extensions, or
cross bridges)  Muscle fiber contraction is “all or none”
o Myosin and actin overlap somewhat  Within a skeletal muscle, not all fibers may be
stimulated during the same interval
o At rest, there is a bare zone that lacks actin
 Different combinations of muscle fiber
filaments
contractions may give differing responses
o Sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) – for storage of
calcium Graded responses – different degrees of skeletal muscle
shortening
Nerve Stimulus to Muscles
Types of Graded Responses:
 Skeletal muscles must be stimulated by a nerve
to contract 1. Twitch
 Motor unit- one neuron. Muscle cells - Single, brief contraction
stimulated by that neuron - Not a normal muscle function
 Neuromuscular junctions – association site of 2. Tetanus (summing of contractions)
nerve and muscle - One contraction is immediately followed by
 Synaptic cleft – gap between nerve and muscle. another
Nerve and muscle do not make contact. - The muscle does not completely return to a
- Area between nerve and muscle is filled with resting state
interstitial fluid - The effects are added
3. Unfused (incomplete) tetanus
Transmission of Nerve Impulse to Muscle
- Some relaxation occurs between contractions
 Neurotransmitter – chemical released by nerve - The results are summed
upon arrival of nerve impulse. The 4. Fused (complete) tetanus
neurotransmitter for skeletal muscle is - No evidence of relaxation before the following
acetylcholine. contractions
- The result is a sustained muscle contraction - Oxygen must be “repaid” to tissue to remove
oxygen debt
Muscle Response to Strong Stimuli
- Oxygen is required to get rid of accumulated
 Muscle force depends upon the number of lactic acid
fibers stimulated  Increasing acidity (from lactic acid) and lack of
 More fibers contracting results in greater ATP causes the muscle to contract less
muscle tension
Types of Muscle Contractions
 Muscles can continue to contract unless they
run out of energy  Isotonic contractions
- Myofilaments are able to slide past each other
Energy for Muscle Contraction during contractions
 Initially, muscles used stored ATP for energy - The muscle shortens
- Bonds of ATP are broken to release energy  Isometric contractions
- Only 4-6 seconds worth of ATP is stored by - Tension in the muscles increases
muscles - The muscle is unable to shorten
 After this initial time, other pathways must be Muscle Tone
utilized to produce ATP
 Direct phosphorylation  Some fibers are contracted even in a relaxed
- Muscle cells contain creatine phosphate (CP) muscle
- CP is a high-energy molecule  Different fibers contract at different times to
 After ATP is depleted, ADP is left provide muscle tone
 CP transfers energy to ADP, to regenerate ATP  The process of stimulating various fibers is
 CP supplies are exhausted in about 20 seconds under involuntary control

Aerobic Respiration Effects of Exercise on Muscle

 Series of metabolic pathways that occur in the o Results of increased muscle use
mitochondria o Increase in muscle size
 Glucose is broken down to carbon dioxide and o Increase in muscle strength
water, releasing energy o Increase in muscle efficiency
 This is a slower reaction that requires o Muscle becomes more fatigue resistant
continuous oxygen
Muscles and Body Movements
Anaerobic glycolysis
 Muscles are attached to at least two points
 Reaction that breaks down glucose without Origin – attachment to a moveable bone
oxygen Insertion – attachment to an immovable bone
 Glucose is broken down to pyruvic acid to
produce some ATP Types of Muscles
 Pyruvic acid is converted to lactic acid  Prime mover – muscle with the major
Anaerobic glycolysis (continued) responsibility for a certain movement
 Antagonist – muscle that opposes or reverses a
 This reaction is not as efficient, but is fast prime mover
 Huge amounts of glucose are needed  Synergist – muscle that aids a prime mover in a
 Lactic acid produces muscle fatigue movement and helps prevent rotation
 Fixator – stabilizes the origin of a prime mover
Muscle Fatigue and Oxygen Debt

