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Table of Contents

1. Introduction……………………………………………………………………...3

2. Right of test takers ...............................................................................................6 3.

Ethical issues........................................................................................................10 4.

Competence of therapist…..................................................................................11 5.

Informed Consent................................................................................................12 6.

The right to results...............................................................................................14 7.

Confidentiality.....................................................................................................17 8.

Test security.........................................................................................................18 9.

Invasion of privacy...............................................................................................20 10.

Labelling...............................................................................................................21 11.

Dehumanization...................................................................................................28

Introduction

Psychological Assessment

Psychological assessment is the process of evaluating an individual's mental health and

behavioral functioning through the use of standardized tests, observations, and other methods. It

is used to evaluate an individual's cognitive, emotional, and behavioral functioning. A

psychological assessment can include numerous components such as norm-referenced

psychological tests, informal tests and surveys, interview information, school or medical records,

medical evaluation, and observational data.

Psychological assessment is founded on a scientific base and has the capacity to translate

human behavior, characteristics, and abilities into numbers or other forms that lend themselves to
description and comparison across individuals and groups of people.

Phases of Assessment

1. Interview and Information Gathering

At the start of the assessment, all of the important members are identified. These typically

include client, parents, significant other, therapist, referral consultant, psychiatrist, and other

professionals or programs that may have insight. Parents and client are given a Parent

Questionnaire to fill out prior to their interview to create an outline of relevant historical

information which is then detailed during the interview. Parents can submit their own narrative

or timeline which can help tremendously. Calls are scheduled with prior treatment providers. The

purpose of the interviews is to gather information, as well as understand the perspective and

opinions of the interviewee.

2. Psychological Testing

Cognitive Testing: It involves IQ and achievement testing to determine the strengths and

weaknesses of a person's thinking. General assessment, domains include: general awareness,

attention, verbal comprehension, visual spatial ability, computation, abstract thought,

impulsivity, problem solving, social comprehension, and judgment.

Possible Tests: WAIS, WISC.

Emotional: It assess emotional functioning and assess for depression, anxiety, deficits in identity

formation, obsessive/compulsive disorders, and sleep disorders. It further assess personality

functioning and obtain data regarding developmental and emotional age. Moreover, it obtains

data regarding family dynamics.

Possible Tests: MMPI, MACI, BDI, Rorschach.

Behavioral: It evaluates substance abuse and trauma. Evaluates for risk of self-harm, aggression,

and treatment compliance. It detects malingering, deceit, and exaggeration; screen for behaviors
that are high risk, illegal, or violate the rights of others or major social values including

substance abuse. Besides, it rules out thought disorders and screen for organic impairment.

Neuropsychological testing: It is used to evaluate neurodevelopmental conditions such as

ADHD, autism, concussion, and other learning disorders. The domains include: attention,

memory, language, visual-spatial functioning, and executive functioning. 3. Analysis,

Formulation and Written Report

Once interviews and tests are completed, the psychologist begins the process of scoring test data

and analyzing all historical and interview information to understand the client and formulate the

diagnoses and functioning. The report of test findings is comprehensive and often lengthy. It is

written from a developmental perspective and give a thorough psychosocial history

as well as review all relevant history that may be influencing learning, personality, and change.

There is a summary of previous reports and therapeutic interventions. There is also a summary

and formulation to summarize findings and diagnoses. And most importantly, there is a detailed

recommendations section which can be customized, and tailored to immediate and long-term

needs of the client.

4. Feedback

Initial test findings are given to therapist and referral sources as soon as possible so

treatment planning can begin. When possible, set a meeting with all members to give feedback

regarding testing and recommendations. This meeting can include: parents, therapist, and

educational consultant. If the next placement is already determined, then the new therapist would

also be invited to be on this call. The purpose of this meeting is to:

⮚ facilitate an accurate and timely distribution of information

⮚ facilitate the necessary conversations regarding next steps

Ethics

Ethics are correct rule of conduct necessary when carrying out any task to protect people

or participants from harm. Ethics are the set of instructions in which a person ought to behave in

certain circumstances.

The ethics in psychology are the standards that direct the conduct of its professional members.

In considering what is ethical in psychology, it is essential to know that proper ethical practices

drive psychology, applied to research and therapy to everyday individuals. The American

Psychological Association (APA) has its own Ethical Principals of Psychologists and Code of

Conduct for every psychologist who is licensed under their realm. The ethical standards

that they adopted have tremendously reduced the amount of unethical, illegal, and immoral acts

upon participants and clients.

