READING GUIDE:

INTRODUCTION TO HISTORY

Land and People

1. Introduction
2. Geographical Setting
3. The Filipino People: Common and Regional Traits

Early Filipinos—their environment and culture during the Stone Ages

1. Paleolithic and Neolithic cultures
2. Cagayan Man and Tabon Man—Their environment and culture
3. Pottery, weaving and the appearance of metals

Early Philippine Culture

1. Philippines and the Cultural Traditions of Asia
• Indianization of Southeast Asia
• Early Chinese influences in the Philippines
• Islamization of the Philippines
2. Political life of the early Filipinos
• Baranganic System
• The Datu and Sultan
• Judicial Processes
3. Economic life of the early Filipinos
• Ecological niches: their implications to the socio-economic life of the
early Filipinos
• Boat-building industry
4. Socio-cultural life of the early Filipinos
• Social Stratification
• Clothing and ornaments
• Writing, literature and time keeping
• Marriage customs
• Religious beliefs
The Filipino Communities and the Spanish Colonial System
1. Coming of the Spaniards
2. The Spanish Colonial Administration
3. Reduccion and the Colonial Landscape
Reading: The Colonial Townscape
4. Spanish economic institutions: their oppressive impacts
5. Social transformations under the Spanish regime
Reading: Pamana ng Simbahang Pilipino
The Colonial Filipinas

Reactions to Spanish Colonialism—Revolts, Resistance, Reform and

Revolution—Weaving of national consciousness
1. Filipino Revolts and resistance against Spanish domination
2. Philippine Nationalism
• The Propaganda Movement
• Philippine Revolution
• Philippine-American War: Defending Philippine Independence

Political Development in the Philippines during the American Occupation

1. America’s Benevolent Assimilation and their Manifest Destiny
2. Filipinization Policy: Its implications to Filipino political participation
• Philippine Bill of 1902
• Philippine Assembly of 1907
• Jones Law of 1916 and the Philippine Senate
• Campaign for Philippine Independence (1919-1935)
• The Commonwealth Republic
3. Socio-economic transformations and the Americanization of the Filipinos
LAND AND PEOPLE
A. GEOGRAPHICAL SETTING

A Visayan myth narrates that, in the beginning, the world was made up of water and
the heavens. A bird named Manaul was getting tired of flying that it searched for a resting
place. Manaul called on the gods—Kaptan, god of the sea; and, Magauayan, god of
the air—to come to his aid. The gods battled it out trying to outfight each other for the right
to help the bird. Kaptan sent winds and that created tidal waves and storms. Magauayan
whirlwinds threw back Kaptan’s waves, creating land in the process. For thousands of
years, they fought until Manaul got tired of their quarrel. Landing on one of the mountains
created by the battle, the bird gathered rocks and dropped them on the two gods
thereby ending the fight. These masses of rocks the mythical bird have thrown became
the many islands that now form the Philippine Archipelago (Punongbayan, 1998).

The preceding myth sheds light to this question: How did the Philippine archipelago
emerge?

The same question have confronted geologists for so long, so that in the quest for
unraveling the processes that shaped the earth that we have today, these geologists have
formulated theories that could probably enlighten our minds of a how certain place, an
archipelago like the Philippines for example, has taken its present shape, size and
topography.

Two major theories explain the origin of the Philippines: Pacific and Asiatic Theory.

Pacific theory contends that a study of the nature of the rocks beneath the ocean and
the volcanic character of the archipelago made Dr. Bailey Willis conclude that the
Philippines was formed through the marginal and peripheral eruptions of the Pacific Basin.
The eruptions of the submarine volcanoes during the remote geologic past and the piling
up of their extrusives caused the emergence of the islands above the sea, giving rise to
the Philippine Archipelago (Salita, 1997).

Asiatic, on the other hand, holds view that the Philippines was once a part of the
continental shelf of Asia. Dr. Leopoldo Faustino (1928) stated that:

The present land areas of the Philippines are merely the higher portions of a partly
submerged mountain mass…The outline of the Archipelago was first marked at the close
of the Paleozoic Era during the Permian Revolution when a movement of the Asiatic land
mass to the south caused the China Sea depression and crumpled the edge of the
continental platform. In other words the Philippine Islands formed the barrier that
separated the waters of the Pacific Ocean from the waters of the present China Sea.

The present landforms of the Philippines have come about through the complex
process of diastrophism, vulcanism and gradation. These landforms are very much
interrelated with the origin of the Archipelago itself. The occurrence of tectonic
earthquake is an effect of diastrophism. The formation of elongated mountains such as
the Sierra Madre and the Cordillera is caused by diastrophism while the conical peaks are
the result of vulcanism. Mt. Apo, Mayon Volcano and Kanlaon Volcano are examples of
volcanic mountains. The erosion of the highlands and the consequent deposition of the
sediments at the oceanic basin comprise the process of gradation. It is gradation that
generally causes the formation of minor landforms, such as rivers, valleys, lakes, deltas, hills,
rapids, and falls. The deltas formed by Pasig River and Pampanga River as they enter
Manila Bay are the results of gradation process (Salita, 1997).

The location of Philippines on the western margin of the Pacific Ocean, which is
comparatively unstable segment of the earth’s crust, may help explain the pattern of
landform development. The entire margin of the Pacific Basin from Japan to Taiwan,
Philippines, Indonesia, and New Zealand owes much of its development to the action of
the forces of folding, faulting, and volcanic activity. Geologists call this region as the “girdle
of fire” or “ring of fire” because it is a region of frequent volcanic activity (Salita, 1997).

The geologic processes aforementioned resulted to the Philippines as an inverted Y-

shaped archipelago consisting of more than 7,000 islands and islets. These islands are
commonly grouped into three major divisions namely: Luzon; Visayas; and Mindanao. Its
land surface is crisscrossed by mountains and drained by small river systems.

The combined land and water areas of the Philippines are about 1,800,000 km 2 of which
the water areas comprise about five times the land area. The total land area of the
Philippines, excluding Sabah, is 300,000 km2 or 30,000,000 hectares. It is about the size of
Italy, slightly larger than the size of United Kingdom, but slightly smaller than Japan. (Salita,
1997)

*Boundaries: Being an archipelago, Philippines is bounded by bodies of water: Bashi

Channel on the North; Pacific Ocean on the East; South China Sea on the West; and,
Celebes Sea on the South.

*Mountain Ranges: Caraballo del Sur (has its peak at the intersection of the boundaries of
Abra,
Ilocos Norte, and Cagayan); Caraballos Occidentales (divide into Cordillera Norte and
Cordillera Central); Seirra Madre (a.k.a. the Pacific coast range); Zambales Range (follows
the China Sea from Cape Bolinao to the coast of Bataan); Tagaytay Range (passes
through Cavite and Batangas, and with Mt. Makiling, form the mountain system of the
Southern Tagalog region); Mindoro Range (begins at Mt. Halcon); Negros Mountain
Range (dividing Negros into two); Panay Range (separates Antique from Iloilo, Capiz, and
Aklan); Surigao Range (follows the contours of the Pacific coast); Butuan Range (forms
the watershed of the Agusan River and Pulangui River); Central Western Range ( Mt. Apo
is its highest peak); and the Western Range (extending from Iligan Bay to the shore of
Basilan Strait).

*River Systems: Cagayan River (drains the Cagayan Valley); Agno River (drains Benguet
and the Valleys of Nueva Ecija, Pangasinan and Tarlac; Abra River system (drains Bontoc,
Lepanto, and Abra); Pampanga river (drains Nueva Ecija, Pampanga, and Bulacan); Rio
Grande de Mindanao (largest river system in the Philippines); and Agusan River system
(drains the basin of Surigao).
*Volcanoes: Iraya (Batanes); Taal (Batangas); Banahaw (Quezon); Mayon(Albay);
HibokHibok(Camiguin Island); Makaturing (Lanao); Apo (Davao); Pinatubo (Zambales).
Of these volcanoes, Taal and Mayon are the most active for these have erupted for more
than thirty times. In 1991, Pinatubo erupted and since then, it has continued to destroy
the agricultural and commercial lands of the Central Plain of Luzon.

*Natural Resources: Forests produce timber for domestic and international use. The arable
land produces rice, corn, root crops, coconut, fruits and vegetables for the local and
international market. Mining, which is one of the basic industries, produces minerals worth
millions of pesos.
The seas and rivers are abundant with various kinds of fish, which are also of export quality.
Recently, oil deposits have been discovered but the sites remain to be undeveloped.

B. THE PEOPLE

The story of man in the Philippine islands that took place before writing was used to
record events is about 1500 times longer than the historic period. The larger part of the
story of man (of a Filipino), his culture, the manner with which he obtained his daily needs,
his beliefs and values, how he progressed through time from the earliest periods, the
changes that he and his manner of living underwent as he met with other peoples not only
of these islands but the larger region of Southeast Asia and the rest of Asia and the Pacific,
lies far beyond living memory and therefore difficult to recall or even to imagine (Peralta,
2002)

The Filipino is a mixture of races. For many centuries, Philippines has been the “melting
pot of cultures”, and that the frequent cross-cultural relations between the early Filipino
with his Oriental brothers and with the Westerners made him the more sophisticated. In his
veins runs the blood of a Negrito, Malay, Indonesian, Indian, Spaniard, American, Chinese,
Japanese, etc. Thus, it is difficult to define a genuine “Filipino”, yet we have to enumerate
some traits common to most, if not all Filipinos, regardless of language, ethnic group, or
region in order to point out what is Filipino from what is European or American.

*Common Traits

1. Hospitality. Of course peoples of other nations have their own way of being
hospitable, but the Filipino hospitality is something worth noting. The Filipino will offer
the “bests” he has to anyone (stranger or kin) who arrives at his doorstep, even to
the extent of settling for the second best. He wants everyone to feel welcomed,
comfortable, and honored even if his family would worry about the next meal, or
that a visitation would mean an additional burden to their debt in the sari-sari store.

2. Respect for elders. Parents, Grandparents, “Panglakayen” (old men),

“Manong” (elder brother), and “Manang” (elder sister) of the Filipino family and
community deserve much respect. These elders decide for the young, initiate the
young to adulthood, and their wisdom are much sought for.
Among the common ways of showing respect to the elders are: “pagmamano” (kissing
of the hands); the use of the words “po” and “opo”; addressing the older brother or sister
“Kuya” or “Ate”; giving due recognition to the elders of the community during feasts or
celebrations; offering one’s seat to the elderly in a crowded place, or in an overloaded
PUJ or bus; obeying the rules and decisions of the parents unquestionably.

3. Close Family Ties. Just like many other Asians, the family is foremost among
other things in the society. Among the Filipinos, the “extended family” is common.
Typically, it is composed of grandparents, parents, and children living in one roof.

Endogamy (marrying within one’s clan) is observed in many regions of the country. Even
at present, this clannish attitude has not disappeared. One reason for such is the idea of
preserving the family’s wealth and prestige, or of strengthening kinship. It is also observed
that when members of a family get married, they are expected to reside, either with their
parents, or near their parents and relatives.

An extension of this trait is regionalism. A Filipino feels secured if he is with his “kailyan”,
“katribo”, or “kababayan” (town mate/countrymen). This breeds discrimination among
the Filipinos themselves. In big universities, for example, students organize themselves
according to place of origin. Thus, we hear about “Samahang Ilocandia”, “Samahang
Bisaya”.

4. Fatalistic. Filipinos believe that whoever they are and whoever they will be is
the dictate of fate. This is commonly known as “Bahala Na” attitude, which is loosely
translated as “come what may”. At times when one is confronted with a dilemma
and he couldn’t arrive at a specific solution or decision, he would resign his fortune
to fate and just utter, “Bahala na”. Phrases like: “Sinuwerte siya” (He was lucky),
“Gasat na ti bummaknang” (He is fortunate to get rich), “Kakambal niya ang malas”
(Misfortune has always been his companion), “Nai-anak ka nga pobre, matay ka
nga pobre” (Once you’re born poor, you will die poor), and many others, are all
manifestations of fatalism.

5. Loyalty. The Filipino’s idea of loyalty is an unending support for a friend or for
somebody who has rendered him help for to a Filipino friendship is sacred. Even the
little favor you gave will be remembered for life. This kind of loyalty is exemplified by
the phrase, “utang na loob” (sense of gratitude).

This act of Filipino loyalty is associated with his “pakikisama” attitude — a sense of
camaraderie, justice, honesty, and spirit of comradeship. It could also extend to the so-
called “bayanihan” and “pakikiramay” attitudes —a sense of mutual help and sympathy
for others’ predicament.

6. Tendency to be indolent. This is the predisposition to not to exert much effort

in work. Jose Rizal explained some of the reasons behind such attitude: (a) warm
climate; and (b) abundant natural resources. Added to these is due to close family
ties. A Filipino is assured that his family and relatives would always be there to “feed”
him when he has nothing to eat.
This indolence, with no doubt, is the main reason why a Filipino lacks initiative. A student,
for example, is satisfied with a grade of “3” or “75” no matter how hard the teacher would
encourage him to exert more effort. And in another instance, indolence could be the
reason why Filipinos are so dependent on the government. Once government officials are
elected into office, they are expected to provide every “need and want” of their
subordinates. Finally, indolence may be the main culprit behind the proliferation of
“istambays” (stand bye).

The aforementioned common traits are just a partial list of the many attitudes of an
average Filipino, although they might give the reader a glimpse of who a Filipino is in
general (take note though that there are exceptions to generalizations).

*Regional Traits

It is also best to identify the common attitudes of each of the major regions of the
Philippines in order to understand the cultural diversity (different cultural traits) among the
country’s peoples.

1. Igorots (Cordillera Region). These people, as described by Spaniards are

generally very agile, bold, well-built, and feared by their neighboring tribes (Scott).
Just like the Muslims, the Igorots were not conquered by the Spaniards. Moreover,
the Ifugao rice terraces are a living legacy, which shows the engineering skill of these
mountain people.

2. Ilocanos/Samtoy (Ilocos Region). The Ilocanos are frugal, industrious, hardy,

patient, and adventurous mainly because of the natural environment they are in.
The steep mountains and turbulent sea bounding their land limit economic
opportunities. We would then expect that they would be frugal and would go out of
their region for “greener pastures”.

3. Tagalog (Tagalog Region). The Tagalog is a born lover, poet and musician,
is strongly attached to his family and kin, and “feels superior” over other Filipinos (esp.
Manilenos). The latter description is due to the fact that the Manila is the center of
cultural and commercial life, the heart of the region.

4. Bicolano (Bicol Region). The Bicolano is known for his even temper and
religiosity. He is also fond of spicy food. The Bicolano is said to be calm and seldom
shows his rudeness. The religiosity of the Bicolanos is somewhat justified by the
numerous priests that hail from the region.

5. Bisaya (Visayas Region). He is a hedonist—a happy-go-lucky man, and

extravagant. The Visayan is also self-reliant and adventurous. He, too, is a lover and
expresses his emotions through music. It is said that when a Visayan is afflicted with
problems, give him wine and a musical instrument (usually stringed-instrument) and
he would “eat, drink, and be merry” then forgets his troubles.
6. Muslim (Muslim Region). The Muslim is the fiercest lover of freedom, a man of
honor, hardy, and adventurous. His love for his land made him formidable to
subjugate. This is the reason why the Spaniards were not able to conquer the Muslims.
And this makes the Muslim proud. His fierce love of his culture and religion makes it
difficult for him to be integrated into the Philippine body politic. For many centuries,
up to these days, there has been this suspicion of betrayal that the Muslim feels
against his Christian brother.

*Major Filipino Languages. Although the Filipino language is traced from the Malayo-
Polynesian language, it has many variations and that even the Filipinos themselves do not
understand each other. This makes the more the difficult to define what a Filipino is.

The Philippines has more than a hundred languages and dialects. Here are the major
ones: Tagalog (basis of our National Language), Ilocano, Pampango, Pangasinense,
Bicolano, Cebuano, Samarnon, and Magindanao.

____________________
*These are excerpts (with few personal notes) from Agoncillo’s History of the Filipino People,
8th ed., 1990.
Early Filipinos; their environment and culture during the
Stone Ages
In the same Visayan myth, which involved the bird Manaul, it is told that after ending
the fight of Kaplan and Magauayan, the mythical bird flew to a grove of bamboos. As he
was resting, Manaul heard a sad voice asking him to free the beings trapped within the
bamboo. Telling Manaul that if they were liberated, those trapped would help him “keep
peace in your new earth”, the bird pecked at the bamboo until it split in two. Out came
Si-Kalao, the first man; and Si-Kalay, the first woman. Manaul got frightened by the new
creatures; hence, he immediately flew away and never returned (Punongbayan, 1998).

Myths of the origin of the first man and woman in the Philippines have varied versions
depending on what ethnic group’s account is to be heard. Apparently, these stories at
least provide answer to the questions: Who were the first people in the Philippines? How
did they emerge?

The emergence of man has been a battle between the Creationists (contend that God
is the maker of man) and the Evolutionists (contend that man is a product of gradual
transformations from one specie to another, all of which trace their origin from a single
cell). The debate on this matter persists until today. Both creationism and evolutionism
provide answers to how people emerged in this world.

PALEOLITHIC AND NEOLITHIC CULTURES IN THE PHILIPPINES *

The story of man in the Philippines goes back to the Pleistocene Epoch (a.k.a. Ice Age),
which has been dated from 1 to 3 million years. This period was marked by climatic
changes that dramatically re-shaped the earth’s surface. During the height of this cold
period, the level of the surface of the oceans of the world went down. Huge expanses of
land previously covered by water became dry land.

The continental shelf of Asia or the Sunda Shelf was exposed. Land bridges appeared
between the northern Philippines and Taiwan. Mindanao Island was connected to Borneo,
which in turn was connected to Celebes (Lucero, 1998).

It was during this tumultuous period when nature appears to have gone on the
rampage, that man made his first appearance evident.

Cagayan Man. The earliest evidence for the presence of people in the Philippine
archipelago appeared in Cagayan Valley. These were in the form of stone tools found in
the same rock formation as fossils of an extinct elephas (dwarf elephant). These date back
to between 9 to 7 million years or roughly some 750,000 years ago.

Elsewhere in the world as in Indonesia and China the Homo erectus species were dated
to at about this age and older. Later population genetics studies suggested that about
50,000 years ago some Proto-malay populations appeared in the country: the Mamanua
of Lake Mainit; and between 30,000 to 20,000 years ago the Negrito made their
appearance. Evidences point to two streams, one - probably older, is a movement along
the eastern side of the archipelago and going farther north along the coast, while the later
one coming through Borneo and Palawan affected the western side of the Philippines
including Luzon. The Austronesian (from South China) populations of the archipelago
showed their presence between 6,000 to 7,000 years B.C.

The reported presence of fossils of stegodon (an elephant larger than the elephas),
elephas and rhinoceros in Cagayan Valley, Pangasinan, Rizal, Novaliches, Quezon City,
Iloilo,
Zamboanga, and Sulu led to the theory that during the height of the last Ice Age when
the level of the surface of the sea went down, underwater ridges were exposed to
connect these islands to the continent of Asia. And over these land bridges, these large
animals moved in search of food into this area. Later when the ice in the Polar Regions
melted with the resulting rise of the level of the sea, the land bridges became submerged
once more cutting off the connections to the continent and forming the chain of islands
known now as the Philippines.

In Cagayan Valley where fossils of those animals mentioned were found, scientists have
uncovered fragments of stones that appeared to be like those used by ancient men as
tools in other parts of the world, as in Indonesia (Java Man) and China (Peking Man). If
indeed these stone fragments were tools, then this is a proof that man inhabited the
Philippines when such animals above-stated roamed Cagayan. This species is known as
Homo Erectus (erect man). Up to the present, however, no remains of the Cagayan Man
have been found and the only proofs of his presence are the stone tools that he made
and used, and the remains of the animals that he butchered.

It is theorized that the Cagayan Man lived with a small group. Moreover, the Cagayan
men must have lived as foragers—hunter-gatherers—depending largely on wild animals,
clams and fishes, wild fruits and tubers. At this stage, the Cagayan man did not know how
to raise crops for food; however, it is probable that he already had some idea of how
plants grow and increase from observing nature. When he digs out a tuber, for example,
he would notice later that the vine from which he got it would again grow after some time
and produce other tubers. He then helps nature by putting back to the soil the end of the
vine from which he got the tuber for it to grow other tubers again. This is a simple kind of
plant cultivation that must have been practiced by the early peoples to add more to their
food sources. From practices like these after thousands of years would lead at last to the
domestication of different plants and the planting of entire fields with many kinds of crops.

Regarding clothing, it is believed that the Cagayan man’s dress consisted of the
simplest materials obtained from their environment, which could be from plants.

While a group would be occupying one large territory where they move about through
a season. It is probable that they used one place as a more or less permanent home from
which they move about in their daily activities, and to which they return for the night. In
some places the convenient sites would be rock shelters and ledges, or mouths of caves
where it is dry and receive enough light. A rock overhang that can give protection from
the rain and direct sunlight, and near some water sources would be ideal. In places where
there are no caves, living areas are made between buttress roots of large trees with large
leaves for roofing or something similar. The family members of each group would be
settling down near each other. Where ever the living area is made, a water source is
always nearby for this is needed not only for drinking or washing, but water sources are
also places where food can be gathered easily like fish, snails, frogs, tadpoles, crabs,
shrimps, and where other animals go to drink. During certain times of the year when food
resources become available in places farther on, the group may leave their place of living
to other campsites where they spend a few days before again returning to their chosen
home area. This home place is where much of the social activities are held, since the daily
food gathering work is largely family action.

Tabon Man. The earliest evidence of Homo Sapien (modern man) in the Philippines is that
of the Tabon Man of Palawan.
Dr. Robert B. Fox, heading the National Museum team, discovered the human fossil in a
cave in Lipuun Point in the municipality of Quezon, Palawan. The cave was named Tabon
after the large-footed bird that lays eggs in huge holes it digs into cave floors, many of
which have been found in the cave.

The fossil is composed of a skullcap or the frontal skull bone, two fragments of jawbones
and some teeth. The set of fossils suggest that there are at least three individuals. The
skullcap is that of a young individual, probably female.

The layer where the fossils of the Tabon Man were found has been dated to 16,000 years
old, which also gives the age of the fossils. A fossilized tibia has been dated to 47,000 years
old--the oldest Homo sapiens to date, at least, in Southeast Asia.

The Tabon Cave, in fact, was populated by peoples earlier than Tabon Man, since stone
tools were there again to prove this. The deepest soil deposit of the cave was dated to
approximately 50,000 years old, and the youngest to about 10,000 years. This shows that
the cave was used continuously for about 40,000 years by peoples that used the same
kind of tools. The earliest carbon 14 date obtained for the Tabon Cave was about 30,000
years B.C. from charcoal sample, which among others suggest the earliest date for the use
of the fire in the Philippines.
The way the tools were made was exactly the same as those found in the Cagayan
Valley about 700,000 years earlier: the smaller flake tools and the larger pebble-cobble
tools. There was however, one difference. In Cagayan Valley, there were more of the large
kinds of stone tools. In the Tabon Cave, there were less than one percent of the pebble-
cobble tools compared to the flake tools. This has been taken to mean that the larger
number of large stone tools in Cagayan was due to the different needs in that place as
compared to Palawan. In the Tabon Caves, the archeological remains tend to show that
the early peoples here were catching more of small animals, bats and birds that live in the
cave itself, hence there was less need for larger kinds of tools.
Other Stone Age Sites. In Cagayan Valley, archaeological digs continued on the eastern
side in the municipality of Peñablanca. Here many caves were found to contain prehistoric
materials. Among the more important of these was the Laurente Cave. In the second layer
of the cave floor were flaked stone tools, waste flakes, burned and unburned bone
fragments and shells.

The date obtained from the charcoal materials was about 16,000 years B.C. The most
important find here is the proof of the earliest use of fire in Northern Luzon. Another site is
the Musang Cave, which again contained flake tools, shells and animal bones, all of which
were dated to about 11,000 years B.C. Other Old Stone Age sites have been uncovered
in the Philippines showing that early in time, the islands were already peopled. In Central
Philippines, an archeological site in Samar with small stone flake and bone tools was dated
to 10,000 years. Farther south, in the island of Sanga-sanga where there were apparently
scarce stone materials, the shell of the giant clam was used to form flake tools, which have
been dated to about 6,000 years old. This tool tradition continued in use even in later times
and have been found together with pottery, polished stone adzes and other later
materials in many other archeological sites.

At about this time between 11,000 to 7,000 years or a little earlier, the level of the sea
reached the present stage, and new and different culture traits began to appear, showing
changes in the life of the people.
Pottery. One of the markers of the Neolithic period was the first proof that earthenware
was in use early during this age. About 6,000 years B.C. pottery appeared to be already
present in northern and southern Philippines. Evidence of this was found in the Laurente
Cave in the province of Cagayan, and the Sanga-sanga Cave in the Sulu archipelago.
These evidences were further backed up by more Carbon 14 dating showing that by 5,000
years B.C. the making and use of pottery were already widespread all over the Philippines,
including the provinces of Isabela, Palawan and the Masbate.
Pottery during the New Stone Age was quite unique. Each single piece did not have
any copy and was very imaginative and beautiful. The most famous of this early pottery
was the now worldrenown burial jar from the Manunggul Cave of Quezon, Palawan known
as Manunggul Jar. The jar had a bulbous body that tapers down. The shoulder was
decorated with scrolls painted using red iron oxide. Between the scrolls the spaces were
textured with dots. The jar had a rounded cover also decorated with painted red iron oxide
scrolls and dots. On the top of the cover was a boat the bow of which was decorated with
a human face. In the boat towards the rear was a boatman holding a paddle and in front
was another individual with arms crossed across the breast. It was thought that the crown
ornament of the cover showed the soul of the dead being ferried into the next world.

What does this pottery suggest?