 When a muscle is fatigued, it is unable to NERVOUS SYSTEM

contract
 The common reason for muscle fatigue is FUNCTIONS OF NERVOUS SYSTEM
oxygen debt
1. Receiving sensory input - Sensory receptors sensory and motor neurons contained wholly within the
monitor numerous external and internal stimuli digestive tract.
2. Integrating information - The brain and spinal
NEURONS - receive stimuli, conduct action potentials,
cord are the major organs for processing
and transmit signals to other neurons or effector
sensory input and initiating responses.
organs.
3. Controlling muscles and glands. - Skeletal
muscles normally contract only when A neuron has three parts:
stimulated by the nervous system.
4. Maintaining homeostasis - This function 1. Each neuron cell body contains a single nucleus.
depends on the nervous system’s ability to 2. Dendrites are short, often highly branching
detect, interpret, and respond to changes in cytoplasmic extensions that are tapered from
internal and external conditions. their bases at the neuron cell body to their tips.
5. Establishing and maintaining mental activity - Dendrites usually receive information from
The brain is the center of mental activity, other neurons or from sensory receptors and
including consciousness, memory, and thinking transmit the information toward the neuron cell
body.
DIVISIONS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM 3. Each neuron has an axon, a single long cell
process extending from the neuron cell body.
1. Central Nervous System (CNS) consists of the
brain and spinal cord. The area where the axon leaves the neuron cell body is
2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) consists of all called the axon hillock.
the nervous tissue outside the CNS, including
nerves and ganglia Types of Neurons

FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE PERIPHERAL 1. Multipolar neurons have many dendrites and a
NERVOUS SYSTEM single axon. Most of the neurons within the CNS
and nearly all motor neurons are multipolar.
1. Sensory division, or afferent (toward) division- 2. Bipolar neurons have two processes: one
conducts action potentials from sensory dendrite and one axon. Bipolar neurons are
receptors to the CNS . The neurons that located in some sensory organs, such as in the
transmit action potentials from the periphery to retina of the eye and in the nasal cavity.
the CNS are called sensory neurons. 3. Pseudo-unipolar neurons have a single process
2. Motor division, or efferent (away) division- extending from the cell body. This process
conducts action potentials from the CNS to divides into two processes a short distance from
effector organs, such as muscles and glands. the cell body. One process extends to the
periphery, and the other extends to the CNS.
The motor division can be further subdivided based on
the type of effector being innervated. Supporting cells
1. The somatic nervous system transmits action Glial cells (neuroglia) are the supportive cells of the CNS
potentials from the CNS to skeletal muscles. and PNS, meaning these cells do not conduct action
2. The autonomic (self-governing) nervous potentials. Instead, glial cells carry out different
system (ANS) transmits action potentials from functions that enhance neuron function and maintain
the CNS to cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and normal conditions within nervous tissue.
glands.
- autonomic nervous system, in turn, is divided Most neuroglia retain the ability to divide, whereas
into sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions. neurons do not.