Ethics, the discipline concerned with what is morally good and bad and morally right and

wrong. The term is also applied to any system or theory of moral values or principles. Ethics

matters because;

⮚ it is part of how many groups define themselves and thus part of the identity of their

individual members.

⮚ other-regarding values in most ethical systems both reflect and foster close human

relationships and mutual respect and trust.

⮚ it could be “rational” for a self-interested person to be moral, because his or her self

interest is arguably best served in the long run by reciprocating the moral behavior of

others.

Right of Test Takers

Being a test taker, there are some rights and some responsibilities which requires to be

fulfilled. As a test taker, an individual has the right to:

⮚ Be treated with courtesy, respect, and impartiality, regardless of age, disability, ethnicity,

gender, national origin, religion, sexual orientation or other personal characteristics. ⮚ Be

tested with measures that meet professional standards and that are appropriate, given the

manner in which the test results will be used.

⮚ Receive a brief oral or written explanation prior to testing about the purpose for testing,

the kind of tests to be used, if the results will be reported, and the planned use of the

results. If having a disability, individual has the right to inquire and receive information

about testing accommodations.

⮚ Know in advance when the test will be administered, if and when test results will be

available, and if there is a fee for testing services that you are expected to be paid. ⮚

Have the test administered and the test results interpreted by appropriately trained

individuals who follow professional codes of ethics.

⮚ Know if a test is optional and learn of the consequences of taking or not taking the test,

fully completing the test, or canceling the scores.

⮚ Receive a written or oral explanation of test results within a reasonable amount of time

after testing and in commonly understood terms.

⮚ Have the test results kept confidential to the extent allowed by law.

As a test taker, an individual has the responsibility to:

⮚ Read and/or listen to rights and responsibilities as a test taker.

⮚ Treat others with courtesy and respect during the testing process.

⮚ Ask questions prior to testing if there is uncertainty about why the test is being given,

how it will be given, what will be asked to do, and what will be done with the results. ⮚

Read or listen to descriptive information in advance of testing and listen carefully to all

test instructions. Inform the examiner in advance of testing if wish to receive a testing

accommodation or if has a physical condition or illness that may interfere with

performance on the test.

⮚ Know when and where the test will be given, pay for the test if required, appear on time

with any required materials, and be ready to be tested.

⮚ Follow the test instructions that are given and represent honestly during the testing.

⮚ Ask about the confidentiality of test results, if this aspect concerns.

Studies regarding Ethical Issues

Milgram Experiment

Stanley Milgram, a psychologist at Yale University, carried out one of the most famous

studies of obedience in psychology. He conducted an experiment focusing on the conflict

between obedience to authority and personal conscience.

The learner, a confederate was taken into a room and had electrodes attached to his arms,

and the teacher and researcher went into a room next door that contained an electric shock

generator and a row of switches marked from 15 volts (Slight Shock) to 375 volts (Danger:
Severe Shock) to 450 volts (XXX). The shocks in Stanley Milgram’s obedience experiments

were not real. The “learners” were actors who were part of the experiment and did not actually

receive any shocks. However, the “teachers” (the real participants of the study) believed the

shocks were real.

The “learner” was strapped to a chair with electrodes. After he has learned a list of word

pairs given to him to learn, the “teacher” tests him by naming a word and asking the learner to

recall its partner/pair from a list of four possible choices. The teacher is told to administer an

electric shock every time the learner makes a mistake, increasing the level of shock each time.

The learner gave mainly wrong answers (on purpose), and for each of these, the teacher gave him

an electric shock.

Results

65% (two-thirds) of participants (i.e., teachers) continued to the highest level of 450

volts. All the participants continued to 300 volts.

Ethical Concerns in the Milgram Experiment

Milgram's experiments have long been the source of considerable criticism and

controversy. From the get-go, the ethics of his experiments were highly dubious. Participants

were subjected to significant psychological and emotional distress. Some of the major ethical

issues in the experiment were related to:

∙ The use of deception

∙ The lack of protection for the participants who were involved

∙ Pressure from the experimenter to continue even after asking to stop, interfering with

participants' right to withdraw

Zimbardo’s Study

The experiment was conducted in 1971 by psychologist Philip Zimbardo to examine

situational forces versus dispositions in human behavior. 24 young, healthy, psychologically

normal men were randomly assigned to be “prisoners” or “guards” in a simulated prison

environment. The experiment had to be terminated after only 6 days due to the extreme,

pathological behavior emerging in both groups. The situational forces overwhelmed the

dispositions of the participants.