From the making to the utilization of pots, processes of life could be gleaned. Firstly, it
implies that the Neolithic Filipinos were familiar with their environment for they knew where
to get the best materials for pottery. They had an idea of land chemistry, including the
land’s minerals and elements. They knew physics, too, for they made effective kilns
(Kasaysayang Bayan).

Secondly, we could infer that the Filipinos were creative. They were able to make plates,
cups, spoons, pans and even large jars. The designs of these pots/jars also suggest the kind
of tools used in the etching, shaping and painting of these artifacts. Thirdly, on the status
of the society, it could be said that there is already specialization of labor and that there
were experts in this field of work (pottery). Moreover, potters could have also been given
due respect and admiration in their community. And fourthly, as to how the pots were
used, we could see a kind of society that is organized—one points to agriculture, for these
jars were used for keeping palay/rice. The second points to religion as implied by the rituals
involved in the use of the jars in burials (Kasaysayang Bayan).
Weaving

Another new activity was also shown by earthen spindle whorls—large beads of clay
placed on the lower part of sticks to serve as counter-weights in the making of thread.
These spindle whorls found in Cagayan Valley suggests the weaving of cloth, in addition
to the earlier use of the polished stone beater in the making of bark cloth. It is probable
that the products of pot-making and weaving were used by the people who made them,
although it is also probable that some of these were also exchanged for some other goods.
Beyond the quest for food, the New Stone Age revealed for the first time an aspect that
shows man’s humanity. The best example of this is Duyong Cave of Palawan. In this site the
earliest intact burial ever discovered in the Philippines was found. With the flexed skeleton
were lime containers made of shell—the first evidence of the betel-chewing complex that
included the use of lime, a social habit widespread in Southeast Asia. Another striking find
with this burial were discs ground from the base of cone shells, some with holes near the
edge while others with the holes in the center of the discs. These were the earliest body
ornaments ever found, showing for the first time in this country, man’s awareness of beauty.
The other forms of ornament during this early time were jade beads dated as early as
about 3,000 years before Christ coming from the Dimolit site near Palanan Bay in Isabela,
which also yielded decorated pottery stone grinders and mortars and more important,
flake tools with the socalled "silica gloss". This gloss on the edge of the stone tools usually
suggested use in the reaping of plants—again probable proof of plant cultivation by man.
There were also ornaments like ear pendants made from fired clay with the surfaces
decorated with lines.

All these items recovered from burials also suggest that the early peoples of these islands
have a set of beliefs and values that guide different aspects of daily living. Much of
knowledge about these beliefs comes from the way they treated their dead. There are a
number of ways they bury the dead as: with the body flexed and placed directly into the
ground; buried first in the ground or left until only the bones remained and then placed in
burial jars. Also in later times the remains were burned and the bones placed in small pots
inside caves. It is likely that many more other practices existed in different places, but the
above alone shows that there are different ways people treated the dead depending on
the culture of the place. It indicates that not just one culture existed in the islands but many,
and many variations of each one.

The way they treated their dead also gives an idea of their belief in an after-life. The
flexed skeleton uncovered in the Duyong Cave in Palawan was found together with
polished quadrangular adzes made of stone and adzes made from the hinge of the giant
clam, shell disc ornament and a bivalve containing lime used in betel-nut chewing,
among others. In the other end of the island, in the Arku Cave of Peñablanca, Cagayan,
buried with the human remains were pottery, jade earrings, spindle whorls, bone tools, bark
cloth beater and others. These show that there was a widespread practice of putting
things used in daily life with the dead, probably the personal belongings of the person.
Considering that these things during those times must have been valuable, these would
not have been left buried unless there is a greater need for them by the dead rather than
by the living. The practice suggests a deep belief in life after death, and the burying of
grave goods was for the purpose of providing the loved one with things to use in the after-
life.

There are a number of other ideas that can be learned from the grave goods. One of
these is that by this time there were already differences in the number and quality of the
material belongings of people. This can only mean that in producing daily needs some
households were able to make more than what they could consume. This surplus could
then be exchanged with other things that they themselves did not produce like pottery,
ornaments, tools and the like. It can be surmised that apart from food exchanges there
now existed trade that has to do with nonfood goods, some which are wanted for their
beauty and the prestige that these bring. From the nature of some of the goods, it was
clear that some of these traveled long distance even over large bodies of water, as the
beads made of semi-precious stones like jade, onyx and jasper.

Trade of this kind is added proof that people by this time lived in more or less permanent
places using structures that are largely man-made. Traces of two structures dating to this
period were found in Dimolit, Isabela. Portions of two other structures were also found. The
forms were suggested by the presence of round postholes in two rows forming a more or
less square enclosure with a gap in the north wall suggesting the entrance. The area within
the enclosure was littered with potsherds and flakes, and the soil was compact. Each of
the structure had the remains of fireplace in the southwestern corner. The living area is the
ground level itself. The age of one of the structure was between 1,220 to 3,390 years before
Christ, the earliest evidence for a man-made structure in this country.

The difference between the culture of the previous age (Paleolithic) and the life in the
New Stone Age is that whereas man was before only a food procurer, that is, he only
gathers food from nature, now he has become a producer. He achieved this great leap
by the simple fact that he learned how to domesticate plants and animals as food bases.
And more visible proofs of this became clear during this period. The process took a long
time—hundreds and even thousands of years. It begun, perhaps, from the early "incipient"
kind of plant domestication by replanting the vine from which a tuber has been taken. It
is also probable that the seeds of edible plants were dispersed by man himself about the
areas where he lived when he eats these, thus helping in the growth of these plants.

* THE APPEARANCE OF METAL

While things of the New Stone Age were unearthed like the polished stone tools, pottery
pieces, shell and some stone ornaments, new things begun to appear. In the northern
Philippines a suggestion of what could be the oldest sign of metal in this country appeared
in the Musang Cave in Cagayan. This was a brass needle tenuously dated about 2000 B.C.
In Palawan bronze tools, glass beads and bracelets and gold beads were dug up in the
Duyong, Uyaw and Guri Caves. Duyong Cave is dated between 300 to 500 B.C. while Guri
between 100 to 200 years
B.C. Uyaw Cave contained jar burials with bronze adzes and spears, and was as old as the
Duyong Cave. By this time the use of metals is already widespread in the old world and
mainland of Asia. But its first appearance in these islands marked the beginning of a new
set of changes that again altered the life ways of the people and made the pace of life
much faster than the previous ones.
The earliest metals to appear were gold, bronze, brass and copper in the form of
ornamental beads, and tools like adzes and spearheads. There were, however, very few
of these, thus suggesting that these metals were not mined but rather, were brought in
through the movement of peoples or via trade.

The first solid evidence for the presence of iron tools in this country was found in Palawan
and dated about 190 B.C.

Iron made possible many changes in the culture of peoples of the islands and made
the rate of change even faster. That tools made of iron could retain a sharp cutting age
longer made these more effective and efficient than tools made of stone. Stone tools lose
the sharpness of working edges even after a single use and need to be reground to be of
use again. Metal tools, especially iron, on the other hand can be used over and over
before being re-honed. Another advantage is that iron can be shaped to whatever useful
form is needed so that it can be adapted for a very wide range of tool needs. Within a
few hundred years, iron tools begun to be more and more common in archeological sites
all over the country. With its spread far-reaching changes took place in the life ways of
people. One of the most effective uses of the iron blade is in the clearing of forests for the
cultivation of food plants. Whereas stone tools are not very efficient in cutting down trees,
metal tools do not have this limitation. On top of this metal tools can reduce the time
required for clearing and in making wider areas available for cultivation.

_________________________
* These are excerpts from the work of Dr. Jesus T. Peralta of the National Commission for
Culture and the Arts. Complete text of these topics could be accessed at the NCCA
website.
EARLY PHILIPPINE CULTURE *
Philippines, before the conquest, was a nation of flourishing civilization. The inhabitants’
culture had the elements of a civilized society: organized policies and laws; an elaborate
system of writing and language; religion; independent governmental units (barangays);
markets/trading posts; and weapons, tools, and utensils necessary for existence.

By the first century A.D., Philippines shared with its Southeast Asian neighbors a
Neolithicbased culture which consisted of the following elements: (1) materially, kaingin
(swidden) farming, domestication of ox and buffalo, use of metals and navigational skills;
(2) socially, respect for elders and constituted authority, and the importance of women;
(3) religiously, animism, anito worship, ancestor worship, jar burial; and, (4) culturally, some
music and dance patterns, and tattooing (batik painting)(Evangelista, 2002).

The contact between Philippines and the so-called Great Civilizations of Asia (India,
China and Islamic Arabia) contributed much to the development of the culture of the
former.

PHILIPPINES AND THE GREAT CULTURAL TRADITIONS OF ASIA

Indianization of Southeast Asia

The entry and proliferation of Indian tradition in Southeast Asia resulted to the
Indianization of the region, giving birth to Hindu and/or Buddhist kingdoms like those in
Funan, Champa, SriVijaya, Majapahit, among others. These states recognized “divine
rulers”. Interestingly; however,
Philippines was spared from such development. This is because our country was bypassed
by
Indian traders who exclusively traded with Burma, the Malay Peninsula, Thailand, Indo-
China Peninsula and China as the terminal of Indian products. Indianized Southeast Asians
then brought Indian influences to the Philippines at a later date (Evangelista, 2002).

An example would be the Orang Dampuans (men of Champa), which, according to

Sulu tradition, between 900 A.D. and 1200, these immigrants from the Indianized kingdom
of Champa (in Indochina) traded with the Buranons of Sulu (Zaide, 1999).

*Some Indian Influences

1. Sanskrit terms in the Tagalog language [e.g. ina, asawa (swamin), likha (lekha),
balita(vartta), katha, ahas (ahi), hari, ganda, mana]
2. In clothing, the waist loom of the Igorots resemble the looms, cloth and color
schemes woven by the women of Assam, India; Barong Tagalog had the same cut
as that of the
“Kutra” of Lucknow, India; use of cord and veil in marriage ceremonies
3. Among the natives of Sulu, there was the adoration of Vedic deities like Indra (sky
god), Agni (fire god), and Surya (sun god) (Zaide, 1999)
4. Fables of Indian origin like: the monkey and the turtle; and, the Visayan anecdote
of the hawk and the hen (Zaide, 1999)

*Relations with China

During the reign of the Sung (960-1127 A.D.) and Ming (1368-1644 A.D.) dynasties in
China,
Chinese traders established settlements along coastal towns and in the hinterlands of the
archipelago. Hence, there was a continuous flow of goods from the port of Canton to the
different trading ports in Lingayen Gulf, Masbate, Manila Bay, Mindoro, and Sulu in the
Philippines.

Filipinos bartered their products, such as yellow wax, gold, hemp, cotton, betel nut,
tortoise shells, and pearls, for the Chinese goods—silk, porcelain wares, iron, tin, bronze
gongs, umbrellas and fans (Zaide, 1999.).

Clearly, Filipino-Chinese relations were more economic in nature than political. China’s
political influence (Confucian system of government) to Southeast Asia was limited to
Vietnam due to the conquest of the said country from 111-939 A.D. Moreover, Chinese
traders had low social status in Chinese society and therefore could not be bearers of
Confucian political ideas (Evangelista, 2002).

*Some Chinese Influences

1. In language, particularly Tagalog, there is a good number of loaned words (e.g.

ate (a-chi), katay (ka-tai), hukbo (hok-bo), pansit (pansit), sangla (sangle), lumpiya
(lun-pia), kuya (ko-a)
2. Use of umbrella, porcelain, gongs, lead,
3. Wearing of white dress when mourning
4. Manufacture of gunpowder
5. Mining methods and Metallurgy
6. Parental-arrangement (in marriage)

Islamization of the Philippines

When Islam was making its presence strong and appealing in Southeast Asia, the region
was already Indianized, but later, Indianized states would be confined in mainland
Southeast Asia, while Islam would eventually overrun Island Southeast Asia.

The coming of Islam in our country in the 13 th century is so much related with the spread
of
Islam in Southeast Asia and it had lasting effects on its island world. From Sumatra, Islam
went to
Malacca, and from there, to the coastal areas of the Indonesian islands, and finally to
southern Philippines. From Sulu, it spread to other parts of Mindanao, then to Visayas and
Luzon (Evangelista, 2002).
Although there are various theories as to how Southeast Asia (Philippines included) was
Islamized, traditional accounts mention the arrival of Arab teachers called Makhdumins
(singularMakhdum) in Sulu, which, after sometime, would convert the natives of the island
into Islam. This religion was later on strengthened by Rajah Baguinda Ali of Sumatra when
he arrived at the end of the 14 th century. By the middle of the 15 th century, Serif Abu Bakr
from Palembang founded the sultanate of Sulu. In time, conversion of the Sulu archipelago
was completed (Evangelista, 2002).

Tradition claims that a number of serifs went to Mindanao and islamized the island, but
it is Serif Muhammad Kabungsuan who is credited for the large-scale conversions in
Cotabato and Lanao. He would later establish his own sultanate in Mindanao (Evangelista,
2002).

A. POLITICAL LIFE: GOVERNMENT AND LAWS

Knowledge about the life in the Philippines in pre-Hispanic times is based largely on the
“contact chronicles”—accounts written by Pigafetta (Magellan’s chronicler, 1521), Loarca
(1582),
Plasencia (1589), Chirino (1604), Morga (1609), Colin (1660), and Alcina (1688), including
the author of the Boxer Codex (late 16 th century). These were ethnographic notes by
nature. Historical accounts were later penned by Pigafetta and other chroniclers of post-
Magellan expeditions (Patanñe, 1996).

If the idea “no document—no history” is all that is to be considered true, then ancient
oral traditions and archaeological proofs of pre-Hispanic Philippines are useless. But this is
not the case. Scientific archaeological diggings that bear artifacts (vis-à-vis European and
Chinese writings) are gradually piecing together early Philippine history.

Barangay. Barangay or Balangay (a Malay term meaning “boat”) was the pre-Hispanic
government of the Filipinos. Barangays were independent small units of ethnic
communities. Barangays were run according to kinship relations (Evangelista, 2002). It was
made up of 30 to 100 families that lived and worked together under a chieftain called
“Datu”.

These small communities, the Spaniards noted, were often at odds with each other,
except those groups with whom they had performed the blood compact (Rodriguez,
1998). *Interbaranganic relations were established for the carrying on of socio-economic
activities. Treaties of friendship and alliance were concluded through the blood compact
known as “Sandugo”(one blood)—contracting parties drew blood from their arms and
mixed it with wine in a cup. Both datus drank from the same cup, thereby making them
blood brothers.

The chieftain, probably the most important personality in a barangay, is called by varied
titles.
In Central Luzon, there is the so-called gat (ginoo in Tagalog), which is similar to the pangat
of Cordillera. In Visayas and in Mindanao, they have the dato and tuan, which is
associated to a respected elder of the community. There is also the title raja as noted by
Spaniards in 1565 in Manila (Kasaysayang Bayan). There is also the term lakan (prince),
which denotes being heir to the chieftainship. In Islamized Maguindanao, the ruler is called
Sultan.

The Datu

The datu was regarded high authority in the barangay. His responsibilities included the
duty to govern and lead the people in battle, to defend the barangay against enemies,
to enact ordinances against wrongdoings, and to settle disputes among followers. He
exercised full authority over his group, although he could delegate his powers to a council
of elders headed by the community elder. In return, the datu demanded respect, a share
in the harvest and hunt, and service (Rodriguez, 1998).

Chieftainship was commonly by inheritance; however, among the Visayans, one could
become a datu by exhibiting skill, daring, prowess in battle, or by accumulating wealth in
the form of fighting men and slaves. Thus, slaves could also rise and become leaders
(Rodriguez, 1998).

The Sultan

The Sultans of Mindanao deserve much elucidation to have a better understanding of

a ruler’s power and duties.

Centralization of political power in the hands of a sultan is the essence of an Islamic

state. Relevant to this is the role the sultan played in terms of controlling territorial claims.
His concept of “domains” dictates his authority over lands, seas, rivers and all other
territories that the sound of his gongs could reach. In Sulu, a council of prominent datus
and influential elders called roma bichara serves as adviser to the sultan in matters
pertaining to politics and religion (Kasaysayang Bayan).

Among the Visayans, as mentioned, selection of datu is loose, but not in Sultanates.
There are five criteria in the election of a sultan (Kasaysayang Bayan):

1. bangsawan (royal blood). A Datu could become a sultan based on blood ties. He
should come from a lineage of sultans. Women could not become sultans due to their
alleged weakness and they are not also allowed to enter mosques, nor lead public
prayers.

2. kamagulangan (right age). A sultan is the oldest among the datus in a sultanate.

3. ilmawan (has proficient knowledge of the shariah and adat). A sultan should be
familiar with the shariah or Islam laws and the adat or customary laws. He too should be
knowledgeable in foreign languages like Arabic and Malay. He should also project
himself as an able statesman, wise judge, and efficient in diplomatic ties.

4. altawan (wealth). This should be measured based on his properties, scope of

territorial jurisdiction, and palaces.
5. rupawan (personality). He should possess a strong personality, moral ascendancy,
and good manners.

*LAWS

Laws were either customary or written. Customary Laws were handed down orally from
generation to generation. Written laws were those that the chieftain and his council of
elders promulgated from time to time when necessary. Written laws were recorded
(Examples of these are the laws of the Koran/Quran and the fabled Code of Kalantiyaw).

Laws dealt with: inheritance, divorce, usury, partnership, crime and punishment,
property rights, family relations, adoption, and loans.

Laws were made through the initiative of the datu and with the approval of the elders.
After a law has been enacted, a public announcer called “Omalohokan” goes around
the barangay to announce the new law. It was the responsibility of every member of the
barangay to know about the new law.

*Judicial Process and Trial by Ordeal.

Disputes were settled through a “court”, with the Datu as the “Judge” and the accuser
disputed their case by presenting their witnesses. It was the duty of the datu and the elders
to determine which of the disputants is sincere in his arguments. Usually, the number of
witnesses determined the winner of a dispute.

The Trial by Ordeal is a series of tests used to determine the guilt or innocence of
accused criminals. The process involved the following:

a. A stone is placed in a vessel with boiling water. The suspects dipped their
hands, and the man with the most scald was adjudged the guilty one.
b. Giving of lighted candles to the suspects. The man whose candle died out
first was considered guilty.
c. Plunging into the river. He who came to the surface first was the guilty one.
Many drowned in the process since nobody of the accused wanted to be
pinpointed as the criminal.
d. Chewing of uncooked rice. He who had the thickest saliva spewed was
considered guilty.

B. ECONOMIC LIFE: AGRICULTURE, INDUSTRIES, AND TRADE

Anywhere in the archipelago, production based on natural resources was the main
source of livelihood among the early Filipinos. The physical environment influenced also
traditions, beliefs, norms, rituals, and social relations. Generally, the socio-economic life of
the early Filipinos revolved around three ecological niches (Kasaysayang Bayan):
1. Sea-based Societies. For those living along coastal areas, the sea was of
prime importance for every day activity. For the Badjaos of Sulu, for example, their
familiarity with the directions of the wind was vital when they sail to the open seas.
The sea provided almost everything—food and medicine—necessary for survival.

In the Visayas region, W.H. Scott (1994), in his study of the 16 th century barangay, noted:

…The Visayan spent much of his time in the water with his boat for it was his only means
of transportation… Nobody lived beyond 40 kilometers from the seashore. Orientation was
focused not on the sun’s movement but on the sea’s current. A farmer from the island of
Batayan would sail towards Cebu to plant rice in that island; the miners from Camarines
would cross the sea going to Masbate; that is why the young learned his community’s
tradition by listening to the sound made by the sea as he paddled.

2. Societies along the Plains. People thriving in plains had a favorable position
in trade. Things from and beyond the seas—Chinese porcelain and metal products,
gongs, salt, and woven cloth—were primarily the products that the people of the
plains traded with those coming from the mountains. These communities took
advantage of their geographical location, that is, their proximity to the sea, to
market routes, and their access to foreign goods and other markets.

Anybody was allowed to plant anywhere for vacant lots were wide enough for
everybody. Millet and bananas were the common plants. Sago (lumbia) and gabi (taro)
were like grasses that grew everywhere. Rice fields were commonly located at the foot of
mountains.

3. Mountain-based Societies. The people of the mountains were engaged in

extensive rice farming. The people of the Cordilleras [e.g., I-Benguet, Ifugaos,
Bontoks] are noted for their rice terraces. Productivity was increased by the use of
irrigation ditches. Some were also into mining. Mountain people traded forest
products and precious metals (gold and copper) with the commodities of the
lowlanders or people of the plains.

Boat-building Industry

Boat-building was a flourishing industry in the Philippines before the conquest. The
process of building ships proves that the early Filipinos were highly knowledgeable of the
different kinds of wood suitable for boats. Sailing was a pre-Hispanic knowledge that
paved the way for political and economic relations with other nations (Kasaysayang
Bayan).

Apparently, boats did not only foster inter-island trade (domestic), but more
importantly, international trade and travel. One missionary noted that the boats were
constructed without nails. In Catanduanes, the boat-builders first made a huge boat, and
inside it would be a small boat and in that small boat would be a smaller one, and so on.
A huge boat would at least contain 10-12 smaller ones. These boats were sold in Leyte,
Batangas and Mindoro (Rodriguez, 1998).
Indigenous vessels were carved out of single tree-trunk, and some of the bigger ones
had seats or benches. There were many types of boats that the early Filipinos used: the
balanghai—a slender, with narrow stern and prow, light and low-lying, held together with
wooden bolts. It had tick bamboo outriggers to hold the boat atop the surface of the
water, adding to its speed and balance; the caracoa—was sleek, double-ended, and
could go forward or backward without turning around. Double outriggers for fighters
allowed faster maneuvering (Rodriguez, 1998).

There was the paraw , which was usually used in rivers and bays for trading. It had two
paddles and a triangular sail. A paraw was used to transport loads from ships to the
seashore. It was also used to escort caracoa during the conduct of pangangayaw (sea
raids)(Kasaysayang Bayan).

The other industries of pre-Hispanic Philippines included: pottery, weaving, mining,

lumbering, livestock raising, wine-making, and fishing. Barter (exchange of goods to
goods) was the prevailing economic system domestically and internationally.

Although early Spanish chroniclers reported that the natives had no knowledge of
money, this is otherwise disputed by local numismatists due to the hoards of piloncitos that
have been unearthed in various parts of the country. The piloncito is a small gold piece
no larger than a pea, shaped like a rounded cone, with a character stamped in relief at
the base. The Philippine piloncitos are almost identical to those documented as the
recognized coinage in Java as early as the 10 th or 11th century, and those of Thailand
during the Sri-Vijayan period. This, being the case, would then point out that pilocito is the
earliest coinage used in the Philippines (Legarda, 1998).

C. SOCIO-CULTURAL LIFE: CUSTOMS AND PRACTICES*

1. Social Classes

Maginoo (Nobles/Noblemen). This class was composed of the Datu and his family. It
should be noted that the datu was not a king, but much of a leader, a mediator in disputes,
and was responsible for the welfare of the people within his jurisdiction.

Timawa/Maharlika(Freemen). They were the warriors, merchants, craftsmen, and slaves

who won their freedom. The timawa owned his own land, had his own followers but was
also bound to serve the datu. The Tagalog maharlika rendered military service to the datu
at his own expense and shared with his leader the spoils of war. This class disappeared
sometime in the 1630’s when the Spaniards were able to unite diverse kinship groups
(Rodriguez, 1998).

Alipin (Slaves/Dependents). These were captives of war, those unable to pay their
debts, all illegitimate children; those purchased, and punished criminals. In the Visayas, an
alipin was called oripun.
1. Aliping Namamahay (householder)---had his own family, little house and lot,
and served the master during planting and harvesting season or in the
construction of houses

2. Aliping Sagigilid (hearth slave)---those who are living with the master, had no
property, and could not marry without the master’s consent. The sagigilid,;
however, could buy his freedom in gold. By the 1700’s, one could rise to the
timawa class by paying 90 pesos.

WOMEN: Women, for the early Filipinos, were the equals of men for they were highly
respected, could own properties, and could become chieftains in the absence of male
heirs. They too, had the exclusive right to give names to their children. The women of
Catanduanes, the Spaniards wrote, were skilled in fishing and raising crops like their men
(see The Pre-Colonial Filipina by Mary John Mananzan).

A Priestly Caste

Early Filipinos had a hereditary priestly class of twelve ranks. The highest was called
Katalonan, or Babaylan in the Visayas. The mankokolam was of a lower rank. The native
priests/priestesses were feared because they were believed to have the power to inflict
diseases. There was the aswang who killed humans and feasted on their flesh. The bayogin
was a male transvestite with natural powers, and belonged to the lowest rank (Rodriguez,
1998). In the Cordilleras, these shamans were called by various names with various abilities
and functions.
Among the Ibalois of Benguet, there is the mambonong; the Ifugaos have the mumbaki;
the Kankana-eys have the mansip-ok.

The social stratification of the early Filipino society was not as rigid as that of the Caste
System of India. Those with lower status could rise to the highest status and vice versa.

2. Clothing and Ornaments*

Male Attire: [Upper]—males wore a sleeveless jacket called “Kangan”; datus and nobles
wore a red kangan, while the commoners wore blue or black jackets. Males also wore a
headgear called “putong” (turban)—a piece of cloth wrapped around the head; a red
putong indicated that the user killed a man in war, while an embroidered putong
indicated that the user killed at least seven. [Lower]—males wore a g-string called
“bahag”—a strip of cloth wrapped about the waist, passing down between the ties

Female Attire: [Upper]—females wore a jacket with sleeves called “baro” or “camisa”.
[Lower]—females wore a loose skirt called “saya” or “patadyong”; a piece of red, white
or embroidered cloth called “tapis” was usually wrapped around the waist

The early Filipinos did not wear shoes or slippers. They walked about barefooted. They
also adorned themselves “heavily”. Both men and women burdened themselves with such
trappings as armlets (kalumbiga), pendants, bracelets, gold rings, earrings, and leg-lets.
The teeth were adorned with gold or silver fillings. Tattooing was also practiced. Both males
and females tattooed their face and bodies. Tattoo was not only for beautification
purposes. Among the males, it signified war records. The Spaniards called the tattooed
males of the Visayas region “Pintados”.