The neurons that transmit action potentials from the 1. Astrocytes serve as the major supporting cells
CNS toward the periphery are called motor neurons. in the CNS.
- stimulate or inhibit the signaling activity of
Enteric nervous system (ENS) is a unique subdivision of nearby neurons.
the peripheral nervous system. The ENS has both
- participate with the blood vessel endothelium REGIONS OF THE BRAIN
to form a permeability barrier, called the blood-
 Cerebral hemispheres
brain barrier, between the blood and the CNS
 Diencephalon
2. Ependymal cells line the fluid-filled cavities
 Brain stem
(ventricles and canals) within the CNS.
 Cerebellum
- produce cerebrospinal fluid, and others, with
cilia on the surface, help move the BRAINSTEM
cerebrospinal fluid through the CNS.
3. Microglia act as immune cells of the CNS. They The brainstem connects the spinal cord to the
help protect the brain by removing bacteria and remainder of the brain. It consists of the medulla
cell debris. oblongata, the pons, and the midbrain. The brainstem
4. Oligodendrocytes provide an insulating contains several nuclei involved in vital body functions,
material that surrounds axons. such as the control of heart rate, blood pressure, and
5. In the PNS, the glial cells known as Schwann breathing.
cells provide insulating material around axons.  Medulla oblongata is the most inferior portion
Myelin sheaths are specialized layers that wrap around of the brainstem and is continuous with the
the axons of some neurons. These myelin sheaths are spinal cord. The medulla oblongata contains
formed by the cell processes of glial cells ascending and descending nerve tracts, which
convey signals to and from other regions of the
Gaps in the myelin sheath, called nodes of Ranvier brain.
occur about every millimeter between the  Immediately superior to the medulla oblongata
oligodendrocyte segments or between individual is the pons. Some of the nuclei in the pons
Schwann cells. relay information between the cerebrum and
the cerebellum.
Organization of Nervous Tissue
 The midbrain, just superior to the pons, is the
 Gray matter consists of groups of neuron cell smallest region of the brainstem. The dorsal
bodies and their dendrites, where there is very part of the midbrain consists of four mounds
little myelin called the colliculi. The two inferior colliculi are
 In the CNS, gray matter on the surface of the major relay centers for the auditory nerve
brain is called the cortex pathways in the CNS. The two superior colliculi
 Clusters of gray matter located deeper within are involved in visual reflexes and receive touch
the brain are called nuclei. and auditory input
 In the PNS, a cluster of neuron cell bodies is  Scattered throughout the brainstem is a group
called a ganglion of nuclei collectively called the reticular
 White matter consists of bundles of parallel formation. It is particularly involved in
axons with their myelin sheaths, which are regulating cyclical motor functions, such as
whitish in color respiration, walking, and chewing. The reticular
 White matter of the CNS forms nerve tracts, or formation is a major component of the reticular
conduction pathways, which propagate action activating system, which plays an important
potentials from one area of the CNS to another. role in arousing and maintaining consciousness
 White matter of the PNS consists of bundles of and in regulating the sleep-wake cycle.
axons and associated connective tissue that CEREBELLUM

The cerebellum is attached to the brainstem by several

form nerves large connections called cerebellar peduncles. These
connections provide routes of communication between
 the cerebellum and other parts of the CNS.
Central Nervous System (CNS)
 The cerebellum is involved in maintaining  The frontal lobe is important in the control of
balance and muscle tone and in coordinating voluntary motor functions, motivation,
fine motor movement. aggression, mood, and olfactory (smell)
reception.
DIENCEPHALON
 The parietal lobe is the principal center for
The diencephalon is the part of the brain between the receiving and consciously perceiving most
brainstem and the cerebrum. Its main components are sensory information, such as touch, pain,
the thalamus, the epithalamus, and the hypothalamus. temperature, and balance.
 The occipital lobe functions in receiving and
 The thalamus is by far the largest part of the perceiving visual input and is not distinctly
diencephalon. Shaped somewhat like a yo-yo, separate from the other lobes.
with two large, lateral parts connected in the  The temporal lobe is involved in olfactory
center by a small interthalamic adhesion. (smell) and auditory (hearing) sensations and
 Most sensory input that ascends through the plays an important role in memory.
spinal cord and brainstem projects to the
thalamus.
 The epithalamus is a small area superior and
posterior to the thalamus. It consists of a few
small nuclei, which are involved in the
emotional and visceral response to odors, and
the pineal gland.
 The pineal gland is an endocrine gland that may
influence the onset of puberty and may play a
role in controlling some longterm cycles that
are influenced by the light-dark cycle.
 The hypothalamus is the most inferior part of
the diencephalon; Plays a central role in the
control of body temperature, hunger, and thirst.
Sensations such as sexual pleasure, rage, fear,
and relaxation after a meal are related to
hypothalamic functions. The hypothalamus
plays a major role in controlling the secretion of
hormones from the pituitary gland
 A funnel shaped stalk, the infundibulum
extends from the floor of the hypothalamus to
the pituitary gland.
 The mammillary bodies form externally visible
swellings on the posterior portion of the
hypothalamus. The mammillary bodies are
involved in emotional responses to odors and in
memory.

CEREBRUM

 The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain. It

is divided into left and right hemispheres by a
longitudinal fissure. The most conspicuous
features on the surface of each hemisphere are
numerous folds called gyri and intervening
grooves called sulci
The Nervous System

Sensory input – gathering information

- To monitor changes occurring inside and

outside the body
- Changes = stimuli

Integration

- To process and interpret sensory input and

decide if action is needed

Motor output

- A response to integrated stimuli

- The response activates muscles or glands

Structural Classification of the Nervous System