Pacifist young men assigned as guards began behaving sadistically, inflicting humiliation

and suffering on the prisoners. Prisoners became blindly obedient and allowed themselves to be

dehumanized. The principal investigator, Zimbardo, was also transformed into a rigid authority

figure as the Prison Superintendent.

The experiment demonstrated the power of situations to alter human behavior

dramatically. Even good, normal people can do evil things when situational forces push them in

that direction.

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Results

Within a very short time both guards and prisoners were settling into their new roles, with

the guards adopting theirs quickly and easily. Zimbardo (2008) later noted, “It wasn’t until much

later that I realized how far into my prison role I was at that point — that I was thinking like a

prison superintendent rather than a research psychologist. “This led him to prioritize maintaining

the experiment’s structure over the well-being and ethics involved.

Ethical Concerns in Zimbardo’s Study

Zimbardo's experiment was unethical due to a lack of fully informed consent, abuse of

participants, and lack of appropriate debriefings. More recent findings suggest there were other

significant ethical issues that compromise the experiment's scientific standing, including the fact
that experimenters may have encouraged abusive behaviors.

Ethical Issues

An ethical issue is a circumstance in which a moral conflict arises; thus, it is a situation in

which a moral standard is being challenged. Psychological harm includes feeling embarrassed,

inadequate or stressed or pressured before or after a study.

The BPS code of ethics and conduct is a quasi-legal document produced by the British

Psychological Society (BPS). It instructs psychologists in the UK about what behaviors are and

aren’t acceptable when dealing with participants.

Types of Ethical Issues

1. Competence of psychologist

2. Informed consent

3. Right to results

4. Confidentiality
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5. Test security

6. Invasion of privacy

7. Labeling

8. Dehumanization

Competence of Therapist

1. Subjectivity and Cultural Bias

Assessment processes may be subjective, influenced by personal biases of those

conducting the assessment. Competence standards may reflect cultural biases, favoring certain

practices or approaches over others. This can disadvantage therapists from diverse backgrounds

and may not adequately capture the range of effective therapeutic techniques. 2. Training Gaps

Therapists may not have received adequate training in the use of assessment tools during
their education or professional development. This can lead to a lack of familiarity with available

tools and uncertainty about how to integrate them into practice. The field of mental health is

dynamic, and new assessment tools are developed regularly. Therapists who completed their

training some time ago may not be familiar with newer, more updated tools and methods.

Therapists may lack sufficient training in the administration, interpretation, and ethical use of

assessment tools. This can result in inaccurate assessments and compromised treatment

planning. 3. Cultural Competence in Assessment

Therapists may lack exposure to assessment tools that are culturally sensitive and applicable

to diverse populations. This can be a barrier to providing effective and equitable assessment

services to clients from various backgrounds. Competence issues may arise when

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therapists are not adequately trained to conduct culturally sensitive assessments. This can lead to

misinterpretations of client behavior or experiences and the use of culturally inappropriate tools.

4. Limited Supervision or Mentorship

Therapists who lack experienced supervision or mentorship may miss out on valuable

guidance on the use of assessment tools. A supportive professional environment is crucial for

learning and integrating new skills.

5. Limited Familiarity with Assessment Tools

Therapists may not be familiar with a diverse range of assessment tools, leading to a

reliance on a narrow set of measures that may not be appropriate for all clients or clinical

situations.

Informed Consent

Purpose and Nature of the Assessment

Lack of transparency regarding the assessment's purpose and procedures may lead to

individuals participating without fully understanding the implications, compromising the

principle of informed consent. Sometimes, people might not fully understand why the assessment

is happening or what will be done. This can make it hard for them to decide if they want to take

part.

Voluntary Participation

If the right of voluntary participation is not given and individual is under pressure, it is

considered as violating the ethical principle of voluntary informed consent. People should be

able to decide if they want to join the assessment on their own. If someone feels like they have to

do it or will get in trouble for saying no, that is a problem.

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Benefits and Risks

Failure to adequately disclose potential risks or discomfort associated with the

assessment can result in individuals consenting without a full understanding, violating the ethical

principle of providing comprehensive information for decision-making. Individual should know

the benefits and risk that might happen because of the assessment. If this isn't clear, they might

agree to something without knowing all the facts.