3. Writing, Literature,* and Time Keeping

The early Filipinos had a syllabary called “baybayin”, which was probably of Sanskrit or
Arabic origin. It consisted of seventeen symbols, three vowels (A, E or I, and O or U) and
fourteen consonants (B, K, D, G, H, L, M, N, NG, P, S, T, W, Y).

Communities along rivers and coasts were the most literate among these early Filipinos.
These communities were trading centers. Writing was probably used to record business
transactions. Later, the scripts were used to record folktales, poetry, songs, and other
literary compositions (Salcedo, 1998). They wrote with a metal stylus on bamboo strips or
banana leaves, from top to bottom, and left to right.

Archaeologist found three surviving artifacts bearing ancient scripts: the Calatagan
earthenware pot (found in Batangas); the Butuan silver paleograph; and the Laguna
copper plate. Two contemporary groups—the Tagbanua in Palawan and the Mangyan in
Mindoro—have
retained their traditional writing. Of the three scripts, it is only the Laguna copper plate that
has been deciphered so far. The plate bares “the Saka year 822; the month of April-May,
the 4th day of the dark half of the moon; Monday” (Salcedo, 1998).

The ancients wrote on bark of trees, on leaves and on bamboo using their knives,
pointed sticks or iron as pens, and the colored sap of trees as ink.

Ancient Filipino literature may be classified into floating or oral literature and written or
recorded literature. This literature was composed of maxims, riddles, war songs, wedding
songs, lullabies, chants, drama, epics, myths and legends, folktales. Usually, songs are
accompanied by dances and acting. (See “History of the Filipino People” by Teodoro
Agoncillo).

The early Filipinos were a highly musical people. Their forms of music and dance were
mostly connected to sacrificial or ritual offerings. Spanish missionaries marveled at the
musical skill of the people who, they reported, “conversed through their music” (Rodriguez,
1998).

Time Keeping: The Agricultural Calendar of the Ifugaos (Kasaysayang Bayan)

The Ifugaos’ agricultural calendar divides the teon (year) into 13 months; each month
having
28 algo (days). A month is divided into four weeks: Lanup, Nakayang, Nuntamung, and
Langad. These four weeks correspond to the four phases of the moon.

Month Agricultural Activity

Period
1. Tungo Luah Rest and Cañao
2. Manaba Ahilamun Clearing of the field
3. Dawe Ahiloba Weeding of the rice field
4. Dato
5. Okal Ahidaluh More weeding
6. Amaduyong Ahipatang Planting
7. Keleng Ahibalin Plowing
Ahibuluh Putting of fertilizer
8. Litong Ahilawang Last stage of plowing, fixing
of irrigation and
9. Bisbis Luah transplanting
Ahi-ago-o Rest
Ahi-uma Weeding
10. Luya Ahitanum Clearing of the Kaingin
Ahiloba Burning of the Kaingin
Planting of camote
11. Upu Ahibuhbuh Clearing of the payoh
12. Lodo Holdang Appearing of palay
13. Bakako Ahitulu Ripening of palay
Reaping

A teon started with one-day tungo (rest), which was established based on the position
of the stars and of the sun. The teon ended with a harvest.

To keep track of the day’s time, one day was divided into 12 periods (hours):
nuntalnamo (first crowing of the rooster); nawnawiit (first light); napatal (dawn); nabigat
(sunrise); naay-at (morning); narvod (noon); nayob (afternoon); himbatangan (dusk);
nahilip (sunset); nahdom (evening); limnabi (before midnight); and kimumipi (midnight).

4. Marriage Custom*
The ancient Filipinos had variations in their marriage practices, but in order to have a
specific example, we shall discuss one.

The Stages of Marriage

1. Courtship (Panliligaw/Arem). It took patience on the part of the man to win

the hand of his lady. He was required to serve the lady’s family for a period of time
(weeks or months) by chopping wood, fetching water, and did chores required of
him.

2. Engagement/Betrothal (Pamumulungan/Pamamalae). If the lady’s parents

are satisfied with the man’s performance, the betrothal process follows. The parents
of the man or a gobetween would go to the lady’s home and make arrangements
with the bride-to-be’s family about the marriage celebration.

Several conditions are required before the marriage can prosper. The following are to
be given as gifts, payments, or manifestation of love to the lady’s family.
a. Bigay-Kaya (dowry)—consisting of land, gold, or dependents, and or other
valuable things such as animals and other properties
b. Panghimuyat—a certain amount of money (gold/silver) as payment for the
nocturnal effort of the mother in rearing the lady during her infancy
c. Bigay-Suso—a bribe given to the girl’s wet nurse who fed the bride during her
infancy with the milk of her own breast
d. Himaraw—sum of money given as reimbursement for the amount spent in
feeding the girl during her infancy
e. Sambon—among the Zambals, this was a bribe given to the relatives of the
lady.

3. Marriage Proper (Kasal). Before the ceremony, another set of gifts was given
to the lady and her parents. The marriage ceremony was administered by an old
priestess. She took the hand of the couple, and joined them over a plate of uncooked
rice. With a shout, she threw the uncooked rice to the guests and the latter responded
with a loud shout, thus the ceremony was over.

Among the rich, the marriage celebration was elaborate for it involved dancing,
singing, chanting, and drinking wine for a number of days and nights. Butchering of animals
(pigs, carabaos, cows, goats) was seemingly “endless”.

5. Spiritual and Superstitious Beliefs*

a. Belief in life after death. The ancients believed in the immortality of the soul. The burial
practices of those periods show that Filipinos respect their dead. The dead is buried with
clothing, gold, and other valuable things. And due to the belief that the souls of the dead
constantly relate with the living, the ancient Filipinos butchered animals and offered food
to these souls.

Mummification

Mummification has its roots in Egypt. Ancient Egyptians believed that the dead needed
its earthly body in the afterlife. For this reason, they perfected the art of embalming
believing that preserving the body would also reunite the human personality—the soul,
intelligence, heart, and spirit—for all eternity (Salcedo, 1998).

In Kabayan, Benguet, a municipality dominated by an ethnic group called Ibalois,

mummification was practiced. These Ibalois of Northern Philippines are regarded as the
only minority group in the Philippines and in Southeast Asia that has ever practiced the art
of mummification (Salcedo, 1998). It is also surprising and interesting to note that, so far, in
the whole world, there are only two groups of people who arrange their mummies in fetal
position: the Ibalois of Kabayan and a group of natives in South America (based on a
Discovery Channel program).

b. Belief in Deities and Spirits. The ancient Filipinos were polytheists for they
believed in many gods and goddesses who controlled their lives. Examples are:
Bathala—the greatest god and the creator of heaven and earth; Idiyanale—the
god of agriculture; Mandarangan—the fire god; Siginarugan—god of hell, etc.

Aside from these deities, they believed in other spirits called “Anitos” or “Diwatas” who
were either benevolent or malevolent. The people appeased them so that they would
bring good fortune and heal the sick members of the society. This spirits are offered
sacrifices in the form food, wine, pigs, and gold.

The ancient Filipinos practiced a form of spirit and nature worship. This is known as
“Animism”.

c. Divination and Magic Charms. The ancients were very superstitious for they
put very much stock in divination, auguries, and magic charms. They interpreted
signs in nature, such as, flight of birds, howling of dogs, striking of thunder and
lightning.

They give meaning to unusual occurrences like when a spoon or fork falls while eating,
a visitor would arrive; when a snake enters the house, an accident may happen; when a
black cat or bird crosses you path, danger is in your way so you better not continue your
journey.

Magic charms and amulets (anting-anting or agimat) were believed to save one’s life
from danger. Those who had these were believed to possess extra-ordinary power and
could easily attract beautiful women (gayuma).

These beliefs existed even during the Spanish and American Periods, and they are still
persistent today. Many of these traditional and pagan practices have survived side by side
with Christianity. Catholicism in our country is sometimes called “Folk Catholicism” and not
“Roman Catholicism” because it is a mixture of Christian and pagan beliefs.

________________
* These are excerpts from Agoncillo’s The History of the Filipino People, 8thed., 1990.
The Pre-Colonial Filipina (an excerpt)
By Mary John Mananzan The married woman not only shared in
Kasaysayan, vol. 2., 1998 earning the family livelihood; because of
innate managerial sagacity, she often
The Filipina has a valuable heritage: the had the key role in the family’s economic
memory of her egalitarian status in stability.
precolonial Philippines. In most aspects of
life, pre-colonial women enjoyed the She could engage in agriculture and
same privileges, rights, and opportunities, trade with the Chinese merchants in her
as did men. own right.
In fact, because of their proven reliability
When she was married, a dowry would in fulfilling contracts, the women’s
be given her family by the groom as signatures were required to make them
compensation for her loss. The groom valid.
would give presents to her parents and
relatives, and then render bride service for Oral pre-colonial history provides
a probationary period. After marriage, evidence of women’s political power. The
the woman did not lose her name. Among legendary first lawgiver was a woman,
the Tagalogs, if she was especially Lubluban, whose rules concerning rituals,
distinguished due to family connections or inheritance and property were observed
personal merits, her husband usually took from one generation to another. Princess
her name. Urduja of Pangasinan was beautiful,
courageous, knowledgeable about Asian
In pre-colonial society, virginity was not culture and language, and skilled in
a value; and children were treated the weaponry. Queen Sima is reported to
same way, not overprotecting females have ruled Cotabato in the seventh
nor allowing males more freedom. century in a regime of integrity, honesty,
Daughters grew up as active as sons; work and peace.
training was for both, and inheritance was
divided equally among legitimate Primogeniture was strictly observed,
children. Unwed mothers did not lose face and when a tribal chief died, the first child,
or the chance for a good marriage; they male or female, succeeded to the role.
were considered to have proved their Women had the right to be pact holders.
capacity for motherhood. The law of
custom, however, punished promiscuity Women had a special role in religious
and prostitution. life. Every important event—birth,
wedding, death, planting, harvesting—
Wives were remarkably equal to their was celebrated with a ritual, and the main
husbands. Wives were treated as celebrant was the babaylan, usually a
companions, not slaves or property. The priestess, who was also a healer and
property each of the couple brought to midwife, and a religious practitioner with
marriage remained his or her own. Divorce charisma or special training to contact the
entailed the return of the bride price by spirit world. Women were chief mourners
her family if she was at fault, while the man for the dead, dressing the corpse and
lost his rights to the woman. Property preparing the grave. They performed
acquired after marriage was split equally, ritual dances and songs, offered
and in some cases fines were imposed on sacrifices, performed wedding
the guilty party. ceremonies.
Spaniards had high praises for the
“greater intellectual superiority of the
Indian woman to the Indian man, of
whatever class or social condition,” she
being “more serious and formal partner in
making contracts.

When the Spaniards came in 1521 they

were shocked by the freedom manifested
by the Filipina, which did not fit into their
concept of how women should be and
behave.

Truly, the Filipina woman deserves

much respect and honor.
THE FILIPINO COMMUNITIES AND THE SPANISH
COLONIAL SYSTEM
The coming of the Spaniards*

A result of the Renaissance (rebirth of learning) is the so-called Industrial Revolution. This
revolution was a shift from manual labor to machine work. Europeans competed for the
accumulation of raw materials, land and territories in order to enliven their fast growing
industries. Thus, the Age of Voyages and Explorations was born.

Propelled by “Gospel”, “Gold”, and “Glory”, and supported by improved technology—

maps, ships, navigational tools, gunpowder and weapons—the Two Great European
powers, Spain and Portugal, embarked for a stiff competition of amassing great wealth
and fortune for the sake of power and glory.

The rivalry in Exploration between the Two Iberian superpowers resulted to a conflict.
Both countries fought over territories each claimed to be hers. Thus, in the Treaty of
Tordesillas (1494), a demarcation line was drawn—an imaginary line running from the North
Pole to the South across the Atlantic Ocean. The Eastern Hemisphere was given to the
Portuguese, while the Western Hemisphere was awarded to the Spaniards.

THE SEARCH FOR SPICES*

When spices (from Asia) were first introduced by the merchants of Italy to Europe, the
people became fond of them and later on craved for such spices. Maluku (Mollucas),
islands in Southeast Asia and dubbed as the “Spice Islands” (for much of the much-sought
spices were available in this place), became popular in Europe. Prior to the rivalry
between Spain and Portugal, the Europeans visited this island and other Asian lands (with
spices). However, the establishment of the demarcation line banned the Spaniards from
using the East routes going to the Spice Island, thus Spain had to find another route to
reach the East. There were no other options but the West.

MAGELLAN EXPEDITION (1518-1521)*

Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese served as a soldier and was able to see the East
(Asia) in 1505 and in 1511 (fall of Malacca). His original suggestion of reaching Maluku
(Moluccas) via the West route was rejected by the Portuguese king.

Magellan sought the help of Charles V of Spain so he could fulfill his dream—to sail to
the Spice Islands via the West route. Thus, in 1519, he embarked on his voyage on board
five outmoded ships with a crew of 235 men. He sailed around the Southern tip of South
America passing through the Strait of Magellan (named after Magellan successfully
passed through the narrow passage), across the Pacific Ocean. Magellan finally reached
Philippines on March 16, 1521 (actual date is March 17, 1521).
In the Battle of Mactan (April, 1521), Magellan and his army were defeated by the
warriors of Lapu-Lapu, the island’s datu. The death of Magellan resulted to the retreat of
his surviving armies. Aboard the “Victoria” (smallest ship of the five), the Spaniards went
back to Spain under the command of Juan Sebastian del Cano.

IMPORTANCE OF MAGELLAN’S EXPEDITION

1. It proved that the world is round not flat, as many believed in.
2. It established that Pacific Ocean was larger than the Atlantic Ocean.
3. It inspired more expeditions and discoveries around the Globe.

After the voyage of Magellan, Spain sent several expeditions to colonize the Philippines
but these attempts failed except one. Some of these expeditions were those that started
from Mexico:

a. Saavedra Expedition (1527-29)

b. Villalobos Expedition (1542-1546)
c. Legazpi Expedition (1564)

Alvaro Saavedra Ceron reached the Philippines (Surigao in Mindanao) in 1528. During
his stay, he performed blood-brotherhood ceremonies with the Filipinos. Two months later,
Saavedra left for Timor. Loaded with spices, Florida, Saavedra’s ship attempted to return
to Spain but failed due to strong winds, which kept pushing them back. Saavedra died of
fever and his ship never returned to Spain. The remaining crew decided to surrender to the
Portuguese (Fabella, 1998).

Ruy Lopez de Villalobos was instructed by the Spanish crown to proceed to the
Philippines and send back samples of Eastern products as well as reports describing local
customs, religion, methods of warfare, and the local manner of life. In 1543, Villalobos
reached Baganga Bay in eastern Mindanao. Saddled with hunger, the fleet searched for
food in other islands. Again, like Saavedra, Villalobos proceeded to Timor and concluded
agreements with the Portuguese so he and his fleet could stay. Later, in 1546, he decided
to leave but fell sick and died (Fabella, 1998).

The naming of Tandaya/Kandaya (Leyte) as “Las Phelipinas” in honor of then crowned-

prince Philip II of Spain (later King Philip) is credited to Villalobos (although it was his men
who gave the name as they reached the island scouring for food). Later the whole
archipelago was named Philippines.

The Legazpi Expedition (Miguel Lopez de Legazpi) embarked twenty-two years since
Villalobos set sail for Philippines. On February 13, 1565, Legaspi reached Samar. He
engaged in blood compact with the datus Si Katuna and Si Gala at Bohol. In April 1565,
Legaspi established the first Spanish Settlement on Philippine soil at Cebu. It was named
“Ciudad del Santisimo Nombre de Jesus”.

In 1570, Legazpi sent an expedition headed by Martin de Goiti to conquer Maynilad

(Manila), which at that time was ruled by Raja Sulayman. Goiti defeated Sulayman’s
warriors after a hard fight. In 1571, Legazpi decided to colonize Manila. As he approached
Manila, Lakan Dula, last king of Tondo, paddled out to Manila Bay and welcomed the
invaders. Hence, Legazpi landed in Manila without a bloody fight. Later on June 24, 1571,
Legazpi proclaimed Manila as the capital of the Philippines (Fabella, 1998).

THE COLONIAL ADMINISTRATION*

Spain’s style or strategy in conquering the Filipinos was different from the way the
Portuguese, English and Dutch conquered other Southeast Asian nations. It was deliberate
in the Spaniard’s mind that he needed to change the natives’ personhood and way of
life. It was a must for the Spaniard to share with the native a “civilized life”. The Spaniard’s
mission was to “save” the natives’ soul from their traditional beliefs; hence, missionaries
were sent throughout the archipelago. For the Spaniard, to become “civilized” meant to
stay in a pueblo (town) under the control of the Spanish king, and be a Christian. This was
possible by way of the Reduccion or resettlement (Kasaysayang Bayan).
Reduccion was no doubt a difficult but successful tactic of taming and Christianizing
the “wild” natives. Under this system, the Spaniards established the plaza complex—a
settlement with the Church as its center, and surrounded by the settlers’ homes. The
Spaniards gathered the
“scattered” natives and forced them to settle in these colonially organized communities
as Christian converts and “little brown Spaniards”. Unbelieving natives who rejected
Spanish domination went to the mountains and were sternly branded as tulisanes
(bandits). [See reader: The Colonial Townscape]

Ultimately, in these colonial pueblos where Filipinos were resettled, the Spaniards
introduced their god, food, games, celebrations, businesses and politics.

I. POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS
The government of the Philippines under Spain was hierarchical in set-up. The pattern
was adopted by the present government.

A. Central Government: Governor-General

B. Alcadia: Alcalde Mayor (Governor)
Corregimiento: Corregidor
C. Pueblo/Municipio: Gobernadorcillo (Mayor) Villa: Cabildo (City Council)
D. Barangay: Cabeza de Barangay (Barangay Captain)

THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL. The chief executive of the Philippines during Spanish times was
the governor-general who was also known as the captain-general. As chief executive, he
enforced royal decrees from Spain. He was the commander-in-chief of the Army. Until
1861, he was the president (chief justice) of the Real Audencia (Supreme Court). As the
king’s representative in the colony, he served as Vice-Real Patron, who had power over
ecclesiastical appointments in the Church, which include the power to recommend
priests. He exercised the power of a monarch and was the source of civil power for the
local government

THE ALCALDE MAYOR. He was considered the most corrupt official for having the privilege,
indulto de commercio (abolished in 1844), which gave him the monopoly of commerce in
his province.
Filipinos (Indios) were given the chance to be a part of the government but to a limited
extent. The highest government position a Filipino could attain was Gobernadorcillo. The
gobernadorcillo was elected by the outgoing gobernadorcillo and by members of the
principalia (land-owners, educated and prominent citizens of the town).

The ROYAL AUDIENCIA. This was the Supreme Court. It tried all criminal and civil cases
appealed by the lower courts. It also performed executive and legislative functions. Some
of the laws promulgated by the Royal Audiencia were those restricting Chinese
immigration, fixing of prices of commodities and enforcing rules ordering people to comply
with religious duties.

The RESIDENCIA. It was the judicial review of a recidenciado (one judged) conducted at
the end of his term of office, supervised publicly by a juez de residencia. Punishments for
erring officials were: heavy fines, sequestration of properties, and imprisonment.

The VISITA. It was conducted by a visitador-general sent from Spain and occurred any time
within the official’s term, without notice. Wrongdoers were either fined, dismissed form
office, or expelled form the colony.
UNION OF THE CHURCH AND THE STATE

The Colonial Administration shared the power of governance with the Church. The
church meddled with governmental functions and this led to the supremacy of the Church
over the Government. Such kind of government was called FRAILOCRACY (government
of the friars).

Both the Church and the Colonial Government aired their grievances to the king of
Spain regarding each other’s abuses and misconduct, but more often than not, the
Church was given much favor and consideration. This was due to the Church’s
unquestioned and great contributions to the Mother country’s colonial objectives.

Tomas de Comyn wrote: “Of little avail would have been the valor and constancy with
which Legazpi and his worthy companions overcame the native of the island, if the
apostolic seal of the missionaries had not seconded their exertions, and aided to
consolidate the enterprise. The latter were the real conquerors; they who without any other
arms but their virtues, gain over the goodwill of the islanders.”

Not only did the Church control politics, it also controlled education, and was active in
economic matters (i.e., the religious orders owned the best estates in the Philippines).

II. ECONOMIC INSTITUTIONS*

A. TAXATION

The Buwis (Tribute) may be paid in cash or in kind, partly or wholly, as palay or tobacco,
chickens, textiles. In 1570, tribute was fixed at eight reales (one peso) or in kind (gold,
blankets, cotton, rice) then it continued to increase until the end of the Spanish period. In
1884, the tribute was replaced by the cedula personal (equivalent to the residence tax)
The Samboangan, a special tax of ½ real or rice was collected to be used by soldiers in
crushing the Moro raids.

The Vinta and Falua (similar to the samboangan) were collected to shield coastal areas
of Bulacan, Pampanga and the Bicol Region.

The Bandala, an annual enforced sale or requisitioning of goods (particularly rice) was
collected from farmers.

The Cedula Personal or personal identity paper was required to be paid by everyone
over eighteen years of age.

The Tithes extracted by the Church were an additional burden to the taxes collected by
the government.

B. POLO [FORCED LABOR]

Filipinos or Chinese mestizos aged 16-60 were drafted and were obligated to give
personal service to community projects, like construction and repair of infrastructure,
church construction, or cutting of logs, for forty days (until 1884, when it was reduced to 15
days).
If one opted to be exempted from the polo, he had to pay the FALLA (half real per day).
Although good in intention, the polo negatively affected agriculture because the
working days coincided with the planting and harvesting seasons. It also contributed to
deforestation and decimation of the male population (because many were compelled to
work in the mountains, thus leaving their families behind).
C. ENCOMIENDAS: ROYAL AND PRIVATE
Encomienda (from the word, “encomendar”, meaning, “to entrust”) was another
revenuegetting measure of the colonial government. It was a grant from Spain to a
meritorious Spaniard to exercise control over a specific place including its inhabitants.
The Encomendero was duty-bound to defend his encomienda and its inhabitants, and
to assist in the mission to Christianize its inhabitants. In return, he had the right to impose
tribute in his jurisdiction.
2 TYPES OF ENCOMIENDA
1. Royal/Crown: lands reserved for the crown and included the principal towns
and ports.
2. Private: granted to individuals who have rendered meritorious performance
to the Spanish crown.
D. GALLEON TRADE [MANILA-ACAPULCO TRADE]
Through the galleon trade (derived from the name of the ships used to transport goods
from one country to another), American-Asian commerce flourished, but only a very few
privileged Spaniards were benefited.
Chinese migrants and mestizos were lured to establish their shops and businesses
because of the galleon trade and not for long they were able to control retail and small
credit business. And as for the rest of the Filipinos, they remained to be poor. [See Chinese
and Chinese Mestizos]
Filipino polistas were compelled to cut wood and construct galleon ships for the Spanish
traders. Worst, agriculture and cottage industries further retarded for logging and
construction of ships coincided with planting and harvesting.
Nevertheless, the galleon trade resulted to intercultural exchanges between the
Filipinos and the Americans.
E. ROYAL ECONOMIC SOCIETY OF FRIENDS OF THE COUNTRY AND THE PHILIPPINE ROYAL
COMPANY
Governor-general Jose de Basco y Vargas formed a society of learned and competent
persons capable of producing useful ideas, thus the “RESoFotC”, which was composed of
businessmen.

The society monopolized the tobacco, coconut, and liquor industries. The so-called
“enlightened despot” gave incentives to those who produced products of good quality.
The society earned significant credits and recognition for its accomplishments during its
existence.

Some achievements of the RESoFotC:

1. granted agricultural training and scholarships

2. introduced the mynah birds (martinez) to combat migratory locusts
3. implemented the Carabao ban in 1782 to conserve the said animal
4. constructed the first paper mill in the Philippines in 1825

The PRC (Philippine Royal Company) was created by Charles III for the main purpose of
uniting American and Asian commerce.

It was granted exclusive monopoly of transporting/shipping Chinese and Indian goods

to the Philippines and to Spain.

Some achievements of the PRC:

1. cotton production and weaving

2. cultivation of black pepper
3. propagation of silk and sugar

Despite the agricultural and business development in the country that the RESoFotC
and PRC introduced, many Filipinos were dissatisfied and angered because they received
minimal benefits from these developments.

III. SOCIAL TRANSFORMATIONS**

1. CHRISTIANITY: Spain’s Greatest Legacy.

The Christianization (Roman Catholic) of the Filipinos was really the most outstanding
achievement of the Spanish missionaries. And as a result of the missionaries’ apostolic
labors, the Filipino people have become uniquely the only Christian nation in the entire
Asian world. (See reader on “Isang Pagbibigay Saysay sa Pamana ng Simbahang Pilipino
[Katoliko]”)
2. DIET & DRESS: (See reader on The Colonial Filipinas)

The Spaniards introduced new food plants such as wheat, corn, potatoes, cacao,
coffee, cabbages, papaya, chicos, and guavas. Other foods were beef, mutton,
longaniza, jamon, and sardines. During the Spanish times, Filipinos learned to eat canned
goods from Europe; have learned to use spoons, forks, drinking glasses, table knives, and
napkins; and to drink foreign wine.

Women adorned themselves with jewelry; wore slippers, shoes, stockings, hair combs,
handkerchief, like the women of Spain.

Trousers, barong tagalog, camisa chino, hats were widely used by males.