Confidentiality and Privacy

Inadequate safeguards to protect confidentiality or unclear communication about who

will have access to assessment results can lead to breaches of privacy, violating the ethical

principle of respecting and protecting participants' confidential information. If it's not explained

well that who should see the results and how it will be kept private, it can cause problems.

People need to trust that their information won't be shared without their okay. Duration and

Time Commitment

Misrepresentation of the time commitment or failure to provide accurate estimates may

lead to participants feeling deceived, potentially impacting their trust in the assessment process

and violating the ethical principle of honesty. If the time needed for the assessment is not
explained clearly, people might feel surprised or upset. They need to plan for it. Feedback and

Results

Inconsistent or unclear communication about how feedback will be provided or results

disclosed may lead to dissatisfaction or distress among participants, violating the ethical

principle of transparency and openness.

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Opportunity for Questions

Failure to create an environment that encourages questions or provide accessible contact

information may hinder participants' ability to seek clarification, potentially compromising the

ethical principle of facilitating participant understanding.

Language and Cultural Considerations

Inadequate attention to cultural sensitivity and addressing language barriers may result in

a lack of inclusivity, potentially violating the ethical principle of respecting and valuing

diversity. If the way information is given doesn't match someone's culture or language, it can be

hard for them to understand. Everyone should get information in a way that makes sense to them.

Documentation

Incomplete or unclear documentation of informed consent may raise concerns about the

authenticity of participants' agreement, potentially violating the ethical principle of ensuring a

thorough and well-documented consent process. If it's not clear what someone agreed to and

there's no written record, it can cause problems later. Having a clear record helps everyone know

what was agreed upon.

Right to Results

Definition of the Right to Results:

The "right to results" refers to the ethical and sometimes legal obligation of psychologists

to share the results of psychological tests, assessments, or evaluations with the individuals who
are being evaluated.

In the context of psychological testing, the "right to results" can manifest in several forms,

reflecting different aspects of how test results are handled and communicated to the client. Here

are some types of scenarios where the right to results is applicable:

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∙ Full Disclosure of Results: This involves providing the client with a complete and

thorough explanation of all test results, including scores, interpretations, and implications

for the client's mental health and treatment.

∙ Partial Disclosure: In some cases, psychologists may choose to share only certain parts

of the results. This might be done to avoid overwhelming the client or when some

information is deemed not immediately relevant or potentially distressing.

∙ Simplified or Summarized Disclosure: For clients who may not understand the technical

aspects of psychological testing, psychologists might simplify or summarize the results,

focusing on key findings and their practical implications.

∙ Contextualized Disclosure: This involves explaining the results within the context of the

client's life, symptoms, or presenting issues. It helps the client understand how the test

results relate to their real-world experiences and concerns.

∙ Collaborative Interpretation: Some psychologists involve the client in the process of

interpreting the test results, allowing for a more interactive and client-centered approach.

This can help the client feel more engaged and empowered.

∙ Deferred Disclosure: In situations where immediate disclosure might not be appropriate

(e.g., if the client is in a highly emotional or unstable state), the psychologist might defer
sharing the results to a later, more suitable time.

Each of these types represents a different approach to handling test results, reflecting the need to

balance the ethical obligation of sharing information with considerations of the client's welfare,

understanding, and context. The approach chosen should always be guided by ethical principles,

the client's best interests, and professional judgment.

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Neglecting the right to results in psychological testing can have several consequences,

impacting both the client and the psychological professional. These consequences can be broadly

categorized as follows:

∙ Impaired Client Decision-Making: Without access to their test results, clients may be

unable to make informed decisions about their treatment, life choices, or how to address

their psychological issues. This lack of information can lead to suboptimal choices and

outcomes.

∙ Diminished Trust in the Therapeutic Relationship: Trust is a critical component of the

therapeutic relationship. If a client believes that important information is being withheld,

it can erode trust and hinder the effectiveness of therapy.

∙ Psychological Harm to the Client: Not knowing or understanding the full extent of their

psychological assessment can cause anxiety, confusion, and stress for clients. This can

exacerbate existing conditions or contribute to new mental health issues.

∙ Impact on Treatment Efficacy: The effectiveness of psychological treatment often

hinges on a client's understanding and acceptance of their condition. Without access to

test results, clients may be less engaged in their treatment or less compliant with

therapeutic interventions.
∙ Damage to Professional Reputation: A psychologist who routinely withholds results

may develop a reputation for being untrustworthy or unethical, potentially leading to a

loss of clients and professional standing.

∙ Negative Impact on Future Healthcare Engagement: Clients who have had negative

experiences with psychological testing, such as not receiving their results, may be less

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likely to seek psychological help in the future, potentially worsening their overall mental

health.

∙ Potential for Misdiagnosis or Ineffective Treatment: In some cases, not sharing results

with clients can lead to a misunderstanding of their condition, both by the client and other

healthcare providers, potentially leading to misdiagnosis or ineffective treatment plans.

It's crucial for psychologists to balance the need to provide comprehensive and understandable

information with any potential risks of sharing such information, adhering to ethical and legal

standards in their practice.

Confidentiality

Confidentiality is a fundamental ethical and legal concern in psychological testing,

encompassing the obligation of psychologists and other mental health professionals to protect the

privacy of their clients. It involves ensuring that information disclosed by or about a client during

the assessment process is not shared with unauthorized individuals or entities. Here's a detailed

explanation of why confidentiality is critical in psychological testing:

In the context of psychological testing, neglecting confidentiality can lead to specific and

significant consequences, impacting the client, the psychologist, and potentially broader

relationships and systems:

∙ Emotional and Psychological Harm to the Client: Disclosure of psychological test

results can lead to embarrassment, anxiety, and distress, especially if the information is

sensitive or stigmatizing. This can exacerbate existing mental health conditions or create

new psychological issues.

∙ Stigma and Social Consequences: If sensitive psychological information becomes

public, it can lead to social stigma, damaging the client's relationships, reputation, and

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standing in the community. This could affect various aspects of their life, including

employment, education, and personal relationships.

∙ Impact on Treatment and Recovery: A breach of confidentiality in psychological testing

can undermine the client's trust in the therapeutic process, making them less likely to

engage in future treatment or to be open and honest in therapy. This can hinder their

recovery or progress.

∙ Damage to Professional Reputation and Career: A breach of confidentiality can

severely damage a psychologist's professional reputation, potentially leading to loss of

clients, difficulty in finding employment, and a tarnished career.

∙ Impact on Research and Data Integrity: In cases where psychological testing is part of

research, breaches of confidentiality can compromise the integrity of the research data

and the willingness of participants to engage in future research.

∙ Third-Party Harm: Sometimes, the information in psychological assessments can have

implications for third parties (such as family members). Breaches can negatively impact

these individuals as well.

Maintaining confidentiality in psychological testing is therefore crucial, not only for ethical and

legal reasons but also to protect the well-being of clients and the integrity of the psychological

profession.

Test Security

Test security is a crucial aspect of the assessment process. Testing security in psychological

assessment refers to the measures taken to ensure the reliability, validity, and fairness of

psychological tests. Security measures are essential to maintain the integrity of test materials

(manuals, instruments, blank protocols and test questionnaires) and to prevent issues

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such as cheating, faking, or tampering with results. Here are some of the consequences for

neglecting test security in psychological assessment:

1. Compromised Validity and Reliability:

Breaches in test security can compromise the validity and reliability of psychological

assessments. When individuals have unauthorized access to test materials, they may gain an

unfair advantage, leading to inaccurate results and undermining the overall quality of the

assessment.

2. Legal Consequences:

Violating test security may have legal implications. Test publishers often have copyright

protections for their materials, and unauthorized use can lead to legal action. Psychologists who

fail to follow ethical guidelines may face legal consequences, including fines or legal challenges

to their professional standing.

3. Damage to Professional Reputation:

Psychologists who are found to have breached test security may suffer damage to their
professional reputation. Such incidents can erode trust among colleagues, clients, and the broader

community. Professional credibility may be compromised, impacting future opportunities and

professional relationships.

4. Loss of Professional Credentials:

Professional organizations, licensing boards, or certification bodies may take disciplinary

action against psychologists who violate ethical standards, including those related to test

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security. This can result in the loss of professional credentials, suspension, or other disciplinary

measures.

5. Impact on Test Publishers:

Test publishers invest significant resources in developing and standardizing assessments.

Breaches in test security can undermine the market value of their products and may lead to

financial losses. Publishers may take legal action against those responsible for compromising the

security of their materials.

6. Impact on Social perception and Confidence:

Neglecting test security will lower confidence in psychological assessment. High-profile

cases of cheating and pirating of copyrighted content may also have an impact on social

perceptions of the overall fairness of specific testing applications or even of the testing industry

in general.