3. SPANISH SURNAMES FOR FILIPINOS:

By virtue of the decree implemented by Governor-General Claveria, Filipino names

were Hispanized. Upon their conversion to Christianity, the Filipinos were given Spanish
names such as Juan, Pedro, Maria, Cecilia, and surnames such as Gomez, Reyes, Torres,
Santos, etc. However, there were Filipinos who still used their native names (e.g.
Magsaysay, Kalaw, Sumulong)

4. LATIN ALPHABET & SPANISH TONGUE:

Referring to the Filipinos, Fr. Pedro Chirino, Jesuit missionary and historian wrote in 1604:
“They [Filipinos] have learned our language and its pronunciation, and write it even better
than we do, for they are so clever and they learn anything with great ease”.

Although Spanish didn’t become our national language, it has enriched our national
language called Pilipino. There are 5,000 Spanish loan-words in our national tongue.

With the Latin alphabet, language, and other ideas, the Filipinos were linked closer to
the Western world

5. EDUCATION:

The Spaniards introduced the European system of education in the Philippines. They
established the first parochial schools, with Spanish missionaries as teachers. Filipino
children were taught the Catholic doctrine, the three R’s (reading, ‘riting, and ‘rithmethic),
music, and various arts and trades.

Colleges, which later, became universities, were also established. Examples of these
are: University of Sto.Tomas, Ateneo de Manila, San Juan de Letran, etc. Schools and
nunnery for women were also introduced.
School for boys were separated from that of the girls. Courses such as Law, Medicine,
Engineering were limited only to males. Females were given special education in the
colegio (regular schools for girls) and in the beaterio (combined school and nunnery).

With the introduction of the first printing press in Manila by means of the xylographic
method— using engraved wood blocks, books and newspapers were widely used in
schools (e.g. Doctrina Cristiana en Lengua Espanola y Tagala (1593), Del Superior
Govierno—first newpaper).

Literature, music, architecture, painting, sculpture and the sciences were also enriched
with European influences.

6. GAMES, AMUSEMENTS & CELEBRATIONS:

Fiestas, Church weddings, Birthday parties, Cockfighting, Horse Races, Lottery and other
amusements were widely practiced during the Spanish period. These activities led to the
emergence of a Filipino culture so enriched, but many Filipinos gradually and eventually
forgot their traditions and cultural heritage from their forefathers.

7. *DEVELOPMENT OF INFRASTRUCTURE, TELECOMMUNICATIONS AND PUBLIC

UTILITIES:

A. Ferrocaril de Manila: the only railway line in the archipelago, which was
constructed using mainly Filipino labor. By 1892, five street car service lines
connected the primate city with the suburbs with horse-drawn cars
B. Puente Colgante (Quezon bridge): the first suspension bridge in the Far East
C. Telephone began functioning since 1890, servicing initially 170 clients (Manila
only)
D. Public Lighting System: used with coconut oil as fuel (1814). By 1893, the walled city
(Intramuros) and suburbs were already powered by electricity, with the founding of the La
Electricista de Manila
8. *SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

A. Peninsulares: Spaniards born in Spain whose prerogative was to rule or

govern
B. Insulares: Spaniards born in the Philippines. Also known as Creoles. The
Peninsulares called the Insulares “Filipinos” to show their contempt for the latter.
C. Mestizos: Spanish and Chinese mestizos who became leader in finance and
education. They imitated the Creoles and regarded themselves superior over the
brown Filipinos (indios). Chinese mestizos were regarded higher than natives.
D. Indios: natives of the Philippines (born of native parents). In 1898, the Indios
were called Filipinos by Governor-General Basilio Agustin in order to elicit loyalty
from them.

____________________
*These are excerpts from Agoncillo’s History of the Filipino People, 8thed., 1990
** These are excerpts from Zaide’s Philippines: A Unique Nation, 1994
THE COLONIAL TOWNSCAPE
An excerpt, Rene B. Javellana, S.J.
Kasaysayan, 1998, Volume Three

The rational planning of a townscape was introduced by Spanish colonizers to the

Philippines. Many Philippine towns founded during the colonial era were laid put following
the principles expounded in Philip II’s Ordenanzas generales de descubrimiento y nueva
poblacion of 1573. Philip II did not invent his set of laws but rather codified existing laws on
urbanization dating from 1521 to 1571.

The ordinances stated that a fitting site was to be secured for settlements in the New
World— and later, by extension, to all lands colonized by Spain. In general, the site had to
be near a body of water for easy transport of people and material. Note had to be taken
of prevailing winds. The site was to be apportioned in an orderly way, so that persons of
rank were given pride of place.

An empty space was to be set aside for a plaza mayor and for a church, and other
public buildings and streets laid out in an orderly manner, to form a grid with the plaza as
the focal point. The plaza mayor was to be “a quadrilateral, one and a half times longer
than it is wide,” and not “less than 200 feet wide and 300 long, but not more than 800 feet
long and 532 wide… a plaza 600 feet long and 400 wide must be considered of
appropriate and good proportions.”

In maritime communities, the church could not front the plaza mayor, since this spot
was for the town hall, the customs house, and the arsenal. In hilly places, the church was
placed on top of a hill, and the town below it.

…There was no plan more rational than one that came straight out of geometry: the
grid, in which lines are neatly parallel or perpendicular to each other and intersect at right
angles, as can be clearly seen in old maps of Intramuros.

Plazas were open spaces that functioned literally as breathing spaces, where the
people could commune with nature, meet one another, and enjoy theatrical and musical
spectacles against the backdrop of the town’s most impressive architectural works,
namely the church and other public buildings. Vigan, Ilocos Sur is an example of Philippine
town with the grid patter.

Many coastal towns were threatened by enemies, and so the townspeople fortified the
area around the church or particular sections of the town. Areas outside the fortified area
often deteriorated, and the town plan was not strictly followed.

The rational ordering of space can be contrasted with a more traditional and
indigenous organization, which we can call “organic”. Sama (Badjao) villages of stilt
houses built on water do not seem to be arranged following a set pattern. Instead houses
are built randomly and connected by flimsy bamboo bridges. Shanty towns in many urban
centers do not follow a strict geometric pattern, either. Houses fill every available space.
Pathways are narrow and winding; some loop back where they came from and others
reach dead ends. The principle of organization here, if not dictated by terrain, is often
kinship. Relatives or town mates build houses close to each other. When a son gets married
the family might add an extra room or extension to the house. Hence, the term organic.

The fundamental legacy of colonial architecture, therefore, was to impose a rationally

planned pattern on space. This is pivotal for the subsequent development of architecture,
because space is one of its fundamental elements.

THE CHINESE & CHINESE MESTIZOS The mestizo was considered a native
OF SPANISH TIMES subject of Spain with the same
entitlement as the indios to participate in
The Chinese have figured so local government. On the other hand, the
prominently in Chinese were perceived as foreigners
Philippine economic and social history although they were given their own self-
that the Philippines today would have governing organizations called gremios
been very different without their whose heads nominated the
contributions. Skillful trader rather than gobernadorcillo de chino but were
conquering soldiers, the Chinese have forbidden to govern the indio towns. Also,
managed to survive and to prosper unlike the mestizo, the Chinese had no
where the Spanish did not. right to change his residence. Chinese
were taxed twice the amount required of
Spanish attitudes toward the Chinese the Filipinos and had to pay other taxes as
in the Philippines had always been well.
ambivalent, reflected in attempts to
convert them and eventually to assimilate The Chinese mestizo imbibed a mixture
them into Philippine colonial society on of Chinese, Spanish, and indio cultures,
the one hand, and in the series of speaking the local language as well as
massacres and mass expulsions from the the Spanish. The Christianiazed mestizo
colony on the other. These Chinese who sometimes dropped is Chinese name
faced all odds were able to survive and altogether and used his baptismal one.
were gradually amalgamated in the He wore the camisa de chino and also a
Filipino society, thus came the Chinese top hat, which was the status symbol of
mestizos. the indigenous principalia. Some mestizos
tried to be more Hispanized that the
The Chinese meztizos gained the Filipijos and distinguished themselves in
importance they had never enjoyed the political and economic life of the
before. In 1810, there were about 120, 000 towns that became known as “mestizo
Chinese mestizos in the Philippines. Almost towns”. Most of the mestizos in Manila
one-third of them resided in Tondo where were retail traders and artisans who
they made up 15 percent of the local gradually took over the occupations
populace. Others were resided in previously held only by the Chinese, such
Bataan, Cavite, Bulacan and Pampanga. as the manufacture of carriages, stone
These were the places that had rapidly masonry, printing, shoemaking, and
adapted to an agricultural export tailoring. One the other hand, the Chinese
economy and were most exposed to dominated the wholesaling of imports
external influence. and exports in the China trade.
Outside Manila the Chinese mestizos
were retailers and landholders. With the
expulsion of the Chinese in the mid-18th
century, the mestizos profited a lot from ____________________________________
buying the agricultural produce REFERENCE: Diokno, M.S.I. and R.N.
wholesale and selling it in Manila. The Villegas. 1998. “Life in the Colony.”
mestizos were able to acquire land from KASAYSAYAN: The Story of the Filipino
peasants who defaulted on loans, thus People. Vol. 4. Philippines: Asia Publishing
ensuring their status as new agricultural Company Limited. (This is an excerpt of
landowners. the original text)

From the 1830’s onward, Chinese PAMANA NG SIMBAHANG [KATOLIKO]

immigration to the Philippines expanded. PILIPINO
In 1839, they were given the freedom to Excerpt from the paper presented by Jose
practice their own occupations wherever Rhommel
they lived, provided they had travel B. Hernandez, O.P. during the 4th National
permits. In 1850, the Chinese who settled BAKAS
in the frontier or worked on other Seminar at Colegio de San Juan de
agricultural land were awarded tax Letran,
incentives so as to promote the Intramuros, Manila [April 19, 2006]
production of cash crops. In 1859, a strict
policy on immigration by the colonial
government encouraged the Chinese to Ang Pamana [referring to the title] ay
settle in the Philippines. Obviously, Spain tumutukoy sa Kalinangan o Kultura na
needed this enterprising community to bunuo ng Simbahang Katoliko mula sa
develop the economy. Thus, the Chinese pagdaong nito sa Sangkapuluan Pilipinas
community in the Philippines grew hanggang sa kasalukuyan. Maaaring
steadily, reaching a peak of 66, 000 – 90, tumutukoy din ito sa partikular na
000 in the 1870’s and 1880’s. More than 90 kalinangang maipamamana pa ng
percent preferred to stay in Manila and its Simbahang Pilipino sa Pilipinas at sa
environs, after which more and more buong daigdig niyang kinabibilangan.
moved to the provinces. The places that
attracted the Chinese were the cash Ang Pamanang Pangkaisipan ng
crops regions, such as the sugar provinces Simbahan
in Panay and Negros Occidental, the
tobacco-producing areas in Cagayan Ang mga pilipinong nadatnan dito ng
and Isabela, and the abaccagrowing mga Español ay isang liping may
provinces of Albay, Leyte, and Samar. pananampalataya. Samakatuwid,
Wherever an opportunity for trade dalawang malalakas na kultura ang
presented itself, Chinese traders nagbanggaan. Bunga nito, makikitang
immediately responded. In general, the mayroong pagpapatutuloy at
Chinese took on his traditional function as pagbabago sa dalawang kulturang ito.
trader, supplier, local distributor, and Maaaring nagpatuloy ang taal na
artisan. pananampalataya ng mga Pilipino
subalit napalitan naman ito ng mga
Clearly, the Chinese had a very simbolong Español. Maaari ding
important impact in the development of ngapatuloy ang mga simbolong taal na
the colony, which up to these days is Pilipino subalit napalitan naman ng
apparently felt and seen. kahulugang Esañol-Kristyano.
ng mga Pilipino sa sianuna niyang
Kung gayon, ang makikitang pananampalataya at
pagpapahayag ng pananampalataya pananampalatayang Katoliko Kristyano.
ng mga Pilipino ay dapat Makita na bilanf Nakakatagpo din ito ng ekspresyon sa
produkto ng kanyang pag-angkin at iba’t-ibang ritwal at mga simbolong
pag-aayon ng pananampalatayang kinikilala natin lamang sa kasalukuyan
Kristyano Katoliko base sa sarili niyang bilang Katoliko.
pagsusumikap na unawain ito. Hindi ito
dapat tingnan na kasiraan sa Pangunahin sa mga makikita nating
pananampalatayang Katoliko kundi simbolo ng pananampalatayang
isang pagpapayaman pa nga sa Katoliko ang mga Simbahan. Sa
mayaman nang kasaysayan at kultura sinaunang pamayanan, ang salitang
nito. Simbahan ay ginagamit para tukuyin ang
bahay ng datu kung saan isinasagawa
Pagpapatuloy at Pagbabago ang mga ritwal na pinangungunahan ng
isang Babaylan. Minabuti ng mga
Di nalalayo ang taal na Español at mga Pilipinong tawagin na ring
pananampalatayang Pilipino sa Simbahan ang gusaling ginagamit na
pananampalatayang dala ng Español sa lokasyon para sa pagdiriwang ng mga
larangang ng simbolismo. Sa larangang Katoliko Kristyanong ritwal tulad ng misa
ito, maaaring tukuyin ang igtingan sa at iba pang sakramento. Kung tutuusin,
pagitan ng anito-santo, ang pagtawag ng mga Español sa
agimatsakramental, at fraile-babaylan. gusaling ito bilang Simbahan ay
Sa larangang ng mga konsepto, nakalikha ng isang pagkalito sa panig ng
maaaring tukuyin ang mga pagdiriwang mga Pilipino. Bakit nakatira ang babaylan
ng kapistahan, loob, kapatawaran, sa isang bahay ng datu? Datu rin ba ang
pagmamahal at iba pa. babaylang ito? At kung anu-ano pang
posibleng katanungan.
Mahirap masabi na sa pagpapatuloy
at pagbabagong naganap ay naging Gayunman, natutong tanggapin ng
dominante lamang ang isang kultura sa maga Pilipino ang ganitong sitwasyon.
ibabaw ng isa. Kung tutuusin, tila higit pa Minabuti rin nilang paglagyan ang mga
ngang dominante ang taal na sinaunang bahay ng datu/babaylan na ito ng
pananampalatayang Pilipino. kanilang mayayamang simbolo. Mga
Gayunman, higit na ligtas kung santo, ang simbolo ng Bathalang araw at
sasabihing may maselang pagbabalanse maging ng kanilang mga paghihirap sa
ang mga Pilipino sa pagitan ng kanilang ilalim ng sapilitang paggawa ng mga ito.
sinaunang pananampalataya at
pananampalatayang minana sa mga Ang mga simbahan, samakatuwid, ay
Español. isang simbolo hindi lamang ng
pananampalatayang Katoliko Kristyano
Ang Pamanang Materyal ng Simbahan sa Pilipinas, kundi simbolo rin ng mismong
mga Pilipino na nagsisikap na angkinin
Hindi lamang nananatili sa lebel ng ang pananampalatayang ito.
kaisipan ang “maselang pagbabalanse”
The Colonial Filipinas [under Spain] from Sharon Maminta’s paper presentation during the
4th National BAKAS Seminar-Workshop “Mga Pagsasakasaysayan sa Bagong
Historiograpiyang Pilipino Mga Larangan sa Pananaliksik at Pagtuturo, Integrasyon at
Pagpopook (Indehinisasyon o Lokalisasyon)”, April 18-20, 2006
Filipina peddlers

Upper Class Filipina

Filipinas in their “Sunday Dress”

THE PHILIPPINE REVOLUTION Against SPAIN (1896-1898)
[Excerpted from The Filipino Americans (1763-Present): Their History, Culture, and Traditions
by Veltisezar Bautista] [Complete text can be accessed at:
http://www.philnewscentral.com/cgi-bin/redirect.cgi?url=philrev.html]

PHILIPPINE REVOLUTION: PHASE 1

In Manila, in its suburbs, and in the provinces of Luzon, the Katipunan became the talk
of the town after copies of the publication Kalayaan were circulated among the people.
The rash and impatient nightly meetings held by new members aroused the suspicions of
the authorities. Rumors about the meetings caused worry among the Spanish friars.

The friars blew the rumors out of proportion to force Spanish Governor-General Blanco,
who was unsympathetic to them, to act on the matter. He, however, did not.

THE DISCOVERY OF THE KATIPUNAN

The discovery of the Katipunan was the result of a misunderstanding between two
Katipuneros: Teodoro Patiño and Apolonio de la Cruz. Both were working at the Spanish-
owned Diario de Manila. As an action against de la Cruz, Patiño revealed the secrets of
the society to his sister, Honoria, an inmate at the orphanage in Mandaluyong, Manila,
who in turn, told Sor Teresa about the matter. Then the sister asked Patiño to tell all he knew
to Father Mariano Gil, the parish priest of Guadalupe and one of those trying to convince
Governor-General Blanco to act quickly.

On August 19, 1896, Patiño disclosed what he knew to Father Gil. The friar rushed to the
printing shop of Diario de Manila and, with its owner, conducted a search of the premises.
The friar sought hidden evidence of the existence of the secret society. They found the
lithographic stone used to print Katipunan receipts, which was confirmed by Patiño.
Consequently, series of arrests of prominent Filipinos took place. Even the innocent ones,
were thrown in jail or imprisoned at Fort Santiago in Manila.

The implication of some was the offset of a quirk of fate. The wealthy Filipinos had
refused to join the Katipunan, so Andres Bonifacio, head of the Katipunan, thought that
drawing up a list to make it appear that numerous wealthy Filipinos were contributing to
the cause would force them to join. Hence, many of them were arrested. Others were
killed.

Retreat to Balintawak and the Cry of Pugadlawin

Upon learning of the rapid spread of the discovery of the Katipunan, Bonifacio called
all the leaders for an emergency general assembly to be held on August 24, in Balintawak,
Caloocan. On the night of August 19, he, his brother Procopio, Emilio Jacinto, Teodoro
Plata, and Aguedo del Rosario met at Balintawak before midnight.

On August 21, Bonifacio changed their code as the Spaniards had decoded the
original one.
Afterwards, about 500 of the rebels went to Kangkong from Balintawak—then, to
Pugadlawin. On August 23, Bonifacio met his men in the yard of Juan A. Ramos, son of
Melchora Aquino, who later became known as the “Mother of the Katipunan.” Bonifacio
asked his men if they were committed to carry on the fight. Against the objections of
Teodoro Plata, all agreed to fight until the last drop of blood.

To symbolize the commitment for an armed struggle, Bonifacio led his men in tearing
up their cedulas, (residence certificate), shouting: “Mabuhay ang Filipinas!” (“Long live the
Philippines”). For some time, the event was commemorated in the Philippines as the “Cry
of Balintawak.” Later, it was corrected to the “Cry of Pugadlawin.”
START OF THE REVOLUTION

The first shots of the Philippine Revolution were fired between several Katipuneros and
a patrol of Spanish civil guards. That happened in the sitio of Pasong Tamo in Kalookan.
However, the first real battle of the revolution took place on August 30, 1896. Bonifacio,
with about 800 Katipuneros, attacked the Spanish arsenal in San Juan del Monte (now,
San Juan, Metro Manila).
The Spaniards were outnumbered and weak, but reinforcements turned the tide in their
favor. The Katipuneros were forced to retreat. They left more than 150 Katipuneros dead
and many more captured.

The revolution spread to several Luzon provinces nearby. This prompted Governor-
General Ramon Blanco to place the first eight provinces to revolt against Spanish
sovereignty under martial law. They were Manila, Laguna, Bulacan, Batangas, Cavite,
Pampanga, Tarlac, and Nueva Ecija.

Governor-General Blanco also included in the decree the condition that anyone who
would surrender within 48 hours after its publication would not be tried in military courts.
Some Katipuneros were duped into surrendering, only to be subjected to torture. Due to
torture, some Katipuneros revealed the names of some of the other Katipuneros.

Hundreds of suspects were arrested and imprisoned. Fort Santiago became so crowded
that many Filipinos who were thrown there for suspicion of involvement in the revolution
were suffocated to death. Hundreds of heads of families were banished outside the
archipelago as far as Africa. A great number of Filipinos were executed at the Luneta,
most notable of whom was Jose Rizal. He was shot at the old Bagumbayan Field on
December 30, 1896. This was ironic as Rizal was innocent of the charge of rebellion.
Katipuneros recognized his intellectual accomplishments, however, Rizal rejected their
invitations for him to join the Katipunan. To his death, Rizal had remained a reformist.

All the tortures and executions, however, embittered the Filipinos more and fanned the
fires of revolution in their hearts. The revolution continued to spread throughout the
archipelago.

FACTIONALISM WITHIN THE KATIPUNAN

In Cavite, the rebels stormed the municipal building of San Francisco de Malabon on
August
31, 1896. The Magdiwang group also attacked the Spaniards in Noveleta. In Cavite el
Viejo, the
Magdalo group, under Candido Tirona (a bosom friend of Emilio Aguinaldo), captured the
Spanish garrison while Emilio Aguinaldo and his men tried but failed to intercept Spanish
reinforcements from Manila.

Emilio Aguinaldo. An ilustrado, Emilio Aguinaldo studied at San Juan de Letran College.
However, he quit his studies when his father died so that he could take care of the family
farm and could engage in business. When the revolution broke out, he was the mayor of
Cavite el Viejo (now Kawit), where he was born on March 22, 1869. A cousin of Baldomero
Aguinaldo, leader of the Magdalo faction, Emilio joined the Katipunan when he was 25.

Aguinaldo retreated to Imus, Cavite Province. There on September 5, 1896, he

defeated the Spanish command of General Aguirre. Thus, Aguinaldo returned to Imus the
hero of the hour, no longer Kapitan (Captain) Miong but Heneral (General) Miong.

Betrayal. There were early signs that the rebels in Cavite were leaning towards the
establishment of a new leadership and government. On October 31, 1896, General
Aguinaldo issued two decrees stating that the aim of the Revolution was the
independence of the Philippines. Thus, he urged Filipinos to fight for freedom, following the
example of civilized European and American nations. He also proclaimed “Liberty,
Equality, and Fraternity” as watchwords of the revolution.

Although the Magdalo was only one of the two factions of the Katipunan in Cavite,
Aguinaldo, who belonged to this faction, made no mention of the parent organization.
The letter K appeared on the seal of both documents, though. One manifesto announced
that they (implying the Magdalo faction) had formed a provisional government in the
towns that had been “pacified.” It was the government’s task to pursue the war until the
archipelago was free.

According to author Renato Constantino, one was forced to conclude that Aguinaldo
and the other leaders of the Magdalo had decided at this early stage to withdraw
recognition of the Katipunan and install themselves as leaders of the revolution.

The Spaniards decided to concentrate on Cavite, after they had been defeated in
other places. Governor-General Blanco ordered attacks on rebel troops in early
November but they suffered heavy losses. (Aguinaldo led the Filipinos. Many died,
including Carlos Tirona.)

Due to the defeats of the Spaniards, Governor-General Blanco was relieved upon the
instigation of the friars. General Camilo de Polavieja took over on December 13, 1896. Little
by little, de Polavieja was able to recapture about a third of Cavite.

DEFEAT OF THE KATIPUNAN

Disunity between the rival Magdalo and Magdiwang factions of the Katipunan in
Cavite fought independently of each other. This was a major factor for the success of
General Polavieja in his victories in Cavite. Realizing this, the Magdiwang faction asked
Bonifacio, who had refused because he was needed in another place, to mediate. Later,
he finally accepted the invitation.

In the latter part of December 1896, Bonifacio went to Cavite with his wife and brothers
Procopio and Ciriaco. Aguinaldo met them and other leaders and Caviteños received
Bonifacio with enthusiasm.

However, in his memoirs, General Artemio Ricarte recounted that a few days after
Bonifacio’s arrival, black propaganda against Bonifacio in the form of anonymous letters
circulated all over Cavite. The letters described him as unworthy of being idolized. The
letter writers called him a mason, an atheist, an uneducated man, and a mere employee
of a German firm.

On December 31, the Imus assembly was convened to determine the leadership in the
province. The purpose was to end the rivalry between the two factions. The Magdalo
group wanted a revolutionary government to supplant the Katipunan. The Magdiwang
objected and maintained that the Katipunan already had a constitution and by-laws
recognized by all. The meeting ended without a resolution of the conflict.

END OF THE KATIPUNAN

First Meeting at Tejeros: The Katipuneros decided to have another meeting on March
22, 1897, to discuss how Cavite should be defended. This was not even touched on.
Instead, it was decided that an election of officers of the revolutionary government be
held. That meant that the Supreme Council of the Katipunan was being discarded, and
that would be the end of the Katipunan.

Bonifacio reluctantly agreed to chair the assembly. Before the voting started, he
admonished everyone that whoever was elected to any position should be respected.
Ironically, after the elections, Bonifacio, founder of the Katipunan and initiator of the
revolutionary struggle in the country, lost the leadership to Emilio Aguinaldo, who was
voted president. Bonifacio was merely elected to the minor post of director of the interior.
None of the other leaders of the Katipunan, not even Emilio Jacinto, were considered for
positions at Tejeros.

When Bonifacio was being proclaimed, Daniel Tirona, a Magdalo, questioned this on
the grounds that the position should be held by a lawyer. The angry Bonifacio demanded
a retraction from Tirona, who, instead, turned to leave. Bonifacio was about to shoot Tirona
when Artemio Ricarte intervened.
As the people began to leave the hall, Bonifacio shouted that he, in his capacity as
chairman of the assembly and president of the Supreme Council of the Katipunan,
declared the assembly dissolved and annulled all that had been approved and resolved.
Then he left with his men.
Second Meeting at Tejeros: A Confrontation. Aguinaldo, engaged in a battle in Pasong
Santol, a barrio in Cavite, was not present during the elections. He was notified of his
election to presidency in Pasong Santol the following day. He was later convinced by his
elder brother, Crispulo, to leave his men and take his oath of office. Thus, he and the others
who had been elected the day before, except Bonifacio, took their oath of office in Santa
Cruz de Malabon (now Tanza), Cavite.
Among those who were installed in office were Emilio Aguinaldo, president; Mariano
Trias, vice president; Artemio Ricarte, captain-general; Emiliano Riego de Dios, director of
war; Pascual Alvarez, director of the interior; and Severino de las Alas, director of justice.
In the meantime, Bonifacio and his remaining men of about 45 met at the estate house
in Tejeros on March 23, 1897. They drew up a document, now called the Acta de Tejeros,
where they cited their reasons for not accepting the results of the first Tejeros convention.
From there, they went to Naic to get away from the Magdalo faction, which they held
responsible for the anomalies during the election. Aguinaldo sent a delegation to
Bonifacio to try to convince him to cooperate with the new revolutionary government,
which the latter rebuffed.
Rival Government. In Naic, Bonifacio and his men prepared another document. The
agreement specified the establishment of a government independent from Aguinaldo’s
revolutionary government. Called the Naic Military Agreement, it also rejected the first
Tejeros convention and reasserted Bonifacio as leader of the revolution. To be organized
was an army whose members were to be recruited by persuasive or coercive means.

Death of Bonifacio. Bonifacio moved from Naic to the barrio of Limbon in Indang, Cavite.
He was accompanied by his wife, two brothers, and a few loyal soldiers. By then,
Aguinaldo had learned of the Naic Military Agreement. He immediately ordered Colonel
Agapito Bonzon and a group of soldiers to arrest the Bonifacio brothers.

In the ensuing confrontation, Bonifacio was stabbed in the larynx but taken alive. His
brother Ciriaco was killed, while his brother Procopio was wounded. Bonifacio was
transported in a hammock to Naic, the capital of the revolutionary government.

From April 29 to May 4, Bonifacio was placed on trial, together with Procopio, by the
Council of War. General Tomas Mascardo was one of the members of the Council of War
that tried the Bonifacio brothers.

Despite the lack of evidence, the Bonifacio brothers were found guilty of treason and
sedition and recommended to be executed. Aguinaldo commuted the sentence to
deportation on May 8, 1897, but Generals Mariano Noriel and Pio del Pilar, both former
supporters of Bonifacio, upon learning of this, immediately asked General Aguinaldo to
withdraw his order. Their reason was that there would be no unity among the
revolutionaries as long as Bonifacio was alive. They were supported by other leaders.

Aguinaldo withdrew his order for reversal of the death sentence. As for Severino de las
Alas, it was he who had made the false accusations against Bonifacio.

On May 10, General Noriel ordered Major Lazaro Makapagal to bring the Bonifacio
brothers to Mount Tala near Maragondon. He was also given a sealed letter to be opened
and read upon reaching their destination. The letter contained orders to execute Andres
and Procopio Bonifacio. He was warned that severe punishment would follow if he failed
to comply with the order. Hence, Makapagal made no hesitation to carry out the
execution. Bonifacio and his brother were buried in shallow graves marked only by a few
twigs.
THE BIAK-NA-BATO REPUBLIC

Maragondon, Cavite became the new rebel capital after the Spanish forces had
captured Naic. However, many of the Spanish soldiers had just arrived from Spain and they
suffered greatly from the tropical climate.

General Camilo de Polavieja requested that he be relieved as governor-general. On

April 23,
1897. Fernando Primo de Rivera replaced the governor-general. Against Primo de Rivera,
Aguinaldo and his men were forced to retreat to Batangas Province by Spanish forces.

The Spaniards gained control of practically the whole of Cavite. Thus, Primo de Rivera
extended a decree granting pardon for those Filipinos surrendering beyond the initial
deadline of May 17. There were some Filipinos who took advantage, but the others
continued their fight.

Aguinaldo, who had established his headquarters in Talisay, Batangas Province,

managed to escape the Spaniards who had surrounded the place. Then he and about
500 handpicked men went to Biyak-na-Bato, San Miguel de Mayumo, in Bulacan. There,
Aguinaldo established a new government, which is now known as the Biak-na-Bato
Republic.

He also issued a proclamation in July entitled “To the Brave Sons of the Philippines.” The
proclamation enumerated the revolutionary demands as:

1. Expulsion of the friars and the return to the Filipinos of the lands they appropriated
for themselves.
2. Representation in the Spanish Cortes, freedom of press, and tolerance of all religious
sects.
3. Equal treatment and pay for peninsular and insular civil servants and abolition of
the power of the government to banish citizens.
4. Legal equality for all persons.

This proclamation showed that Aguinaldo was still willing to return to the Spanish fold if
these demands were met. That was in spite of the fact that he and his men had already
established the Biak-na-Bato Republic.

The constitution of the new republic was prepared by Felix Ferrer and Isabelo Artacho.
They copied it almost verbatim from the Cuban Constitution of Jimaguayu. It was signed
on November 1, 1897. In accordance with Article I, a Supreme Council was created on
November. Aguinaldo was elected president.

Ceasefire! Governor-General Primo de Rivera realized that he might not be able to quell
the rebellion. Hence, he tried to end it by peaceful negotiations.

The chance came when Pedro A. Paterno, a mestizo who had spent some years in
Spain, offered to act as a peace negotiator. On August 9, 1897, Paterno brought Primo de
Rivera’s offer of peace to Aguinaldo’s headquarters. It took four months before Paterno
was able to come up with a peace agreement, now called the Pact of Biak-na-Bato,
signed by Paterno as representative of the revolutionists and Primo de Rivera for the
Spanish government.

Made up of three separate documents, the peace pact was signed on December 14
and 15, 1897. The pact provided for an end to the revolution by the laying down of arms
by the revolutionary forces of Aguinaldo. They would then be granted amnesty and
allowed to return to their homes. Aguinaldo and the other leaders would go on voluntary
exile to Hong Kong. They would be given P800,000 by the Spanish government in three
installments:

1. P400,000 upon leaving the Philippines.

2. P200,000 when at least 700 arms have been surrendered.
3. The balance upon declaration of a general amnesty.

Spain also promised to pay P900,000 to Filipino civilians who suffered losses because of
the revolution. (Renato Constantino: The Philippines: A Past Revisited).

On December 27, 1897, Aguinaldo, with a check for P400,000, left for Hong Kong with
25 revolutionary leaders. Those left behind asked Primo de Rivera to give them the balance
of P400,000, supposedly to be given to the needy ones among them. Instead, they were
given P200,000, which they then divided among themselves.

Continuation of Hostilities: The Truce Fails. There was celebration in Manila the following
month. However, although some of the Filipino Generals left behind did all they could to
surrender the arms from the rebels, some of them were suspicious of the Spaniards. Thus,
they declined to give up their arms. One of them, General Francisco Makabulos of Tarlac
Province, established the Central Executive Committee, which would exist until a general
government of the republic would again be established. For their part, the lower-ranking
Spanish authorities continued to arrest and imprison many Filipinos suspected of having
been involved in the rebellion.

Far from mere banditry, as the Spaniards termed these acts of resistance, they were, on
the contrary, attempts to achieve the objectives of the old Katipunan. The Pact of Biak-
na-Bato was thus a cessation of hostilities only for the compromisers, Aguinaldo and his
group. For the people, the struggle continued.

PHILIPPINE REVOLUTION: PHASE 2

SPANISH-AMERICAN RELATIONS

In February 1895, Cuba, a Spanish colony, revolted against the Spaniards. In answer,
Spanish General Valeriano Weyler, commander of all Spanish forces in Cuba, established
concentration camps for the rebels and sympathizers. Being close to the United States,
many American businessmen had large investments in Cuba, especially in the sugar
industry. Thus, it was not difficult to obtain American support for the Cuban cause.
In January 1898, President William McKinley sent the U.S. Navy battleship Maine to Cuba
in case American citizens needed to be evacuated. However, on February 15, 1898, an
explosion sank the ship in the Havana harbor. This resulted in the loss of 260 of the crewmen
and in a huge outcry from the American public.

Earlier, on February 9, 1898, a private letter from Enrique Dupuy de Lome, the Spanish
minister to the United States, which had been stolen from a post office in Havana was
published in the New York Journal. It described President McKinley as a “would-be
politician” and a weak president.

The sinking of the USS Maine added fuel to an American public already enraged against
the Spaniards because of the letter, although an investigation had failed to establish who
was responsible for the explosion.

On February 25, 1898, Commodore George Dewey in Hong Kong received a directive
from the United States. He was ordered to take his Asiatic squadron to Manila and attack
Spanish forces in the Philippines should war break out between Spain and the United
States.

SPANISH-AMERICAN WAR

Although President McKinley wished to avoid war with Spain, which also wanted to
avoid a war with the United States, he ultimately had to give in to pressure from his own
Republican Party. On April 11, 1898, he recommended direct American intervention in
Cuba to the United States Congress, which voted for war with Spain.

Meanwhile, Spanish Governor-General Primo de Rivera was relieved of his position after
the Conservative Party in Spain, to which he belonged, was replaced by the Liberal Party.
His replacement, Governor-General Basilio Augustin, knew nothing about conditions in the
Philippines. Primo de Rivera had wanted to stay there for a while in the event that
SpanishAmerican relations might turn into a shooting war, in which case it would not have
been practical to have a new governor-general in the Philippines.

Governor General Augustin arrived on April 9, 1898. He announced he would continue

his predecessor’s work of pacification and then assumed a wait-and-see position.

The Battle of Manila Bay. On April 25, 1898, Commodore George Dewey, upon orders,
proceeded at once to the Philippines with a squadron of four armored cruisers, two
gunboats, and a revenue cutter. It was led by the flagship Olympia. They entered Manila
Bay in the early morning of May 1, 1898, and engaged the Spanish fleet of 12 ships, headed
by Admiral Patricio Montojo, in a battle that lasted for only a few hours.

The more-modern American warships, although fewer in number, proved to be superior

to the old and weaker Spanish vessels. The not-so-hard-fought Battle of Manila Bay was
one of the most significant battles in American history because it established the United
States as a world power.
For the Philippines, it signaled the end of more than 300 years of Spanish colonial rule. It
also signaled the start of a new colonial rule, this time under the Americans. Dewey
requested for army reinforcements because he had no troops to capture Manila. All he
could do while waiting was blockade Manila Bay.

THE EXILES IN HONG KONG

In Hong Kong, the Filipino exiles followed closely the developments in the Philippines
and the conflict between Spain and the United States. They thought of seeking American
assistance in their revolutionary cause against the Spaniards. In the meantime, there was
a problem regarding disposal of the P400,000 from Governor-General Primo de Rivera,
under the terms of the Pact of Biak-na-Bato.

Isabelo Artacho wanted the money to be divided among themselves. When Aguinaldo
refused, Artacho sued him in the Hong Kong Supreme Court. To escape the inconvenience
of having to go to court, Aguinaldo, with Gregorio del Pilar and J. Leyba, secretly went to
Singapore and arrived there on April 23, 1898. In the afternoon, Howard Bray, an
Englishman who had been living in Singapore, gave Aguinaldo the message that E.
Spencer Pratt, the American consul, wanted to talk with him.

It turned out that the Americans were thinking of winning the Filipinos over to their side
should hostilities between the U.S. and Spain take a turn for the worst.

Pratt gave the impression to Aguinaldo that the Americans would not colonize the
Philippines. He said that if they were going to leave Cuba (“which is just at our door”) alone
after driving the Spaniards away, why would they want the Philippines, which was 10,000
miles away. Aguinaldo then consented to return with Commodore Dewey to the
Philippines to once more lead the revolution against Spain, fighting alongside the
Americans.

Dewey had already sailed for Manila when Aguinaldo returned to Hong Kong. But
Rounseville
Wildman, American consul in Hong Kong, told him that Dewey had left instructions that
Aguinaldo’s return to the Philippines be arranged. He and Wildman met several times after
this. He later suggested that Aguinaldo establish a dictatorial government, which was
needed in the prosecution of the war against Spain, but it had to be replaced with a
government similar to that of the United States once the war was over and peace was
restored. Wildman and Pratt assured Aguinaldo that their government sympathized with
the Filipinos’ aspirations for independence, but they did not make any formal
commitment.

THE MILITARY JUNTA

On May 4, Filipinos comprising what was called the Hong Kong Junta met to discuss
what to do in the light of the new developments.

Those present were Felipe Agoncillo, temporary president; Doroteo Lopez, temporary
secretary; and Teodoro Sandico, Anastacio Francisco, Mariano Llanera, Miguel Malvar,
Andres Garchitorena, Severo Buenaventura, Maximo Kabigting, Faustino Lichauco,
Antonio Montenegro, and Galicano Apacible.

Aguinaldo apprised them of what transpired in his meetings with Pratt and Wildman,
and asked for their advice on what to do. After discussions, the Junta unanimously
decided that Aguinaldo should return to the Philippines to lead the struggle against the
Spaniards.

Have Guns, Will Fight. In preparation for his return to the Philippines, Aguinaldo gave
Wildman P117,000 to be used in buying guns and ammunition. The first shipment for P50,000
arrived promptly, but Aguinaldo never learned from the consul where the rest of the
money went.

Aguinaldo’s Return to the Philippines. Consul Wildman arranged Aguinaldo’s return on the
ship McCulloch, which he and his companions boarded at night to avoid rousing the
suspicion of the Spanish consul in Hong Kong.

On May 17, 1898, the ship left and arrived in Cavite two days later. Aguinaldo was then
taken to the Olympia, where he was accorded honors due a general. Aguinaldo
reportedly said that in their conference Dewey had given him assurance that the United
States would recognize Philippine independence, which Dewey, however, denied. It is
suggested that, there being no sufficient evidence to prove Aguinaldo’s statement, he
had mistakenly thought that Dewey was speaking for the American government.

Renato Constantino (The Philippines: A Past Revisited) points out that historians have
treated the time when Aguinaldo was in Hong Kong as a period when the revolution was
put on hold. That was during a time when he and others in Hong Kong were planning its
resumption and, with this view, the acts of resistance in the country while Aguinaldo was
away were “dismissed as if they were not part of the revolutionary stream.... Actually, the
different manifestations of resistance which Aguinaldo so cavalierly branded as banditry
just because he had chosen to surrender were the continuing expression of the people’s
determination to fight for the goals of the Katipunan.”

Then, Aguinaldo was again in the Philippines, ready to lead the very ones he had
branded bandits.

With Aguinaldo’s return to the Philippines, Constantino saw “four major forces on the
historical stage”:

1. Spanish colonialism, which was trying to ward off its impending end.
2. American imperialism, which was waiting for such time when it had gathered
sufficient military strength in the Philippines before showing its real motives.
3. The Filipino ilustrados, whose main concern was to place themselves in a jockeying
position whatever political setup was to emerge. (However, their ultimate objective
was supposedly independence, but they were ready to accept becoming an
American protectorate or even annexation, just as they readily accepted continuing
Spanish rule after the Pact of Biak-naBato).
4. And the masses, who still believed in and fought for the revolutionary objectives of
the Katipunan.

The people showed that they could continue the struggle without the leadership of
those who entered into the Pact of Biak-na-Bato. However, they were unaware of the
“dangers that its
(leadership) inherently compromising nature posed for the goal of independence.”
On May 21, 1898, two days after he arrived, Aguinaldo in a letter advised the people to
“respect foreigners and their properties, also enemies who surrender...if we do not conduct
ourselves thus the Americans will decide to sell us or else divide up our territory as they will
hold us incapable of governing our land, we shall not secure our liberty; rather the contrary;
our own soil will be delivered over to other hands.”

When news of Aguinaldo’s arrival spread, a number of Filipino volunteers in the Spanish
army defected to the Filipino side. By the end of May, with the growing number of
revolutionary supporters, 5,000 Spaniards had been captured.

Spanish Last-Ditch Attempts. Governor-General Augustin was demoralized by the

defection of the Filipinos from the Spanish army to Aguinaldo’s side and Dewey’s victory
over the Spanish fleet on Manila Bay. Nevertheless, he desperately tried to save the
situation.

In May, he issued two decrees creating a Filipino Volunteer Militia and a Consultative
Assembly. His purpose was to win over the ilustrados, whom he appointed to both bodies.
However, this backfired because all of those appointed in the militia instead joined
Aguinaldo. On the other hand, the Consultative Assembly, which was headed by Pedro
Paterno, the negotiator of the Pact of Biak-na-Bato and who appealed to the Filipinos to
stand by Spain, accomplished nothing.

The renewed revolution after Aguinaldo’s arrival from Hongkong immediately became
a success. By June 2, 1898, General Artemio Ricarte accepted the surrender of the Spanish
commanding general in Cavite.

The Filipinos gained victory after victory. Within the month of June 1898, almost the
whole of Luzon (except for the port of Cavite and Manila) had fallen into rebel hands. It
was these victories by the people that “gave substance to the legal institutions the
ilustrados were establishing.

American Duplicity. All the while, the Americans waited for reinforcements. Aguinaldo
was treated with the courtesies befitting a head of state. Playing safe, the Americans took
care not to make any commitments at the same time, continuing to let the Filipinos think
they meant well. Their motive was to use the Filipinos to fight the Spaniards until
reinforcements arrived.

The Siege of Manila. The Walled City (Intramuros) was then known as the City of Manila.
(The outlying districts were the arrabales or suburbs.)
When the Spanish navy was destroyed, many Spaniards had taken refuge there. When
Dewey did not bombard the city after winning the Battle of Manila Bay, the Spanish
became optimistic. They didn’t know that he was just waiting for reinforcements. However,
Aguinaldo seized the opportunity to besiege the city and cut off its food and water supply
to force the Spaniards out. Aguinaldo offered the option of surrender three times, with
generous terms, to Governor-General Augustin but these were rebuffed.

DICTATORIAL GOVERNMENT

When Aguinaldo had arrived from Hong Kong, he established a temporary dictatorial
government upon the advise of Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista, his adviser. On May 24, 1898,
Aguinaldo issued a decree formally establishing such form of government. The decree also
nullified the orders issued under the Biak-na-Bato Republic.

Having a government in operation, Aguinaldo then deemed it necessary to declare

the independence of the Philippines against the objections of Apolinario Mabini, who had
become his unofficial adviser.

Mabini considered it more important before declaring independence to first reorganize

the government into one that could prove to the foreign powers its competence and
stability. It was Aguinaldo who won.

Apolinario Mabini: Born in Talaga, Tanauan, Batangas Province, Apolinario Mabini

played an important role in the Aguinaldo government. Born of poor parents, his
poverty did not deter him from pursuing high studies. His mother wanted him to
become a priest. However, he opted to study law, and he received his degree in
1894 from the University of Santo Tomas.
In 1896, he contracted an illness that left him paralyzed in the lower limbs. He had been
arrested on suspicion of involvement in the revolution, but he was released when
the Spaniards saw he was paralyzed. However, in truth, he did have some involvement,
having been a member of Rizal’s reformist La Liga Filipina.

While taking his vacation in Los Baños, Laguna, in 1898, he was fetched by Aguinaldo’s
men. The men alternated in carrying him in his hammock. Afterwards, he was made
Aguinaldo’s adviser.
Those envious of his position regarded him the “Dark Chamber of the President,” but he is
better known in history as the “Brains of the Revolution” and the “Sublime Paralytic.””

PROCLAMATION OF PHILIPPINE INDEPENDENCE

On June 12, 1898, Philippine independence was proclaimed in Kawit, Cavite. The
Philippine flag, which had been hand-sewn by Marcela Agoncillo in Hong Kong, was first
officially raised. Also, the Marcha Nacional Filipina, the Philippine national anthem
composed by Julian Felipe, was first played in public. The declaration of independence
was patterned after the American Declaration of Independence.
Revolutionary Government. For his part, Apolinario Mabini considered the declaration of
independence premature and inadequate, due to the lack of participation of the people.
Thus, he urged Aguinaldo to change the form of government from dictatorial to
revolutionary. That was done on June 23, 1898. The decree also provided for the creation
of Congress.

Surrender Negotiations. After fresh American troops arrived on June 30, July 17, and July
31,
1898, Dewey started negotiating with Governor-General Augustin and with Belgian Consul,
Andre, acting as go-between for the surrender of the Spaniards. Word about this reached
the Peninsular Government, which immediately replaced Augustin with General Fermin
Jaudenes. The two powers then very secretly agreed to stage a mock battle between
them on one condition—that no Filipino troops would be allowed to enter Manila, clearly
an act of betrayal of the Filipinos on the part of the Americans.

Mock Battle of Manila. All along, Aguinaldo and his forces guarded the city, and waited
for the
Spaniards to give in to hunger and thirst and surrender. After the secret deal between the
Americans and the Spaniards, General Merritt, who had overall command of the
American forces, decided to conduct the “offensive” against Manila from the side of
Manila Bay.

General Francis Greene, who headed the second reinforcements, was instructed to tell
Aguinaldo and his troops to show their cooperation with the Americans by leaving the
area free
for the foreigners to occupy. Although Aguinaldo showed caution by demanding that this
request be made in writing, he gullibly withdrew his troops when Greene promised to grant
that request after the evacuation. But Greene reneged on his promise.

Aguinaldo started to get suspicious about the continuous arrival of American

reinforcements. He considered them unnecessary because the Filipinos had the situation
well in hand. He did not, however, do anything about this. Therefore, the American troops
were installed in place.

On the eve of the mock battle, General Anderson, commander of the first
reinforcements, even telegraphed Aguinaldo not to let his troops enter Manila without
permission from the American commander or else they would be fired upon.

The Americans started their mock attack, with the Filipinos unsuspectingly fighting with
all their might. At about 11:20 a.m., the Spaniards raised a flag of surrender, but it was only
noticed at noon. By 5:00 p.m., the surrender negotiations were completed. The Spanish
authorities agreed to surrender the Spaniards and the Filipino volunteers in the city on the
condition that the Americans would safeguard the city and its inhabitants, churches, and
religious worship.

The next day, August 14, the document stating the terms of surrender was formally
signed by representatives of both parties. General Merritt then announced the
establishment of the Military Government.
REVOLUTIONARY GOVERNMENT

President Aguinaldo convoked the Revolutionary Congress in Barasoain, Malolos,

Bulacan Province. Those officers elected on September 15, 1898, were Pedro A. Paterno
(the very same man who had brokered the betrayal of the revolution at Biak-na-Bato) as
its president; Benito Legarda, vice president; Gregorio Araneta, first secretary; and Pablo
Ocampo, second secretary.

The leadership of the revolution had been seized by the Cavite elite when Aguinaldo
came into power in Tejeros, Cavite. He then reasserted his (and thus ilustrado) leadership
after surrendering in the Pact of Biak-na-Bato and returning from exile in Hong Kong, both
with the help of the Americans.

Constitution. The Congress, which Mabini had envisioned to be a mere advisory, not
legislative, body of the president, proposed that a constitution be drafted, overruling
Mabini’s objections. He had meritoriously argued that the constitution had to be framed
under peaceful conditions, but he was outvoted by the majority under Paterno. He
proposed a constitution, which was rejected. Instead, one planned by Filipino lawyer
Felipe Calderon was considered.

More Provinces Recovered. In September, 1898, the provinces of Isabela and Nueva
Vizcaya were recovered. General Vicente Lukban also rushed to Samar and Leyte where
he met little opposition. On September 15, 1898, in Malolos, Bulacan, President Aguinaldo
formally declared the conclusion of the liberation of the Philippines. By October, General
Lukban was in control of the situation Camarines.

On November 29, 1898, the Malolos Congress approved the constitution. However,
Aguinaldo refused to sign it due to Mabini’s objections.

Meanwhile, there were still Spanish garrisons in Cebu and Iloilo under General Montero
and
General de los Rios respectively. (Montero and his forces later surrendered on December
24, 1898. General de los Rios was to evacuate to Iloilo on December 26 and leave for
Zamboanga on the way home to Spain.)

MALOLOS REPUBLIC: The First Philippine Republic

When Mabini’s objections were satisfied the Malolos Constitution was promulgated on
January 21, 1899. On January 23, 1899, the Philippine Republic was inaugurated in Malolos,
with Aguinaldo as its first president.

Despite the proclamation of the Philippine independence and the establishment of the
First Philippine Republic, the Philippines did not become a member of the family of nations.
Among others, the United States and Spain did not recognize it. U.S. had by then decided
to annex the Philippines as its territory in the Pacific.
THE MALOLOS CONSTITUTION.* This document, Agoncillo wrote, is the first significant Filipino
document ever penned and produced by the people’s representatives. It created a
Filipino State whose government was “popular, representative, and responsible” with three
distinct branches— the executive, legislative and judicial.

This constitution is unique for three reasons: superiority of the Assembly (Legislative) to
either the executive or judicial branch; a permanent commission was created to sit as the
legislative body when the Assembly was not in session; and, it established a unicameral
legislature.

Revolutionary Periodicals.* There was a need to broadcast to the whole world the newly
established Republic’s ideals and aspirations so as to receive the needed recognition and
respect from the world’s nation. Hence, the Republic founded its official organ, “El Heraldo
de la Revolucion” (September 1898), but was changed three times until it was finally
named “Graceta de Filipinas”, whose last number came out on October 14, 1899. These
newspapers published the government’s decrees, some news items and nationalistic
Tagalog poems.

Privately owned nationalistic newspapers were also distributed to the public.

Collectively, these publications urged the Filipinos to unite and exert more efforts in the
struggle for national emancipation.

Educational Problems.* Wanting that each Filipino would become responsible, civic-
minded individuals, the Republic saw to it that the schools that have been destroyed or
abandoned due to the war be repaired and re-opened. Hence, Aguinaldo allocated a
budget of thirty-five thousand pesos for public instruction. He further issued a decree
outlining the curriculum, which included grammar, geography and history, literature,
mathematics, foreign languages, philosophy, and physical sciences. In October of 1898,
the Literary University of the Philippines was created; however, it did not live long for the
conflict with the Americans led its faculty and students to disperse.

Problem on Recognition.* Aguinaldo appointed diplomatic agents and committees were

created abroad to work for the recognition of the Philippine Independence by other
nations. Diplomats were sent to the U.S., Japan, Australia, England, and France to lobby
for recognition. Unfortunately, the goal to persuade foreign nations, especially the U.S.A.,
was futile when on December 10, 1898; the Treaty of Paris was signed.