Invasion of privacy

The right to privacy has been defined as an individual's right to choose the extent to

which he or she reveals beliefs, feelings, and actions to another person

The invasion of privacy is a significant ethical issue in psychological assessment. When people

respond to psychological tests, they may feel that their privacy has been invaded in a way not

justified by the test's benefits. This issue is particularly relevant in the use of personality tests in

nonclinical settings, where criticism of invasion of privacy has been aimed. Clinicians

discussing the intimate details of patients' lives in a public space can also be seen as an invasion

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of their privacy. The following are some of the consequences regarding Invasion of privacy in

psychological assessment:

1. Loss of trust and motivation:

The invasion of privacy in psychological assessment can lead to a loss of trust and

reduced motivation in test-takers, ultimately affecting the accuracy and usefulness of the results.

When individuals feel that their privacy has been invaded, they may lose trust in the testing

process and be less likely to provide accurate and honest information. This can also lead to a

reduced motivation to participate in the testing process, further impacting the quality of the

results.

2. Legal issues:

Unauthorized disclosure of test results or misuse of assessment techniques can lead to

legal issues, as psychologists have an obligation to protect the integrity and security of test

information.

Labelling

Introduction

The importance of labelling in assessments is a crucial aspect of psychological evaluation. The

power of labelling in psychological assessment can greatly influence perceptions and behaviors.
Labelling involves assigning identifying terms to individuals based on their psychological

characteristics. These labels can shape how individuals view themselves and how others

perceive them, influencing their mental health. Labeling is a form of categorization which can

have profound effects on individuals. In psychiatric contexts, in which a form of

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categorization is utilized to discriminate and identify mental disorders, this could lead to stigma

and other negative consequences.

Defining Labelling

Labeling occurs when information about a person’s diagnostic classification is

communicated in a negative manner that leads to stigma for the individual with a mental

disorder. Labelling in assessments refers to the categorization of individuals based on certain

characteristics or behaviors. This process can significantly influence perceptions and subsequent

evaluations.

∙ In standard medical practice, a person's disease or disorder is first identified (diagnosed).

Once diagnosed, the disease can be labeled and standard medical intervention procedures

implemented.

∙ However, labeling people with certain medical diseases, such as acquired

immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), and psychiatric disorders can be extremely

damaging. The public has little understanding of the label schizophrenia, for example.

Therefore, those who receive this label are often stigmatized, perhaps for life. ∙ Labels

may also affect one's access to help.

∙ Labeling people with certain medical diseases can be extremely damaging- ∙

Theoretical issue - labeling may imply that a person is ill or diseased

∙ Individuals who feel they have a sense of control feel less stress/frustration- ∙ Labels

that imply a person is not responsible may increase the risk that the person so labeled

will feel passive.

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Thus, the labeling process may not only stigmatize the person but also lower tolerance for stress

and make treatment more difficult. In view of the potentially negative effects of labels, a person

should have the right not to be labeled.

Labelling theory

Labeling theory originated in the book “Being Mentally Ill” by the sociologist T. J.

Scheff (1966). Scheff introduced the idea that being labeled mentally ill causes one to be

mentally ill. Individuals learn cultural stereotypes through jokes, cartoons and media. People

internalize these stereotypes. Once they become mentally ill, these internalized ideas become

relevant: they come to dominate one’s self-concept. One realizes what others expect of him as a

mentally ill person. The social construction of deviant behavior plays an important role in the

labeling process that occurs in society. This process involves not only the labeling of criminally

deviant behavior, which is behavior that does not fit socially constructed norms, but also labeling

that which reflects stereotyped or stigmatized behavior of the "mentally ill".

Labelling in mental health

In sociological terms, labelling is the attachment of a diagnosis of a mental illness to a person

who has been given a specific diagnostic label. More generally, this person becomes identified

as someone who has received mental health treatment- a "mentally ill" person. It is because of

that labelling that many people refuse to receive treatment for certain symptoms that are
associated with mental illnesses. American society appears to have certain negative stereotypes

of mental illness, such as unpredictability and instability, which would be applied to the labelled

individual, which, in return, may cause other people to reject the labelled individual. Such

reactions may introduce new sources of stress into the mentally ill person's life, which

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limits their life changes through discrimination, damage to their self-concept, and impair the way

they cope with and confront the world.