___________________________
* These are excerpts from Agoncillo’s History of the Filipino People, 8th ed, 1990
THE PHILIPPINE-AMERICAN WAR (1899-1902)
(Excerpted from The Filipino Americans (From 1763 to the Present) Their History, Culture,
and Traditions by Veltisezar Bautista.) COMPLETE EXCERPT AT: http://www.filipino-
americans.com/cgi-bin/redirect.cgi?url=filamwar.html

On August 12, 1898, the day before the fall of Manila, Spain and the United States signed
a peace agreement. Spain agreed to evacuate all her troops from and give up control
over Cuba, cede Guam and Puerto Rico to the United States, which was also allowed to
occupy Manila. The last condition was temporary while what was to be done with the
Philippines was being determined.

In October 1898, representatives of Spain and the United States met in Paris to draft a
peace treaty. One of the vital issues to be discussed was the status of the Philippines. Spain
wanted the United States to return the Philippines to Spain because Manila had been
occupied by the Americans only after the armistice had been signed on August 12, 1898,
but to no avail. The United States insisted on obtaining the Philippines.

Treaty of Paris. On December 10. 1898, the Treaty of Paris, was signed in Paris, France, by
both Spain and the United States. It formally ended the war between them. Under this
treaty, Spain recognized the independence of Cuba; ceded Guam, Puerto Rico and the
Philippines to the United States; and received a $20 million payment from the United States
for giving up the Philippines.

The treaty had to be ratified by the U.S. Senate before it could take effect. It, however,
met opposition, mainly against the annexation of the Philippines. An Anti-Imperialist
League was formed to rally American public opinion against the annexation. Some
prominent Americans, such as former President Grover Cleveland, Andrew Carnegie, and
Mark Twain, also opposed the ratification.

One of the reasons why the United States should not acquire the Philippines was that
the Filipinos themselves were fighting the Americans in the Philippines. Such an act, they
said, showed that the Filipinos did not want to be under American rule. They also reasoned
that it was inconsistent for the United States to disclaim—through the so-called Teller
Amendment—any intention of annexing Cuba and then annex the other Spanish colonies,
such as the Philippines.

Annexation Fever. There were also many in the United States who saw the advantages of
taking over the Philippines. Many missionaries, for instance, favored annexation. So did
people who feared that Germany might get the Philippines if the United States did not.
Some favored annexation to give America a “foothold” in the populous markets of Asia.

On February 6, 1899, the U.S. Senate, by a vote of 57 to 27, ratified the Treaty of Paris.
The American people, in effect, also endorsed the treaty when they reelected President
McKinley in the 1900 U.S. presidential elections. Thus, the Philippines formally came under
the rule of the United States.

THE PHILIPPINE-AMERICAN WAR

The Filipinos had become suspicious of the true motives of the United States in going to
the Philippines. In fact, they were prevented by the Americans from entering Manila after
its fall. Their suspicions were confirmed by the Treaty of Paris under which Spain ceded the
Philippines to the United States. Neither Spain nor the United States gave Felipe Agoncillo,
Aguinaldo’s special envoy, a chance to present the wishes of the Filipinos in the Paris
peace talks. Suspicion turned to hostility, and war between the two sides became
inevitable. The Filipinos were outraged when they learned that Spain, which no longer
controlled the Philippines, had ceded the country to the United States.

Benevolent Assimilation Proclamation. On December 21, 1898, President William Mckinley

announced his decision to keep the Philippines as an American colonial possession.

Entitled “Benevolent Assimilation Proclamation,” the McKinley proclamation was

announced in the Philippines on January 4, 1899. It stated clearly the intention of the United
States to stay permanently in the Philippines. The mission of the United States was described
by McKinley as one of “benevolent assimilation.” In the same proclamation, General Elwell
Otis was named the commander of American ground forces in the Philippines, which was
to “extend by force American sovereignty over this country.”

On January 5, 1899, Aguinaldo issued a counter-proclamation. He warned that his

government was prepared to fight any American attempt to forcibly take over the
country. This sounded like a declaration of war to the American military although
Aguinaldo had no wish to get into a war with the United States. He knew that war would
only cause untold suffering to the Filipino people. He was still hopeful that the situation
could be saved by peaceful negotiations between him and the American military leaders
in the Philippines. Aguinaldo wrote General Elwell S. Otis calling for peaceful negotiations.

On January 9, 1899, Otis appointed three American officers to meet with three Filipino
military officials appointed by Aguinaldo. However, they didn’t accomplish anything.

WAR BEGINS

The tension between the Americans and the Filipinos was so great that it was easy to
precipitate a war. On the night of February 4, 1899, as described in Aguinaldo: A Narrative
of Filipino Ambitions, (E. Wildman 1901, Norwood Press, Norwood, MA) an American sentry,
Private William W. Grayson, with another soldier, encountered three armed Filipinos on a
bridge in San Juan del Monte near Manila.

Recalling the incident, Grayson said:

“About eight o’clock, Miller and I were cautiously pacing our district. We came to a fence
and were trying to see what the Filipinos were up to. Suddenly, near at hand, on our left,
there was a low but unmistakable Filipino outpost signal whistle. It was immediately
answered by a similar whistle about twenty-five yards to the right. Then a red lantern
flashed a signal from blockhouse number 7. We had never seen such a sign used before.
In a moment, something rose up slowly in front of us. It was a Filipino. I yelled “Halt!” and
made it pretty loud, for I was accustomed to challenging the officer of the guard in
approved military style. I challenged him with another loud “halt!” Then he shouted
“halto!” to me. Well, I thought the best thing to do was to shoot him. He dropped. If I didn’t
kill him, I guess he died of fright. Two Filipinos sprang out of the gateway about 15 feet from
us. I called “halt!” and Miller fired and dropped one. I saw that another was left. Well, I
think I got my second Filipino that time....”

The Filipino troops fired back at the American lines and before the night was over,
fighting had broken out between Filipino and American forces. Most of the Filipino
commanders at that time were attending a dance in Malolos, Bulacan Province. When
told of the outbreak of hostilities, they rushed back to their units, which were already
shooting it out with American troops.
When war finally came, Aguinaldo still tried to stop it by sending an emissary to General
Otis to appeal for an end to the fighting. But Otis responded, “fighting, having begun, must
go on to the grim end.”

THE AMERICAN REACTION

The American people, however, received a different version of how the war started.
Newspaper reports made it appear that the Filipinos had started the fighting. This was the
time when the Treaty of Paris was pending ratification in the U.S. Senate. Previously,
because of strong public opinion against the U.S. annexation of the Philippines, ratification
of the treaty was uncertain. But the distorted news that reached the United States,
specifically that the Filipinos were the ones who started hostilities, changed the minds of
several U.S. senators to vote for ratification. On February 6, 1899, the U.S. Senate ratified
the Treaty of Paris.

The Americans viewed the fighting as an insurrection, not a war. Hence, Americans refer
to this episode as the Philippine Insurrection, not the Philippine-American War although this
conflict officially lasted three years. Actually the fighting between American and the
remaining armed groups of Filipinos, whom Americans branded as “bandits,” lasted 16
years (1899-1914).

James Loewen, a Washington, D.C.-based scholar and author of a forthcoming book

titled
Lies Across the Landscape: What Our Historical Markers and Monuments Get Wrong, said,
“What we call the Philippine Insurrection should be called the Philippine War. We had
never conquered the Philippines, so you can’t call it a revolt.”

THE WAR GOES ON

After the refusal of General Otis to end hostilities following the San Juan bridge incident,
General Arthur MacArthur ordered the advance of American troops toward Filipino
positions in Manila and the suburbs. Regiments from Kansas and California captured Santa
Ana and Makati. Troops from Nebraska and Utah occupied the San Juan Bridge. On the
other hand, volunteers from Idaho and Washington massacred hundreds of Filipinos who
were then trying to cross the Pasig River. The coastlines were pounded continuously by
Admiral Dewey’s naval guns.
Capturing Manila and the Suburbs. Several American soldiers who took part in the battles
in Manila and the suburbs wrote letters telling about those battles to their relatives in the
United States. These letters were published in local and national press in the United States
by the AntiImperialist League in 1899 in the United States.

Caloocan Battle. Describing the Caloocan battle, Charles Bremer, of Minneapolis, Kansas,
wrote:
Company I had taken a few prisoners, and stopped. The colonel ordered them up in to
line time after time, and finally sent Captain Bishop back to start them. There occurred the
hardest sight I ever saw. They had four prisoners, and didn’t know what to do with them.
They asked Captain Bishop what to do, and he said: “You know the orders, and four natives
fell dead.”

Writing his own version of the Caloocan fight, Captain Elliot, of the Kansas Regiment
said:

Talk about war being “hell,” this war beats the hottest estimate ever made of that locality.
Caloocan was supposed to contain seventeen thousand inhabitants. The Twentieth
Kansas swept through it, and now Caloocan contains not one living native. Of the
buildings, the battered walls of the great church and dismal prison alone remain. The
village of Maypaja, where our first fight occurred on the night of the fourth, had five
thousand people on that day—now not one stone remains upon top of another. You can
only faintly imagine this terrible scene of desolation. War is worse than hell.

Due to the Americans’ superiority in arms, Caloocan fell. But General Luna didn’t give
up.

On February 22, Luna marched towards Manila to try to capture it. He even ordered
the burning of houses in the suburbs to create confusion to the American troops.
Afterwards he fought the enemy on Azcarraga. General Luna and his troops suffered
heavy losses so he then retreated to Polo, Bulacan.

Atrocity in Malabon. The Americans advanced towards Malabon (near Caloocan).

Describing their adventures in Malabon, Anthony Michea of the Third Artillery wrote:

We bombarded a place called Malabon, and then we went in and killed every native we
met, men, women, and children. It was a dreadful sight, the killing of the poor creatures.
The natives captured some of the Americans and literally hacked them to pieces, so we
got orders to spare no one.”

On to Malolos. By March 30, the Americans were already near Malolos, Bulacan, where
the Philippine government was headquartered. General Aguinaldo evacuated Malolos
and moved his headquarters to San Isidro, Nueva Ecija.

On April 23, the same year, General Gregorio del Pilar, known as the “boy general,”
defeated the American cavalry under Major Bell in a stiff battle in Quinqua (now Plaridel),
Bulacan. The enemy suffered heavy losses, including Colonel Stotsenberg who was killed
in action. On the other hand, General Licerio Geronimo overpowered the Americans
under General Lawton in San Mateo, Morong, in which battle Lawton was killed.

General MacArthur moved towards Kalumpit, Bulacan, where General Luna was
waiting for him. According to Teodoro Agoncillo (History of the Filipino People,) when the
Americans were about to attack, Luna, together with his foot soldiers, cavalry, and artillery
left Kalumpit to punish General Tomas Mascardo for his insubordination. Mascardo was
then in Pampanga Province. General del Pilar was left to fight and repulse the enemy,
which the “boy general” was not able to do. It was too late when Luna and his soldiers
came back at nightfall. The Americans had already broken through the Filipino defensive
lines. Thus they lost the fight, The Filipinos sustained other battle losses.

OTHER HAPPENINGS

As early as March 6, 1899, Apolinario Mabini, in his capacity as premier and minister of
foreign affairs, met with the Schurman Commission. The commission had offered the
Filipinos some form of autonomous government. Mabini’s request for time to consult the
people on the offer and a ceasefire in the meantime was refused. Mabini made another
attempt, which turned to be futile, to seek an armistice on April 28. He later issued a
manifesto criticizing the Americans, whom he described as a free people trying to rob
others of their liberty. He then rallied the Filipino people to go on with the fight against the
Americans.

When Mabini resigned from his post on May 7, 1899, President Aguinaldo named Pedro
A.
Paterno to head a new cabinet. It was Biak-na-Bato all over again. Notified of his
replacement by
Paterno, Mabini scoffed at the negotiations of the new cabinet on the basis of autonomy,
calling it a desire for “independence without any struggle.” As expected, nothing came
out of the Paterno peace efforts because the U.S. insisted that the Filipinos lay down their
arms first.

Disunity Among the Filipinos. Among the military and political leaders, disunity again
caused divisions. Although they were in a war against a common enemy, many of their
leaders in the government and in the army sadly still found time to engage in personal,
and often bitter quarrels, with disastrous and tragic consequences to the First Philippine
Republic. The power struggle served to weaken Filipino unity at a time of great peril to the
nation.

Apolinario Mabini was considered an obstacle who was put out of the way with his
resignation on May 7, 1899, by those who were later named to the Paterno cabinet. But a
more formidable obstacle was General Antonio Luna, who was recognized as the ablest
general of the revolution. Earlier, he was one of those who had revealed the existence of
the Katipunan to the Spaniards.

A well-off ilustrado, Luna had joined Aguinaldo in 1898 and proved his worth as an
officer. As a result, he was appointed commander-in-chief for central Luzon when the
Filipino-American hostilities erupted.
However, he had a volatile temper and sharp tongue. He was very vocal against
entering into any deal with the Americans; he opposed autonomy and strongly
advocated a fight for independence. He even arrested members of the Paterno cabinet
after he learned that they were planning to negotiate with the Americans, calling them
traitors. Turned over to Aguinaldo, the Cabinet members were turned loose as soon as
Luna left. These men then poisoned the mind of
Aguinaldo against Luna, saying the hot-headed general was eyeing the presidency. In
reality, Luna was only trying to get popular support for his arrest of the Paterno cabinet and
to drum up opposition to autonomy.

Here’s how Luna was killed as narrated in the book History of the Filipino People by
Teodoro Agoncillo and Milagros C. Guerrero:

Upon Aguinaldo’s invitation, General Luna on June 5, 1899, went to a convent in

Cabanatuan, Nueva Ecija, which served as Aguinaldo’s headquarters. When he arrived,
Aguinaldo had already left for San Isidro, Nueva Ecija. Luna slapped the sentry at the
convent as he went upstairs. There, he saw Felipe Buencamino, whom he despised, and
they exchanged heated words. A rifle shot was heard from downstairs. He rushed
downstairs, and there, members of the Kawit Company, one of whom he had
recommended for punishment, mobbed him. Several stabbed him with daggers; others
shot at him. He was able to run to the street. He fired his pistol, but he didn’t hit anybody.
Colonel Francisco Roman, his aide-de-camp, came to his defense, but he was shot to
death. As he fell on the convent yard, all Luna could say was, “Cow....ards! As...sas...sins!”
The next day, he was buried with military honors. However, no soldiers were investigated
for the killing.

The killing of Luna was a big blow to the cause of the Filipinos. It was, as Constantino
puts it,
“Bonifacio’s fate repeated.” His death deprived the nation of an able militarist. After Luna’s
death, Aguinaldo ordered all chiefs of brigades under Luna arrested. He also ordered the
disarming of two companies suspected of being pro-Luna. Such acts, especially the
slaying of Luna, led to the demoralization of the army, as he had had a wide following.

BACK TO THE BATTLEFIELDS

The Filipino army gradually broke up with one defeat after another on the battlefields.
By the closing months of 1899, the army of the Philippine Republic was no longer a regular
fighting force, and on November 12, 1899, the army was dissolved by Aguinaldo. It was
formed into guerrilla units that would carry on the war.

One by one, towns and provinces throughout the archipelago fell to the U.S. forces.
Many of his civilian and military officials surrendered to or were captured by the Americans.
Many of them, including Mabini, who was captured in December 1899, were deported to
Guam in January 1901.

The Capture of Aguinaldo. The capture of Aguinaldo was placed by the Americans as one
of their priorities. He was able to avoid capture for quite sometime, though. That was due
to the loyalty of many townspeople in the different provinces, who warned his party
whenever American troops were closing in.

Battle of Tirad Pass. He was also able to win some more time because of the heroic
sacrifice of General Gregorio del Pilar, the “boy general” in the famous Battle of Tirad Pass
on December 2, 1900, in Mountain Province. In this narrow 2,800-meter-high pass, General
del Pilar, with a handpicked force of only 60 men, held off for more than five hours a
battalion of Texans of the U.S. 33rd Volunteers led by Major Peyton C. March. They had
been pursuing Aguinaldo and his party. Of the 60, 52 were killed and wounded; one of the
lasts to be killed was General del Pilar. [This lost was in part due to the traitor, Igorot
Christian, Januario Galut for he revealed to the pursuing Americans a secret route to the
peak of the pass]

Aguinaldo was finally captured on March 23, 1901, in Palanan, Isabela Province, by
means of a trick planned by Brigadier General Frederick Funston. A party of pro-American
Macabebe scouts marched into Palanan pretending to be the reinforcements that
Aguinaldo was waiting for. With the Macabebes were two former Filipino army officers, Tal
Placido and Lazaro Segovia, who had surrendered to the Americans, and five Americans,
including General Funston, who pretended to be captives. Caught by surprise,
Aguinaldo’s guards were easily overpowered by the Macabebes after a brief exchange
of shots. Aguinaldo was seized by Tal Placido and placed under arrest by General Funston.

He was brought to Manila to be kept a prisoner at Malacañang. There he was treated

by General MacArthur more as a guest than as a prisoner. On April 1, 1901, convinced of
the futility of continuing the war, the ambivalent Aguinaldo swore allegiance to the United
States. On April 19,1901, Aguinaldo issued a proclamation calling on the Filipino people to
lay down their arms and accept American rule. His capture signaled the death of the First
Philippine Republic. But the war continued.

WAR CRIMES
During the war, torture was resorted to by American troops to obtain information and
confessions. The water cure was given to those merely suspected of being rebels. Some
were hanged by the thumbs, others were dragged by galloping horses, or fires lit beneath
others while they were hanging.
Another form of torture was tying to a tree and then shooting the suspect through the
legs. If a confession was not obtained, he was again shot, the day after. This went on until
he confessed or eventually died.
Villages were burned, townfolks massacred and their possessions looted. In Samar and
Batangas, Brigadier General Jacob H. Smith and General Franklin Bell, respectively,
ordered the mass murders in answer to the mass resistance.
On the other hand, Filipino guerrillas chopped off the noses and ears of captured
Americans in violation of Aguinaldo’s orders. There were reports that some Americans were
buried alive by angry Filipino guerrillas. In other words, brutalities were perpetrated by both
sides.

The Pacification of Samar. Due to the public demand in the U.S. for retaliation, President
Theodore Roosevelt ordered the pacification of Samar. And in six months, General “Jake”
Smith transformed Balangiga into a “howling wilderness.” He ordered his men to kill
anybody capable of carrying arms, including ten-year old boys.

Smith particularly ordered Major Littleton Waller to punish the people of Samar for the
deaths of the American troops. His exact orders were: “I want no prisoners. I wish you to kill
and burn, the more you kill and burn, the better you will please me.”

When the campaign was over, the U. S. army court-martialed and retired General Smith
from the service. There were reports that about one third of the entire population of Samar
was annihilated during the campaign.

Concentration Camps. The Americans committed barbaric acts because of the

population’s support to the guerrillas. For instance, by December 25, 1901, all men, women,
and children of the towns of Batangas and Laguna, were herded into small areas within
the poblacion of their respective towns. The American troops burned their houses, carts,
poultry, animals, etc. The people were prisoners for months.

General Miguel Malvar of Batangas, who took over the leadership of the fallen
Aguinaldo, continued the fight. He was the commanding general of all forces south of the
Pasig River.

Many Filipino soldiers and military officers surrendered to the Americans, but there were
some who refused to give up. On February 27, 1902, General Vicente Lukban, who resorted
to ambushing American troops in Samar, was captured in Samar. General Malvar
surrendered to General J. Franklin Bell in Lipa, Batangas, on April 16, 1902.

“Official” End of the Philippine-American War. On July 4, 1902, President Theodore

Roosevelt declared that the Philippine-American War, which Americans called the
Philippine
Insurrection, was over. He made the declaration after the Philippine Commission reported
to Roosevelt that the recent “insurrection” in the Philippines was over and a general and
complete state of peace existed.

Sporadic Fighting Continues. Official history proclaims Filipino struggle against the
Americans as a short one and honors those who connived with the Americans. But little
importance has been given to those who stood by the original goals of the Katipunan.

However, according to author Constantino, peace in the Philippines was merely

propaganda. He said, in reality, the reports of the American commanding general and
several governors showed that numerous towns and villages remained in a state of
constant rebellion. They themselves recognized that this could not have continued without
the people’s support. Many collaborators were killed by resistance forces.

The civil government, composed of 6,000 men, was established. It was, however, led by
American officers and former members of the Spanish civil guards.

Civil Guards. Initially, the highest rank a Filipino could hold was only second lieutenant.
(Americans continued to head the constabulary until 1917.) The constabulary was used to
quell local resistance. Constantino terms these suppressive efforts of using a native force
“the original Vietnamization.” He adds that some military techniques employed against
Philippine resistance groups “strikingly similar to those that have more recently shocked the
world.”

The Katipunan Becomes Alive. Many resistance groups under different leaders had
emerged during the war years. Luciano San Miguel, who joined the Katipunan in 1886
revived the
Katipunan in his command in Zambales Province. He was a colonel when the
PhilippineAmerican War broke out. As a commander, he participated in the battles of 1899
in central and western Luzon, including Morong and Bulacan.

In 1902, he was elected national head of the revived Katipunan. He continued the
guerrilla war. He died in a battle with Philippine Constabulary and Philippine Scouts.

Faustino Guillermo, assumed the leadership of the new Katipunan movement when San
Miguel was killed. Others who took part in the guerrilla warfare were Macario Sakay, who
had been with Bonifacio and Jacinto during the initial struggles of the Katipunan, and
Julian Montalan and Cornelio Felizardo.

The Philippine Constabulary, Philippine Scouts, and elements of the United States Army
combined to go after the guerrillas.

In the province of Albay, General Simeon Ola launched guerrilla raids on U.S.-occupied
towns until his surrender on September 25, 1903. He was the last Filipino general to surrender
to the Americans.

Sakay, leader of a band of patriotic Filipinos and whom the Americans branded as a
bandit, continued to fight. He even established the Tagalog “Republic.” He surrendered
on July 14, 1906. Sakay and his men were tried and convicted as bandits. Sakay was
hanged on September 13, 1907.

It took the United States more than three years to defeat the army of the first Philippine
Republic. However, the outcome of the war was never in doubt, mainly because the
United States enjoyed tremendous military advantages.
In numbers alone, the U.S. was superior. Although there were only 20,032 enlisted men
and 819 officers in the U.S. Expeditionary Force in the Philippines as of January 31, 1899,
more troops arrived in subsequent months. By April 16, 1902, more than 120,000 American
soldiers had fought or served in the Philippines. Even more superior were the arms used by
the
Americans, who were well-equipped. U.S. warships were on the coast, ready to fire their
big guns when needed.
In contrast, the Filipino arms were motley of rifles. Some had been supplied by the
Americans during the Spanish-American War, others smuggled in by Filipino patriots, seized
from the Spanish army, or taken from American soldiers. Artillery was likewise limited. Most
of their cannons were captured from the Spaniards. Many Filipino soldiers did not even
have guns, but used spears, lances and bolos (big knives) in fighting. Filipino soldiers also
lacked military training. They did manage to win some small battlefield encounters, but
these only delayed the ultimate victory for the Americans. Their resistance did not arouse
public opinion in America against the U.S. military campaigns in the Philippines to the same
degree that American public opinion forced the United States to withdraw from the
Vietnam War more than 70 years later.
Nevertheless, the United States had to pay a very high price, more than 4,000 American
soldiers’ lives. One of them was Major General Henry C. Lawton, who was killed in the Battle
of San Mateo on December 23, 1899. He was the highest-ranking U.S. military officer to be
killed in action in the Philippine-American War. The U.S. government also spent about $600
million in all.

Why the Filipinos lost in the Philippine-American War: A Summary*

1. The United States had better weapons.

2. Lack and lost of effective military leaders.

With the murder of Antonio Luna, the struggle lost its most effective military strategist. The
Americans were, on the whole, more adept in military science but if the Filipinos had
carried out a full scale guerilla operation from the beginning of the struggle, the revolution
might have lasted longer and (as in Vietnam) the American public might have eventually
got tired of the effort.

3. Bad leadership and vicious opportunism on the part of the Ilustrados.

The Ilustrados joined with the wealthy hacienderos had greater loyalty to their own
interests than that of Filipino independence. In Chapter X of the La Revolucion Filipina, it is
written:

To sum it up, the Revolution failed because it was badly led; because it’s leader
[Aguinaldo] won his post by reprehensible rather than meritorious acts; because instead
of supporting the men most useful to the people, he made them useless out of jealousy…
He judged the worth of men not by their ability, character, and patriotism, but rather by
their degree of friendship and kinship with him; and, anxious to secure the readiness of his
favorites to sacrifice themselves for him, he was tolerant even of their transgressions…

4. Public education and the promise of democracy.

It became apparent to the common Filipino that Americans were not the severe colonial
masters as were most European conquerors. With the arrival of American schoolteachers,
and the advent of universal education, the lowliest peasant realized his aspirations for
education. Ingrained in Americans were the ideals of democracy. Despite many flaws,
their goal was a democratically stable Philippine government.
REACTIONS TO SPANISH COLONIALISM – REVOLTS,
RESISTANCE, REFORM & REVOLUTION—WEAVING OF A
NATIONAL CONSCIOUSNESS
Article I. I. REVOLTS & REBELLION* **

Almost anywhere in the Philippines, Filipinos opposed Spanish imposition of sovereignty.

Uprisings broke out against Spaniards and these were motivated by varied but interrelated
reasons. The former chieftains who lost their power, influence and status led revolts due to
personal and political dissatisfaction. Babaylans and Katalonas (native priests) rose in an
attempt to regain their influence over the Christianized populace. They revolted (by way
of crafts and idolatry) against Spanish missionaries who overtook their power. Still others
rose up in arms due to the oppressive economic institutions (tribute, force labor, monopoly
of businesses), and due to agrarian problems.

The following are examples of these uprisings:

1. Lakandula and Sulayman revolt (1574)

Disenchanted with ill-kept promises of the Spaniards that they would be exempted from
taxation, the two former chieftains attacked the newly established Spanish citadel in
Manila. But the revolt was aborted by the assurance that their request would be granted.

2. Conspiracy of the Maharlika [led by Martin Pangan and Agustin de Legaspi, 1587]

In an attempt to regain the “freedom and leadership, which their fathers had enjoyed
before them,” former ruler of Tondo, Polo, Pandacan, Navotas and other barangays
conspired to attack the Spaniards. But when a native spy informed the Spanish authorities
about the plot, the leaders of the conspiracy were immediately arrested and executed.
The rest were exiled to distant places in and out of the country.

3. Tamblot (1621) and Bankaw (1622) revolt

Tamblot, a former babaylan and Bankaw, a former chieftain led separate revolts for
the purpose of restoring the old religion, but the Spanish soldiers, with the aid of Filipino
soldiers loyal to Spain, suppressed the uprisings and severely punished the perpetuators.

Tamblot persuaded two thousand Boholanos who revolted against the Jesuits. They
burned four villages and churches, threw away rosaries and crosses, and pierced an
image of the Virgin repeatedly with their spears.

Bankaw’s followers destroyed church properties and erected a temple for their god.
Men, women ad children fought the Spaniards but after they were defeated, Bankaw was
arrested and his head was severed then placed on a stake as a public warning. His son
was beheaded and his daughter was captured.

4. Dagohoy’s revolt (1744, the longest revolt)

Angered and humiliated by the refusal of a Jesuit priest to give a Christian burial to his
brother (who was killed in a duel), Dagohoy incited the people of Bohol to revolt. Dagohoy
persuaded a number of 20, 000 followers who have been subjected to cheating and
cruelty.

To escape arrest and punishment, Dagohoy and his followers fled to the mountains.
And even after Dagohoy’s death, his followers continued the revolt until finally, after 85
years of uprising, the revolt was suppressed.

5. Magalat revolt (1596)

The arbitrary and illegal collection of tribute forced Magalat of Cagayan to foment a
revolt. But native assassins hired by the Spaniards liquidated Magalt. His death served to
dishearten and disperse the rebels.

6. Maniago revolt (1660)

Francisco Maniago led the natives of Pampanga to revolt against the government
practice of forcing them to cut timber and hauling them to Cavite for the construction of
the galleons. The revolt was also caused by the unpaid arrears for the rice collected
through the Bandala.

To stop the revolt, the Spaniards used both peaceful means and force. Mercenaries
were hired; parish priests and native chiefs were employed to weaken the movement.
Hence, an agreement was signed and general amnesty was granted to the rebels.

7. Diego and Gabriela Silang revolt (1762-63)

Complaints about anomalous collection of tribute and excesses of the alcalde mayores
in the exercise of indulto de commercio led to the revolt of Silang in Ilocos Sur. The revolt
later spread to Pangasinan and Cagayan.

The exhortation made by bishop Ustariz to the ilokos to stop supporting Silang weakened
the revolt. Silang’s followers, especially his friend and aide Pedro Becbec, turned against
him. He was later assassinated by his aide and Miguel Vicos.

Gabriela, Diego’s wife continued the revolt. She even went to Abra and convinced the
Tinggians (Itnegs) to join her against the Spaniards, but she was later captured and
executed.

8. Hermano Pule revolt (1840)

Dominicans refused to admit Apolinario de la Cruz (who wanted to pursue a priestly

vocation) because he was a native. Hence, he established a religious brotherhood in
Quezon (Tayabas), which gained thousands of adherents even in Laguna and Batangas.
De la Cruz sought Spanish recognition for the brotherhood but the Spaniards instead
arrested them. In 1841, the brotherhood revolted and killed the provincial governor. As a
consequence, de la Cruz was captured and was publicly executed.

9. Agrarian Revolts (18th century)

In Batangas, revolts broke out as a protest against the unconditional appropriation of

their land by the Jesuits. Peasant unrest spread to Laguna, Cavite and Morong (Rizal) but
government troops sent from Manila quelled the revolt.

MUSLIM RESISTANCE**

From the inception of colonial rule, Spaniards attempted to secure Muslim recognition
of their power and authority by engaging the Muslims, which they called “Moro” in
continuous warfare.
Several Spanish military expeditions were sent to capture the Muslim territories. In 1578,
for example, Governor-General Francisco de Sande sent a Spanish force to Jolo against
the Tausog warriors. After defeating the Tausogs, the Spaniards exacted tributes from them
and sailed away.
The attack on Jolo did not mean that the Muslims were colonized for it actually ignited the
long Muslim-Spanish wars. More wars would ensue after the defeat of the Tausogs: the
battle between Figueroa’s Christian Filipino-Spanish forces and Datu Ubal Sirungan’s
Bwayan warriors (1596); the retaliation of Muslims against the Christianized Visayans, which
resulted to the burning and plundering of coastal villages (1599); the inutile attempt of
Juan Gallinato’s forces to conquer the Muslims after losing hand-to-hand combats in the
forests and swamps of Jolo (1602). These wars would continue to haunt the Spanish
colonizers exceeding even after their downfall in 1898.

IGOROT RESISTANCE

Spanish records leave no doubt that these mountain people [Igorots] fought for their
liberty with every means at their disposal for 320 years, and that this resistance was
deliberate, selfconscious, and continuous. That it was largely successful is indicated by the
fact that at the end of the Spanish regime when Igorot territory have been carved up into
a dozen military districts, the last census still listed one-third of the estimated mountain
population as completely independent.

Although the Spaniards were able to establish short-lived garrisons in Baguio area in
1620, 1623 and 1625, and occupied Kayan near the Mankayan mines in 1668, the pressure
of political problems elsewhere prevented further exploration of the Igorotland.

In 1767, Spanish government troops were repulsed in Kiangan, Ifugao. In the late 1850’s
the Ifugaos killed or drove out the Spanish missionaries resident in Mayaoyao, Bunluan and
Kiangan.

The standard Spanish tactic of waging war against the Igorots was applying the torch
to thatched houses ad ripening grain—“enter with fire and blood”—and the standard
Igorot response was to neither surrender nor submit but simply retreat deeper into the
Cordillera. And in other instances, Igorots would, for a while, “cooperate” with the
colonizers, then go back to the mountains and continue their resistance.

The use of the missionaries to subdue the Igorots was also strongly resisted by the Igorots.
In 1755, for example, Fr. Cristobal Rodriguez was turned back by the Igorots who said, “their
god didn’t want him to go through because they would all die if they let him pass”. In 1762,
armed Igorots from entering the Igorot territory prevented Fray Manuel Alvarez.

In another occasion, an Igorot priestess said to a missionary, “If you’re the priest of the
Christians, so am I of the Igorots, and if you have your god, I have mine”. Still in another
instance, after preaching a sermon on the life of St. Augustine to inmates of a prison in
Tuguegarao, a priest got dismayed when he argued with an Igorot who insisted that no
colored man had ever become a white man’s saint.

____________________________________________
Source: Tolentino, D. (ed) 1994. Resistance & Revolution in the Cordillera. (Igorot resistance
is an excerpt of the original text)

Chinese Revolts

Besides the numerous Filipino revolts against the Spaniards, Chinese had their share of
uprisings, too. The first was the revolt incited by Eng-Kang, a rich Chinese merchant. The
Chinese attacked Tondo and Qiuapo setting the buildings on fire and killing dwellers.
Another revolt was caused by Governor-general Corcuera’s harsh order forcing the
Chinese to work in Calamba, Laguna and by the abuses committed by Spanish tribute
collectors. Chinese killed the alcalde mayor of Laguna and several Spanish Friars. There
were other subsequent Chinese revolts but all these were repulsed with the help of loyal
Christian Filipino soldiers.

FAILURE OF THE REVOLTS

All the earlier resistance, which occurred in cyclical pattern were failures. Because of
the insular make-up of the Philippines, the early Filipinos were conditioned to love and feel
apart from each other for almost 333 years. There was no sense of national unity. Thus,
there was wide communication gap among Filipinos. There was no national leader to lead
the people in their uprisings.

The absence of nationalism could be attributed to the “divide et impere” (divide and
rule) colonial policy of the Spaniards. This policy gradually resulted to antagonism among
the Filipinos for pacified Christianized Filipinos were used by the Spaniards to fight the
Muslim Filipinos and other pagans.

II. PHILIPPINE NATIONALISM*

NATIONALISM is the condition of mind, feelings, or sentiment of a group of people living in

a well-defined geographical area, speaking a common language, possessing a literature
in which the aspirations of a nation have been expressed, being attracted to common
conditions, and in some cases, having a common religion… (Luis L. Snyder)

FACTORS THAT ACCELERATED PHILIPPINE NATIONALISM

A. Opening of the Philippines to International Trade

The opening of Philippines to international trade sometime in 1834 resulted to an

extraordinary socio-economic changes in the lives of the Filipinos. It brought great
transformation from the preceding centuries of economic stagnation created by the
monopolistic policy of Spain. With the opening of ports [a place of customary entry and
exit] ensued greater demands for export crops such as rice, sugar, abaca and tobacco.
Chinese and Chinese mestizos profited highly from this trade.

Banking improved and a number of hotels for travelers and places of relaxation
opened. Obviously, there was an unprecedented economic development and optimism
for a better life for the people of the Philippines.

B. Rise of the Middle Class [Media Clase]

As a result of the great economic transformation in the life of the Filipino, a middle-class
of Asian and Eurasian mestizos emerged in the Philippine social pyramid. They emerged
from the economic boom derived from the expanded agriculture and commerce
embarked on by the rising native entrepreneurs. The rise of the middle class was highly
visible in the residential organization of Manila society.

Intramuros, served as the politico-religious center of the Spanish enclave in the

Philippines. Outside the walls, were the Filipino, Chinese and mestizo communities
concentrated in different areas.

Later, it would be from this social class that the best minds would dominate the
campaign for reforms.

C. European Liberalism and the Reign of Carlos Maria de la Torre

LIBERALISM is an attitude toward the society, economy, and government favoring

gradual reform and ordered change rather than reaction or revolution and opposed
equally to arbitrary censorship and undue license in dealing with ideas.

This thought was embodied in the outcry of the French revolutionaries: “LIBERTY,
EQUALITY and FRATERNITY”. When the Liberals in Spain got hold of power, Carlos Maria de
la Torre was appointed governor-general in the Philippines. And during his term, he gave
the Filipinos a taste of freedom---FREEDOM OF EXPRESSION.

Governor de la Torre was unpopular with the Manila Spaniards and with the Regular
Spanish clergy who overly demonstrated their aversion for him. He shocked the Spaniards
when he even led a group of Filipino elites in a toast to liberty.
He abolished press espionage and proclaimed freedom of speech. He abrogated
flogging for Filipino deserters and supplemented it with a month-long imprisonment. He
allowed Filipinos to hold meetings and organize associations.

However, de la Torre’s liberalism was criticized to be superficial for he ordered secret

investigations against liberal Filipino leaders, which even included Fr. Jose Burgos.

D. Racial Discrimination

Racism in the Philippines during the Spanish period was abundant in documentary
proof. The most poisonous attack on the Filipino race came from the Franciscan Fr. Miguel
Lucio y Bustamante who expressed that the Filipino could never learn the Spanish
language or be civilized. He differentiated the Spaniards from the Filipino by saying that
“the Spaniard will always be a Spaniard and the Indio will always be an Indio. The monkey
[indio] will always be a monkey, however you dress him with shirt and trousers, he will
always be a monkey and not human.”

Some of these acts of racism committed by the Spaniards were:

1. The townspeople were obliged to remove their hats when Spaniards passed
by.
2. If the Spaniard was a priest, the Filipino was obliged to kiss him by the hand.
3. No Indio was allowed to sit at the same table with the Spaniard even if the
Spaniard was a guest in the Indio’s house.
4. Filipino wives of Spaniards were looked down in the society as belonging to
an inferior class.

E. Regular-Secular Conflict

Conflict arose between the Regular clergy [Augustinians, Recolletos, Dominicans,

Jesuits] and Seculars [mostly parish priests] due to the non-observance of the
Secularization Policy in the Philippines. Secularization refers to the transfer of ministries
established or run by Regular [Friars] to the seculars.

This conflict culminated to the establishment of separatist movement, which exploded

in the Filipinization of the church, and its separation from Rome. (i.e. Aglipayan or Philippine
Independent Church)

F. Cavity Mutiny of 1872 and the martyrdom of GOMBURZA

After Governor de la Torre left the Philippines, a new governor-general arrived. He was
Rafael de Izquierdo, who said that he shall “ govern with a cross on one hand and a sword
on the other.” Izquierdo was considered a tyrant for he abolished all the liberal rights
extended to the Filipinos by the former governor-general.

Enraged by discontent against the Spaniards, 200 Filipino soldiers, joined in by some
workers in the arsenal of the artillery corps led by Sgt. La Madrid, mutinied in the night of
January 1872.
The mutiny’s causes were: unreasonable deduction in the wages, loss of exemption
privileges from tributes and forced labor, unpaid wages and unjust payments.

Although the mutiny was localized, the Spaniards viewed the event as an overturning
of the colonial rule in the Archipelago. To make matters worse, the Spaniards accused
Fathers Mariano Gomez, Jose Burgos, and Jacinto Zamora as the agitators of the anti-
Spanish movement. Thus, the authorities executed the priests by guillotine (garrote).

Jose Rizal observed the significance of the Cavite revolt when he wrote in 1889 that:

“It may be possible to stimulate another revolt like that of Cavite and then, because
of it, cut off the heads of many educated persons, but from the blood spilled, fresher and
more shoots will sprout. Before the catastrophe of 1872, there were less thoughtful people,
less anti-friars; they sacrificed innocent victims; but now you have the young, the women,
and the young ladies declaring themselves in favor of the same cause. Repeat the
sacrifice and the executioners will be sealing their own fate.”

III. PROPAGANDA MOVEMENT* **

The Propaganda Movement was not a radical agitation to overthrow Spanish rule by a
bloody resolution. It was a peaceful campaign, vigorously carried on by means of pen,
brush and tongue, to seek reforms from Spain for the improvement of its colonial
government and for the welfare of the oppressed Filipinos.

Generally, the reforms they sought for were:

1. Equality of Filipinos and Spaniards before the law;

2. Assimilation of the Philippines as a regular province of Spain;
3. Restoration of Philippine representation in the Spanish Cortes;
4. Filipinization of the Philippine parishes and expulsion of the friars; and
5. Human rights for Filipinos, such as freedom of speech, of the press, and to
meet and petition for redress of grievances.

LA SOLIDARIDAD: Organ of the Propaganda Movement

Realizing the importance of mass media to propagate Propaganda objectives,

Graciano Lopez-Jaena founded a newspaper, La Solidaridad, in Barcelona, Spain on
February 15, 1889. The aims of which are:

1. To portray vividly the deplorable conditions of the Philippines

2. To work peacefully for political and social reforms
3. To combat evil forces of medievalism and reaction
4. To advocate liberal ideas and progress
5. To champion the legitimate aspirations of the Filipino people for democracy
and happiness

Other Filipinos who contributed articles for the La Solidaridad were:

Writers Pennames

Dr. Jose Rizal Laong Laan / Dimas

Alang
M.H. del Pilar Plaridel
Mariano Ponce Tikbalang / Naning
Antonio Luna Taga-Ilog
Jose Ma. Panganiban Jomapa

The Spaniards in the Philippines naturally forbade the reading of the periodical, but their
vigilance was not enough to discourage the Filipinos from smuggling copies of the
forbidden newspaper. Though the Sol didn’t succeed in influencing Spain to grant reforms,
it succeeded in exposing the evils in the Philippine society and in belying the Spanish claim
that there had no civilization before the coming of the Spaniards.

HISPANO-FILIPINO ASSOCIATION

The Hispano-Filipino Association was conceived as early as 1888 but it was inaugurated
in January 12, 1889 in Madrid, Spain. Filipino propagandists and their Spanish friends
organized themselves to secure for reforms for the Philippines. Prominent among the
Spanish members were Miguel Morayta, professor of history at the Universidad Central de
Madrid, and Felipe de la Corte, a writer of Philippine Studies.

Among the reforms needed in the Philippines the organization outlined were:

1. The compulsory teaching of Spanish in all schools;

2. The suppression of inhuman punishment in all jails;
3. The establishment of the civil register and the register of deeds;
4. Abolition of the diezmos prediales (tax which amounted to one-tenth of the
produce of the land) and the sancturom (tax for the support of the church);
5. Establishment of secondary schools in the provinces;
6. Establishment of agricultural banks;
7. Reforms in the University of Sto. Tomas in order to raise it to the rank of the
universities in Spain;
8. Initiation of reforms in the public administration; and
9. Construction of good roads and railways.

Due to the concerted effort of the association, laws were passed in the Cortes (Law-
Making Body of Spain), which could have been beneficial to the Filipinos had they been
carried out religiously. An example was the passing of the Maura Law in 1893, which was
to provide more autonomy to local officials and curb the excesses of the friars.

THE ROLE OF THE MASONRY

Disgusted with the role of friars in Philippine affairs, the Filipino propagandists in Spain
affiliated with Masonic lodges in Spain. Masonic lodges were a secret fraternity of skilled
persons. The leading Filipino Masons decided to establish lodges in the Philippines. Pedro
Paterno and Antonio Luna were selected to carry out the plan. Thus, the lodge Nilad was
established in 1892.
The Masons were careful in their pronouncements, for they did not want to antagonize
unduly the Spanish authorities. Their platform was:

1. A dignified, free and prosperous country (Philippines)

2. A democratic regime;
3. A good government and good administration;
4. Representation in the Spanish Cortes; and
5. Declaration of Philippines as a Spanish province.

At the outbreak of the revolution, Masonry was already deeply entrenched in the
Philippines. The creation of more lodges worried the Spanish authorities…”an alarm exists
here [Philippines] about the separatist work in the Archipelago through Masonic
propaganda that excludes all Spaniards and is directed exclusively to the natives.
“ (content of a cablegram sent to the colonial government in the Philippines by the Minister
of Colonies)

LA LIGA FILIPINA

Almost simultaneously with the introduction of Masonry in the country, Jose Rizal
proposed the establishment of a civic society, which he called La Liga Filipina. Its
constitution was drafted in Hongkong and the society was officially established on July 3,
1892. The aims were as follows:

1. To unite the whole archipelago into one compact, vigorous, and

homogenous body;
2. Mutual protection in every want and necessity;
3. Defense against all violence and injustice;
4. Encouragement of instruction, agriculture, and commerce; and
5. Study and application of reforms.

The fate of the organization was doomed with the arrest of Jose Rizal and his
deportation to Dapitan, Zamboanga. Conflict among its members arose. The middle class
members vainly hoped that reforms could still be granted with the help of the La
Solidaridad. The poor members led by Andres Bonifacio thought that there was no hope
for reforms. Thus, Bonifacio founded the Katipunan Movement.

FAILURE OF THE REFORM MOVEMENT

The Reform Movement failed in its campaign for reforms due to the following:

1. Spain was too pre-occupied with its own internal problems to give a
moment’s thought to the colonial problem;
2. The reform movements in the Philippines lacked sufficient means to carry out
their aims. There were no enough funds.
3. The propagandists were divided against themselves by petty jealousy. Thus,
the ties among them weakened.
IV. THE KATIPUNAN MOVEMENT*

The failure of the reform movement instigated the founding of a secret revolutionary
movement, which was called Kataastaasan Kagalang-galang na Katipunan nang
manga Anak ng Bayan [KKK] or Katipunan for short on July 7, 1892.

Andres Bonifacio, Valentin Diaz, Teodoro Plata, Ladislao Diwa, Deodato Arellano, and
a few others met in Tondo, performed the ancient blood compact, and signed their
membership papers with their own blood.
To win more members, the Katipunan employed the so-called triangle method in which
an original member would take in two new members who did not know each other but
knew only the original member. Later the method was abandoned because recruitment
was too slow, so that it was agreed that any member could take in as many members as
he could get.

Women were also included in the Katipunan. In 1893, soon after Andres Bonifacio’s
second marriage to Gregoria de Jesus, the Women’s Chapter of the KKK was established.
The women acted as a front for the clandestine goings-on of the Katipuneros and they
took the responsibility of securing important documents of the organization.

AIMS OF THE KATIPUNAN

1. Political Aim: Separation of the Philippines from Spain

2. Moral Aim: Teaching of good manners, hygiene, good morals, and attacking
obscurantism, religious fanaticism, and weakness of character
3. Civic Aim: Adherence to the principle of self-help and the defense of the
poor and oppressed.

STRUCTURE OF THE KATIPUNAN

1. Kataastaasang Sanggunian [Supreme Council]

It is the highest governing body of the society and was composed of a president, a fiscal,
a secretary, a treasurer and an comptroller.

2. Sanggunian Bayan [Provincial Council]

It represented the province and had a council similar to the Supreme Council.

3. Sangguniang Balangay [Populr Council]

It represented the municipality or town and has a council similar to the Supreme Council

4. Sangguniang Hukuman [Judicial Council]

It sat as a court of justice to pass judgment on any member who violated the rules of the
society or to mediate between quarreling brethren or factions.

A closer look into the aims and into the political structure of the KKK would reveal
characteristics of the Propaganda movement. This should not be surprising because
Bonifacio and a good number of Katipuneros were members of the defunct Masonry and
other Reform movements.
KINDS OF MEMBERSHIP

1. Katipon: They wore black hood in the meetings of the society. Their password
is Anak ng Bayan.
2. Kawal/Soldiers: They wore a green hood triangle. Their password was
GOMBURZA.
3. Bayani/Patriot: They wore a red mask. Their password was RIZAL.

The Katipon could graduate to the Kawal class if he had bought several members into
the society, while the Kawal could become a Bayani upon being elected an officer of the
society.

KALAYAAN: The Katipunan Newspaper

Kalayaan , the name of the society’s organ was suggested by Dr. Pio Valenzuela and
was approved by Andres Bonifacio and Emilio Jacinto. To fool the Spanish authorities, M.
H del Pilar’s name served as front as editor, while in fact, it was Jacinto who was the real
editor. Copies of the first and only publication were secretly distributed in Manila, Cavite,
Morong (Rizal), Caloocan, Malabon and other places.
ANDRES BONIFACIO is the founder and
EMILIO JACINTO is known as the “Brains
organizer of the Katipunan. He was born
of the Katipunan”. He was born in
in Tondo on November 30, 1863.
Tondo on December 15, 1875.
He studied the alphabet in a school
As a boy, he spent most of the day
conducted by Guillermo Osmeña of
in the streets and so came to learn a
Cebu. The
kind of Spanish, which may be
described as bamboo Spanish.
death of his parents forced him to give up
his schooling to shoulder the burden of his
He enrolled at San Juan de Letran
family. Though limited in education, he
College and later at the University of
was endowed with a beautiful
Santo Tomas, where he developed a
penmanship and an interest in
taste of reading.
craftsmanship. He made canes and
paper fans, which he peddled around.
At the age of eighteen, he joined
He made posters for business firms and
the Katipunan, becoming the
the little free time he had was spent for
youngest member of them all. Honest
self-study.
and highly intelligent, he won the
admiration of Bonifacio and
As a lover of books, he was able to
subsequently became his trusted friend
read such books life “The Wandering Jew,
and adviser.
Uncle
AS the brains of the Katipunan, he
Tom’s Cabin, The Lives of the American
was the author of articles, which
Presidents, Count of Monte Cristo, and
influenced the masses to join the
the Novels of Jose Rizal.
society and to make sacrifices for the
welfare of the native land.
He was employed as a clerk-messenger
He was the editor of the society’s
in the commercial firm of Fleming and
newspaper, which voiced the
Co. and later transferred to Fressell and
aspirations of the people.
Co. as an agent.
The secret of his success as
He married Gregoria de Jesus of
propaganda writer lies in the simplicity
Caloocan in 1892 at Binondo church and
of his style, a style that reflected his
was remarried according to Katipunan
personality. Precisely because of the
rites.
simplicity of his style, the masses
understood him and felt the power of
his words.
As the Supremo of the KKK, no one
dared to question his decisions, but he
Aside from his Kartilla, he also wrote
wasn’t dictatorial. He was in fact humble
Liwanag at Dilim (Light and Darkness),
and tolerant. When the society’s sake is
Pahayag (Manifesto), Sa Mga
at stake, he never hesitated to take
Kababayan (To My Countrymen) and
drastic action against anybody whom he
many others.
thought would defeat the purpose of the
Katipunan
TEACHINGS OF THE KATIPUNAN [ KARTILLA ]
Written by Emilio Jacinto

1. Life, which is not consecrated to a lofty and sacred cause is like a tree
without a shadow, if not a poisonous weed.
2. A good deed that springs from a desire for personal profit and not from a
desire to do good is not kindness.
3. True greatness consists in being charitable, in loving one’s fellowmen and in
adjusting every movement, deed and word to true reason.
4. All men are equal, be of color of their skin, black or white. One may be
superior to another in knowledge, wealth and beauty, but cannot be superior in
being.
5. He who is noble prefers to personal gains; he who is mean prefers personal
profit to honor.
6. To a man with a sense of shame, his word is inviolate.
7. Don’t fritter away time; lost riches may be recovered, but time lost will never
come again.
8. Defend the oppressed and fight the oppressor.
9. An intelligent man is he who is cautious in speech and knows how to keep
the secrets that must be guarded.
10. In the thorny path of life, man is a guide of is wife and children; of he who
guides moves toward evil, they who are guided likewise move toward evil.
11. Think not of a woman as a thing merely to while away time with, but as a
helper and partner in the hardships of life. Respect her in her weakness, and
remember the mother who brought you into this world and who cared for you in your
childhood.
12. What you do not want done to your wife, daughter and sister, do not do to
the wife, daughter and sister of another.
13. The nobility of a man does not consist in being a king, nor in the highness of
the nose and the whiteness of the skin, nor in being a priest representing God, nor in
the exalted position in this earth, but pure and truly noble is he who, though born in
the woods, is possessed of an upright character; who is true to his words; who has
dignity and honor; who does not oppress and does not help those who oppress; who
knows how to look after and love the land of his birth.