Stigma and Discrimination

Conceptualization of stigma is a two-part definition of the concept as a "mark" or

label. Stigma:

1) sets a person apart from others and

2) connects the labeled individual to undesirable characteristics.

When the second of the above two occurs, a third aspect of stigma comes into play

people reject and avoid the stigmatized individual. With regard to mental illness, an individual

could be hospitalized for mental illness and then assumed so dangerous and unstable that social

avoidance and isolation ensue. Stigma is a matter of degree; the worse the undesirable

characteristics, the more strenuous the rejection. Understanding these biases is essential for

unbiased assessments.

Negative Consequences of Diagnostic Labelling

The following is a synthesis of major negative side effects related to labeling children and

adolescents:

• People see only the diagnosis, not the person. A diagnostic label may come to negatively
define the individual by focusing on the specific problem and downplaying many positive

personal characteristics. That is, people may selectively attend to information that confirms the

label while neglecting other information. For instance, parents and teachers may only attend to

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the times when a child diagnosed with ADHD acts restlessly but overlook other times when the

child is calm.

• All-or-nothing diagnosis. Labelling of learning, behavior, and emotional problems tends to be

categorical. An individual is viewed as either having a specific disorder or not, depending on

decisions made about the criteria threshold set for diagnosis. In reality, however, such problems

run along several continua (e.g., degrees of severity, pervasiveness, chronicity, degree to which

the cause is environmental or stems from an internal disorder).

• Diagnostic labels can lead to self-fulfilling prophecies and stigmatization. Diagnostic labels

not only change the reputation of an individual but also alter how other people treat the

individual. For example, teachers who expect less from a student labelled as having a learning

disability may be reluctant to challenge the student and thus limit his or her opportunities to

learn. Consequently, the student may be less likely to perform well in school, which only

confirms the diagnostic label. Moreover, others often tend to form negative attitudes about

individuals who have diagnostic labels, and this can lead to negative actions toward the person

(e.g., name calling, bullying).

• Diagnostic labels may mislead understanding of cause. For instance, the behaviors leading to

a diagnosis of ADHD or LD may stem from an education system that does a poor job in

accommodating students' differences and needs or from sleep deprivation among adolescents or

any of a variety of other factors that constitute barriers to learning and teaching.

• Medications with aversive side effects may be prescribed. With increased diagnoses there is a
corresponding rise in prescriptions for medication. Indeed, medications are often the first-line of

treatment when some diagnoses are made. All medications are recognized to have side effects

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(some of which can quite debilitating). For instance, stimulants commonly used to treat ADHD

may cause insomnia, suppressed appetite and growth, and other side effects affecting child and

adolescent development.

Prescription medications have also been linked to drug addiction and the feigning of

symptoms to gain access to medications for personal substance abuse and black-market

sales.

The Power of Positive labelling

Positive labelling can have a profound impact on self-confidence and motivation. The

benefits of positive labelling are essential for fostering positive outcomes. The label of "mentally

ill" may help a person seek help, for example psychotherapy or medication. Labels, while they

can be stigmatizing, can also lead those who bear them down the road to proper treatment and

recovery. If one believes that "being mentally ill" is more than just believing one should fulfill a

set of diagnostic criteria, then one would probably also agree that there are some who are labeled

"mentally ill" who need help. It has been claimed that this could not happen if "we" did not have

a way to categorize (and therefore label) them, although there are actually plenty of approaches

to these phenomena that do not use categorical classifications and diagnostic terms, for example

spectrum or continuum models. Here, people vary along different dimensions, and everyone falls

at different points on each dimension.

Labelling in Assessment

In psychological assessment, the use of labels can significantly influence the

interpretation of individuals' symptoms and behaviors. Understanding the implications of

labelling is essential for accurate assessment and effective intervention.

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Psychological Impact

Labelling can have a profound psychological impact on individuals, affecting their self

perception and behavior. It can also influence how others interact with them, shaping their social

experiences.

Cognitive Bias

Labelling can trigger cognitive biases in assessors, leading to preconceived notions and

influencing the brain.

Ethical Considerations

Labelling in assessments raises important ethical considerations regarding privacy,

dignity, and individual rights. Ethical guidelines are essential for conducting respectful

evaluations.

Intersectionality

The concept of intersectionality highlights the interconnected nature of social

categorizations and the impact of multiple labels on assessments.

Understanding intersectionality is crucial for comprehensive evaluations.

Cultural Sensitivity

Cultural factors can significantly influence the interpretation of labels in assessments.

Culturally sensitive approaches are essential for accurate evaluations across diverse

populations.
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Data driven Assessments

Utilizing data-driven assessments can minimize the impact of subjective labelling,

leading to more objective evaluations. Incorporating data-driven approaches is essential for

reliable assessments.

Conclusion

Unraveling the complexity of labelling in psychology is essential for promoting

understanding and empathy towards individuals with mental health labels. By acknowledging the

impact of labelling and addressing its ethical and social implications we can work towards

creating a more inclusive and supporting environment for all.

Dehumanization

Dehumanization is the denial of full humanity in others along with the cruelty and

suffering that accompany it. A practical definition refers to it as the viewing and the treatment of

other people as though they lack the mental capacities that are commonly attributed to human

beings. In this definition, every act or thought that regards a person as "less than" human is

dehumanization. Dehumanization is one form of incitement to genocide It has also been used to

justify war, judicial and extrajudicial killing, slavery, the confiscation of property, denial of

suffrage and other rights, and to attack enemies or political opponents.

Dehumanization in Testing

One social issue in the testing field concerns the dehumanizing. tendencies that lurk in the

testing process. Some forms of testing remove any human element from decision-making

process. With high-speed computers and centralized data banks, the risk that machines will

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someday make important decisions about our lives is always increasing., Thus, society must

weigh the risks against the benefits of the growing application of modern technology to the

testing field. As psychologists and the public allow test results to be stored and analyzed by

computers, it may become extremely difficult to reverse this trend

Self-dehumanization

Self-dehumanization is the perception that oneself is less than human. Self dehumanization may

stem from the nature of mental health difficulties, cognitive perceptions, and social interactions.

Additionally, continued experiences of meta-dehumanization may be internalized into one’s

self-concept, resulting in self-dehumanization. For some conditions, their nature may be

inherently dehumanizing. In qualitative accounts, people with psychosis have articulated a

variety of distressing experiences which give rise to self-dehumanization.

Meta-dehumanization

Meta-dehumanization, the perception that oneself or one’s identity is perceived as less than

human by other people, is oftentimes a result of personal attributes or membership to a

respective social group. Furthermore, institutions such as psychiatric hospitals can be

dehumanizing environments that may reinforce and exacerbate meta-dehumanization. While they

intend to provide care for service users, practices such as restraint, seclusion, sedation, and

curtailing of freedoms are inherently dehumanizing experiences (i.e. loss of autonomy/control)

Historical Perspective

Historical instances of dehumanization in psychology, including the Stanford Prison

Experiment and the Milgram Obedience Study. These controversial studies shed light on the

ethical complexities of psychological research.

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Psychology Perspective

Several lines of psychological research relate to the concept of dehumanization.

Infrahumanization suggests that individuals think of and treat outgroup members as "less human"

and more like animals while Austrian ethnologist Irenäus Eibl-Eibesfeldt uses the term pseudo

speciation, a term that he borrowed from the psychoanalyst Erik Erikson, to imply that the

dehumanized person or persons are regarded as not members of the human species. Specifically,

individuals associate secondary emotions (which are seen as uniquely human) more with the in

group than with the outgroup. Primary emotions (those experienced by all sentient beings,

whether human or other animals) are found to be more associated with the outgroup.

Dehumanization is intrinsically connected with violence. Often, one cannot do serious injury to

another without first dehumanizing him or her in one's mind (as a form of rationalization).

Military training is, among other things, systematic desensitization and dehumanization of the

enemy, and military personnel may find it psychologically necessary to refer to the enemy as an

animal or other non-human beings. Lt. Col. Dave Grossman has shown that without such

desensitization it would be difficult, if not impossible, for one human to kill another human, even

in combat or under threat to their own lives.

Impact on Victims

The dehumanization process can have devastating effects on victims, leading to

psychological trauma, diminished self-worth, and a sense of powerlessness. Understanding these

impacts is crucial for ethical practice in psychology.

Ethical Consideration
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Examining the ethical implications of dehumanization in psychological research and

clinical practice. Addressing the responsibility of psychologists to uphold the dignity and rights
of all individuals.

Cultural and Social Context

Cultural beliefs and societal norms contribute to the perpetuation of dehumanization. The

role of power dynamics and systemic oppression in psychology.

Intersectionality

The intersection of gender, race, sexuality, and other identity factors in the experience of

dehumanization. The unique challenges faced by individuals at the intersections of multiple

marginalized identities.