When these doctrines spread and the Sun of beloved liberty shines with brilliant
effulgence on these unhappy isles and shed its soft rays upon the united people and
brothers in everlasting happiness, the lives, labors, and sufferings of those who are gone
shall be more than recompensed.

KATUNGKULANG GAGAWIN AND MGA ANAK NG BAYAN [Duties of the Sons of the People]
Written by Andres Bonifacio

1. Love God with all your heart.

2. Bear always in mind that the love of God is also the love of Country, and this,
too, is love of one’s fellow men.
3. Engrave in your heart that the true measure of honor and happiness is to die
for the freedom of your country.
4. All your good wishes will be crowned with success if you have serenity,
constancy, reason, and faith in your acts and endeavor.
5. Guard the mandates and aims of the KKK as you guard your honor.
6. It is the duty of all to deliver, at the risk of their own lives and wealth, anyone
who runs great risks in the performance of his duty.
7. Our responsibility to ourselves and the performance of our duties will be the
example set for our fellowmen to follow.
8. Insofar as it is within your power, share your means with the poor and the
unfortunate.
9. Diligence in the work that gives sustenance to you is the true basis of love –
love for your own self, for your wife and children, and for your brothers and
countrymen.
10. Punish any scoundrel and traitor and praise all good work. Believe, likewise,
that the aims of the KKK are God-given for the will of the people is also the will of
God.

____________________
* ** These are excerpts from Agoncillo’s History of the Filipino People, 8th ed, 1990 and from
Zaide’s Philippines: A Unique Nation, 1994
POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE PHILIPPPINES DURING
THE AMERICAN OCCUPATION (1898-1946)* **
COLONIAL OBJECTIVES

1. To pursue the manifest destiny for

America as a world power.
2. To use the Philippines as a source
of raw materials for industries.
3. To use the Philippines as military
base.
4. To have a refueling port for their
ships to China.

THE MILITARY GOVERNMENT (1898-1901)

Under the able command of three

successive
Military Governors namely: Gen. Wesley Meritt;
Gen. Elwell Otis; and Gen. Arthur McArthur, the
following were achieved:

1. Pacification of the country

2. Introduced American schools with
soldiers as the first teachers (Thomasites) Take up the white man’s burden and reap his
3. Laying down of foundation of the old reward… by William H. Walker
civil regime
4. Organized the civil court—
Supreme Court (with Cayetano Arellano as chief justice)
5. Establishment of the Local Government in towns and provinces ( Gen. Henry
G.
Lawton—conducted the first local election in
Baliwag, Bulacan on May 7, 1899)

FIRST PHILIPPINE COMMISSION (1899)

January 20, 1899 –Pres. McKinley appointed the First Philippine Commission (Schurman
Commission), which arrived in Manila on March 4, 1899. (Dr. Jacob Schurman as chairman;
Gen. Otis, Admiral Dewey, Mr Denby and Dr. Worcester as members respectively)

Objective of the Commission: To make a survey of Philippine conditions and to achieve

the peaceful extension of American sovereignty over the Philippines

Aiming to extend their sovereignty in a humane and effective manner, the Americans
contacted influential Filipinos and used them to explain American intentions to the people
and the Americans also sought for the elite’s cooperation in establishing a new political
system (Jose, 2000).
The Commission failed to achieve its objectives [due to the Philippine-American War]
but recommended the following:

1. Establish a territorial government with a bicameral legislature (lower and

upper house)
2. Withdraw military rule in pacified areas
3. Conserve natural resources
4. Organize autonomous local governments
5. Open of the pre-elementary schools
6. Appoint qualified men to important government offices

FILIPINIZATION & THE SECOND PHILIPPINE COMMISSION (1900)

March 16, 1900 – Second Philippine Commission (Taft Commission) was appointed and it
arrived in Manila on June 31, 1900 (with Judge William H. Taft as chairman; Dean
Worcester, Luke Wright, Henry Ide and Prof. Bernard Moses as members respectively)

“INSTRUCTIONS” – served as guidance of the Second Philippine Commission. It contained

the basic democratic principles underlying American policy. It was called “MAGNA CARTA
of the PHILIPPINES”.
“…is not designed for our satisfaction or for the expression of our theoretical views,
but for the happiness, peace, and prosperity of the people of the Philippines.”

Taft’s policy of “the Philippines for the Filipinos” fell squarely within the imperialist
framework. By promoting an improvement in the standard of living of the Filipinos and by
giving them the benefits of American education, Taft would be creating new tastes and
consumer demands, thus developing a profitable market for American products
(Constantino, 1977).

Some Achievements:

1. Passing an act appropriating P 2,000,000 for the construction and repair of

roads and bridges in the Philippines.
2. Issuance of general amnesty to Filipino patriots in arms.
3. Recognition of the “FEDERAL PARTY” –the first political party in the Philippines.
-- the party worked for peace, and collaboration with America

THE SPOONER AMENDMENT. Authorized the American President to proceed with the
establishment of a civil government in the Philippines. It was sponsored by Senator John C.
Spooner, hence the name. It marked the beginning of civil regime in the Philippines.

CIVIL GOVERNMENT : On July 4, 1901, the Civil Government was inaugurated in Manila with
WILLIAM H. TAFT as Civil Governor, who continued to be the head of the Philippine
Commission. And the Commission continued to be the legislative body.

With the Commission headed by Taft, a number of Filipinos were given the opportunity
to become government officials. Some of them are as follows:
a. Arellano Cayetano – Chief Justice of the Supreme Court
b. Gregorio Araneta – Secretary of Finance and Justice
c. Dr. T.H. Pardo de Tavera; Benito Legarda, Sr.; and Jose Luzuriaga – members
of the Commission

PHILIPPINE BILL OF 1902 : The first Congressional Law about the governance of the
Philippines. Also known as Cooper Act.

Provisions:
1. extension of the Bill of Rights to the Filipino People, except the right of jury trial
2. appointment of two Filipino resident commissioners to Washington
3. establishment of an elective Philippine Assembly
4. retention of the Philippine Commission as the upper house of the Legislature,
and Philippine Assembly as lower house
5. conservation of natural resources of the Philippines for the Filipinos

CAMPAIGN FOR PHILIPPINE INDEPENDENCE

Filipino Nationalism did not die even after the capture/surrender of the remaining
revolutionaries who resisted American occupation for nationalistic Filipino writers and artists
continued to advocate freedom in their writings and plays. For this reason the Americans
passed laws, which suppressed nationalism among Filipinos. To wit:

1. Sedition Law (1901). This law imposed the death penalty or along prison term
on anyone who advocated independence or separation from the United States
even by peaceful means. This was the basis of the Colonial administration for
banning political parties advocating independence. This law also punished
journalists and playwrights who dared to publish nationalistic writings
(Constantino, 1977).
2. Brigandage Act (1902). This law meted death or long-term imprisonment for
guerillas branded as outlaws or robbers. Supporters of armed bands were also
meted to years imprisonment (Constantino, 1977).
3. Reconcentration Act (1903). This law authorized provincial governors to
reconcentrate in the towns all residents of outlying barrios if “outlaws” (resistant
fighters) operated in these areas. This facilitated the apprehension of guerillas
that were allegedly being hidden and protected by the civilians. This inhuman
act resulted to the neglect of farms, scarcity of food, undernourishment, poor
sanitary conditions, and prevalence of diseases caused by overcrowding
(Constantino, 1977).
4. Flag Law (1907-1919) – prohibited the public display of the Filipino flag

In 1902, nationalist parties were established by Filipinos. These were: Independence

Party; Nationalist Party; and Democratic Party. The foremost aims were:

1. to keep alive the independence sentiment of the people

2. to counteract the pro-American activities of the Federal Party
THE PHILIPPINE ASSEMBLY: inaugurated at Manila on October 16, 1907 with Sergio Osmena
as Speaker of the Assembly and Manuel Quezon as majority floor leader. There were 80
members, representing the best brains of the nation.

The first bill passed by the Assembly was the GARABALDON law (sponsored by Isauro
Garabaldon), which appropriated one million pesos for barrio schools.

Pursuant to the Philippine bill of 1902, two resident commissioners, Benito Legarda anf
Pablo Ocampo, represented the Filipinos in the American Congress. These commissioners
were the defenders of Filipino interests in America. They pleaded for impendence and
opposed laws that were harmful to the Filipinos.

When Francis Burton Harrison (1913) became the governor-general in the Philippines, he
championed Filipino rights and liberties by replacing American government employees
with Filipinos. Filipinos were placed in charge of executive departments, government-
owned corporations.

JONES LAW of 1916: Law sponsored by Cong. Atkinson Jones and was signed by U.S. Pres.
Woodrow Wilson. This law further backed Harrison’s Filipinization policy.

It contained a preamble declaring that INDEPENDENCE would be granted to the Filipino

people as soon as a stable government could be established in the Philippines. Moreover,
the law saw to it that the basic rights of the Filipino people were safeguarded.

In appreciation to the American policy (Jones Law), Filipinos supported the Americans
in the First World War (1914-1918) by sending Filipino soldiers to fight in Europe and “make
the world safe for democracy”. In France, the first Filipino fatality was Thomas Claudio.

FIRST PHILIPPINE INDEPENDENCE MISSION (1919). After the First World War, Filipino leaders
continued their campaign for independence. Senate President Manuel Quezon, with 40
representatives left for Washington to present their cause to the Americans. Unfortunately,
the U.S. congress, which was controlled by Republicans did not heed the U.S. president’s
recommendation of granting Philippine independence.

The failure of this mission was followed by a series of independence missions, which were
also futile.

WOOD-FORBES MISSION. In 1921, Leonard Wood and Cameron Forbes were sent by U.S.A.
to the Philippines to obtain information about the conditions of the Philippines. The mission
toured the country and conducted conferences in towns and cities. It submitted a report
to the U.S. Pres. Harding, stating that granting of independence be postponed for the
following reasons: (1) poor financial condition of the Philippines (bankruptcy of the
Philippine National Bank); and, (2) instability of government [due to the presence of
corrupt and ignorant politicians].

The suspension of independence was a move the Filipinos considered as a step

backward, prompting Manuel Quezon to say: “I would prefer a government run like hell
by Filipinos [to] a government run like heaven by Americans”(Jose, 2000).
WOOD VS. FILIPINOS. When Leonard Wood became governor-general of the Philippines in
1921, his administration got entangled in a conflict with the Philippine Assembly. In 1923,
such conflict led to a mass resignation of the Filipino cabinet. The Filipino politicians
accused Wood of being anti-Filipino, as shown by his vetoing of the bills sent to him for
signature (Jose, 2000).

Due to this conflict, two opposing political parties (Nationalista and Democracia) united
to fight for the Filipino cause against the Wood Administration. It was called “National
Supreme Council”. The conflict ended with the death of Wood while having his vacation
in America.

Finally, Filipino-American cooperation was restored with the coming of the Republican
governor-generals (i.e., H.L. Stimson, D.F. Davis, and Theodore Roosevelt, Jr.

OSROX MISSION (1931). Headed by Sergio Osmena and Manuel Roxas. With the hope of
gaining favorable results, this mission headed for America. And in 1932, the HARE-
HAWESCUTTING BILL was passed (sponsored by Rep. B.B. Hare, Sen. H.B. Hawes, and Pres.
Herbert Hoover) .

The HHC bill was opposed by Senate President Manuel Quezon because of some
objectionable features. This opposition led to the Osmena-Quezon conflict. Thus, on
October 17,
1933, Quezon himself led an Independence Mission to Washington to secure a better
independence act.

THE TYDINGS-MCDUFFIE LAW (1934). After a series of conferences with Pres. Franklin
Roosevelt and the American Congress, Quezon was able to get the nod of the Americans
for Philippine Independence; thus, the Tydings-McDuffie Law was passed (sponsored by
Sen. Millard Tydings and Rep. John McDuffie) and signed on March 24, 1934. This was a
revised copy of the HHC Act of 1933.

Important Provisions:
1. provided for a 10-year transition period under the Commonwealth of the
Philippines
2. graduated tariff on Philippine exports to America commencing on the 6 th
year of the Commonwealth
3. an annual quota of 50 Filipino immigrants to America
4. control of currency, coinage, foreign trade and foreign relations by America
5. representation of the Commonwealth in America with one Filipino resident
Commissioner
6. representation of the U.S. President in the Philippines with an American High
Commissioner

The Tydings-McDuffie Law authorized the Philippine Legislature to call a Constitutional

convention to draft the Constitution of the Philippines. The drafting of the Constitution
started in July,1934 and was finalized in February, 1935. On March 23, 1935, Pres. Roosevelt
approved the said constitution and on May 14, 1935, the constitution was ratified by the
Filipino people in a plebiscite. Thus, the “1935 CONSTITUTION” was born.

THE SAKDAL UPRISING

Agrarian unrest in the 1920’s up to the mid-1930’s spread like wildfire. In the southern
Tagalog provinces of Laguna, Cavite, and Batangas, a society was founded. It was called
the “Sakdal”, meaning “to accuse”. Its purpose was to obtain “independence with no
master but the people”. Its leader was a fiery and colorful orator, Benigno Ramos, who was
once a minor employee in the Senate, upon the appointment of Quezon. Ramos shaped
the Sakdal into a political party.

Sakdalistas, as they were called, accused the Nacionalistas of failing to obtain

independencedespite the fact that they had been agitating for it for more than 26 years.
They further accused the political leadership [of Quezon] as indifferent to the poor. They
contended that people had to free themselves from the fate imposed upon them by the
elite. The educational system, free trade, and U.S. military and naval installations had kept
the Philippines in bondage and were the root causes of the people’s poverty and
degradation.

In the late afternoon of May 2, 1935 some 400 people took over the municipal building
in
Cabuyao, Laguna, raised the Sakdal flag and proclaimed independence, shouting: “Long
live the Republic of the Philippines!” At dawn the next morning, shooting started between
them and the constabulary, resulting in the deaths of 53 Sakdalistas.

The Sakdalistas were described as “astonishingly ignorant, economically helpless victims

of the local cacique system (landlordism), and the remorseless usurers.” Basing from the
Sakdalistas’ perspective, they staged such uprising because they believed that the
country’s God-given richness was controlled by the Catholic Church, foreigners and a few
rich Filipinos. The Sakdalistas felt they were living examples of honor, being oppressed and
poor, and possessing pure hearts capable of humility, compassion and sacrifice.

THE COMMONWEALTH REPUBLIC. With a duly ratified Constitution, the Commonwealth

Republic headed by pres. Manuel Quezon and Vice-Pres. Sergio Osmena, was
inaugurated on November 15, 1935.

Achievements:
1. Reorganization of the government by creating new offices such as:
Department of National Defense, Institute of National Language, National Council
of Education
2. Granting of new chartered cities—Cebu, IloIlo, Bacolod, Davao, etc.
3. Adoption of the National Language based on Tagalog
4. Promotion of Social Justice (Eight-Hour Labor Act, Appointment of Public
Defenders)
5. Compulsory military training of able-bodied Filipino youths
6. Census of the Philippines in 1939
7. Improvement in the Philippine Economy (growth in agriculture, commerce
and industries)
8. Creation of the Joint Preparatory Committee on Philippine Affairs (JPCPA),
which recommended the granting of Independence on July 4, 1946
9. Amendments to the 1935 Constitution: creation of a Bicameral Legislature; a
four-year tenure of office for the President and Vice-President with reelection; and
creation of an Independent Commission on Elections
10. Granting of woman suffrage

WORLD WAR TWO. The outbreak of the world war in 1939 proved disastrous for the
Commonwealth Republic. On December 7, 1941, the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor in
Hawaii. On December 8, 1941, the Japanese bombed Davao City, Tuguegarao, Baguio,
Iba, Tarlac, and Clark Field. On December 9, 1941, Manila was raided. Japanese pilots
bombed Nichols Field.

THE ESCAPE OF QUEZON. On February 20, 1942 Pres. Quezon and his family boarded a
submarine and left Corregidor for Panay. From Panay, he and his party went to Negros
then went to Mindanao and later reached Australia by Plane. On May 8, 1942, he reached
San Franciso. He was brought to Washington, where Pres. Roosevelt welcomed him.
Quezon stayed in America until his death on August 1, 1944 due to terminal illness
(Tuberculosis).

RESTORATION OF THE COMMONWEALTH. The new president of the Commonwealth Pres.

Sergio Osmena reestablished government offices and agencies; distributed relief goods,
reopened schools, and rehabilitated industries, trade, transportation and communication.
Osmena tried his best to work for the rehabilitation of the war-torn Philippines by securing
aid from America until the end of his term.

On April 23, 1946 national elections were held. Manuel Roxas and Elpidio Quirino of the
Liberal Party won as president and vice-president respectively over the Nationalista
Party(with Osmena and Eulogio Rodriguez as candidates for presidency and vice-
presidency). On May 26, 1946, Roxas was inaugaurated as the Last President of the
Commonwealth Republic.

On July 4, 1946, Philippine Independence was fully granted by the Americans to the
Filipinos. Thus, the First Republic of the Philippines (also known as Third Philippine Republic,
the Second Republic was the Japanese-sponsored republic under Jose P. Laurel) was
born.

AMERICAN HERITAGE

1. DEMOCRACY, America’s Greatest Legacy. Under American tutelage, the Filipinos

were given greater participation in government affairs and enjoyed more human rights.

2. DIET & DRESS. Westernization of the Filipino taste for food and clothing was furthered
by the Americans. The Filipino diet was enriched with ham and eggs, oatmeal,
sandwiches, hamburger, beefsteak, Vienna sausages, hot dogs, tomato catsup, spare ribs,
etc. It became fashionable to drink whisky and to smoke American-brand cigarettes.

Filipino males wore pants with suspenders or belts, coat-and-tie, polo shirts for casual
wear, leather or tennis shoes. Women aped American females in wearing fanciful hats,
long skirts, highheeled shoes, nylon stockings, perfumes and lotions, artificial eyelashes and
cosmetics.

3. AMERICANIZED MANNERS. Men and women learned to address each other as “Mr.”
and “Miss”. The younger generation lost some of their good manners of the past, such as
polite speech and behavior, but they acquired frankness, broadmindedness, and
sportsmanship.

4. FAMILY LIFE. Close family ties deteriorated to some extent to the impact of
American ideas. The custom of praying together every night was gradually disappearing.
The kissing of the hands of elders as expression of filial piety was vanishing.

How "savage" Filipinos could adapt their skills to "civilized" society

5. EMANCIPATION OF WOMEN. Women were no longer secluded within the narrow

confines of their homes. They acquired freedom to go out alone, mingle and socialize with
men, and go to parties without chaperon. They were allowed to work in factories and
offices, attend political rallies and meetings and to participate in active sports.
Furthermore, they were free to become professionals (teachers, engineers, doctors).
Finally, they joined politics and were given the right to vote in elections.
6. POPULAR EDUCATION. Education was no longer a privilege of rich families under the
American regime. Many poor children were able to become physicians, lawyers and
engineers. Co-education, which was banned during the Spanish regime, was established.
With popular education, the English language was propagated. English became the
medium of instruction in all Philippine schools, the official language of the government, the
language in business and social circles, and the common language of the masses. Hence,
Filipinos became proficient in English that they eclipsed other Southeast Asian nations in
producing Asian literature in English.

7. AMERICANIZED NAMES. Filipinos came to adopt American names, such as Joe,

Bobby, Tony, Bill, Tom, Mary, Margie, Lily, etc.

8. RECREATIONAL LIFE. America introduced the Hollywood silent movies, and later the
“talkies” (talking movie), radios, which broadcasted news, musical, educational programs.
Indoor games, such as bowling, billiards, ping-pong, black jack and other card games
were also introduced. Filipinos came to love baseball, softball, football and volleyball.

9. ECONOMIC TRANSFORMATIONS. In 1902, the Bureau of Agriculture was established

to reinvigorate the deplorable state of Philippine agriculture. Experimental farms were
established to teach people scientific methods of cultivation. Plant and animal pests were
gradually exterminated. In 1903, to relieve the drought-stricken Philippines and suffering
population, the Philippine government purchased rice from Burma and Indo-China using
a relief fund from the U.S. Agricultural progress during the American period was remarkable
for more lands were cultivated and livestock resources increased, too.

The Friar Land Act of 1904 offered more lands to Filipinos, but sadly, the terms of the sale
benefited rich landowners more than small farmers. Evidently, the Americans still favored
the landed elite, much similar with the Spaniards.

Free trade with America was established by virtue of the Payne-Aldrich Act of 1909
(partial free trade) and of the Underwood-Simons Tariff Act (full free trade). Such free trade
allowed the free inflow and outflow of Philippine and American products in both countries.
Economic prosperity was felt in the Philippines, thereby resulting in a higher standard of
living, better health and sanitation, and social advancement. But such prosperity was
artificial for Filipinos became too much dependent on American products. Furthermore,
Filipino products entering the U.S. had quotas and tariffs, whereas American products
entering the Philippines were free of such levy.

In the end, a conclusion may be made. While it is a fact that the Philippine economy
experienced modernization and industrialization under the American regime, it is also a
fact that much of the country’s resources were exploited and destroyed at the expense
of the poor Filipinos. Though agriculture was mechanized, other agricultural products were
neglected since the Americans focused just the same their attention on the production of
“cash crops” (tobacco, sugar cane, coconut, hemp).

___________________________
* **Excerpts from Zaide’s Philippines: A Unique Nation, 1994 and from Agoncillo’s History of
the Filipino People, 8th ed., 1990.
McKinley’s Benevolent Assimilation Proclamation
EXECUTIVE MANSION, WASHINGTON
December 21, 1898

The destruction of the Spanish Fleet in the harbor of Manila by the United States naval
squadron commanded by Rear Admiral Dewey, followed by the reduction of the city and
the surrender of the Spanish forces, practically effected the conquest of the Philippine Islands
and the suspension of the Spanish sovereignty therein. With the signature of the treaty of
peace between the United States and Spain by their respective plenipotentiaries at Paris on
the 10th instant, and as a result of the victories of American arm, the future control, disposition,
and government of the Philippine Islands are ceded to the United States. In the fulfillment of
the rights of sovereignty thus acquired and the responsible obligations of government thus
assumed, the actual occupation and administration of the entire group of the Philippine
Islands becomes immediately necessary, and the military government heretofore maintained
by the United States in the city, harbor, and bay of Manila is to be extended with the possible
dispatch to the whole of the ceded territory.

In performing this duty the military commander of the United States is enjoined to make
known to the inhabitants of the Philippine Islands that in succeeding to the sovereignty of
Spain, in wavering the former political relations, and in establishing a new political power, the
authority of the United States is to be exerted for the securing of the persons and property of
the people of the islands and for the confirmation of all their private rights and relations. It will
be the duty of the commander of the forces of occupation to announce and proclaim in the
most public manner that we come, not as invaders or conquerors, but as friends, to protect
the natives in their homes, in their employment, and in their personal and religious rights. All
persons who, either by active aid or by honest submission, cooperate with the Government
of the United States to give effect to these beneficent purposes will receive the reward of its
support and protection. All others will be brought within the lawful rule we have assumed, with
firmness if need be, but without severity, so far s possible. Within the absolute domain of military
authority, which necessarily is and must remain supreme in the ceded territory until the
legislation of the United States shall otherwise provide, the municipal laws of the territory in
respect to private rights and property and the repression of crime are to be considered as
continuing force, and to be administered by the ordinary tribunals, so far as practicable. The
operations of civil and municipal government are to be performed by such officers as may
accept the supremacy of the United States by taking oath of allegiance, or by officers
chosen, as far as practicable, from the inhabitants of the islands. While the control of all the
public property and the revenues of the state passes with the cession, and while the use and
management of all public means of transportation are necessarily reserved to the authority
of the United States, private property, whether belonging to individuals or corporations, is to
be respected except for cause duly established. The taxes and duties heretofore payable by
the inhabitants of the late government become payable to the authorities of the United

READING-F
States unless it be seen fit to substitute for them reasonable rates or modes of contribution to
the expenses of government, whether general or local. If privet property be taken for military
use, it shall be paid for when possible in cash, at a fair valuation, and when payment in cash
is not practicable, receipts are to be given. Al ports and places in the Philippine Islands in the
actual possession of the land and naval forces of the United States of will be opened to
commerce of all friendly nations, All goods and wares not prohibited for military reasons by
due announcement of the military authority will be admitted upon payment of such duties
and other charges as shall be in force at the time of their importation. Finally, it should be the
earnest wish and paramount aim of the military administration to win the confidence, respect,
and affection of the inhabitants of the Philippines by assuring them in every possible way that
full measure of individual rights and liberties which is the heritage of free peoples, and by
proving to them that the mission of the United States is one of “Benevolent Assimilation”
substituting the mild sway of justice and right for arbitrary rule. In the fulfillment of this high
mission, supporting the temperate administration of affairs for the greatest good if the
governed, there must be sedulously maintained the strong arm of authority, to repress
disturbance and to overcome all obstacles to the bestowal of the blessings of good
government upon the people of the Philippine Islands under free flag of the United States.

The White Man's Burden

Rudyard Kipling
McClure's Magazine 12 (Feb. 1899).

Take up the White Man's burden--

Send forth the best ye breed--
Go, bind your sons to exile
To serve your captives' need;
To wait, in heavy harness,
On fluttered folk and wild-- Your new-caught sullen peoples, Half devil and half child.

Take up the White Man's burden--

In patience to abide,
To veil the threat of terror
And check the show of pride;
By open speech and simple,
An hundred times made plain, To seek another's profit And work another's gain.

Take up the White Man's burden--

The savage wars of peace-- Fill full the mouth of Famine,
And bid the sickness cease;
And when your goal is nearest
(The end for others sought)
Watch sloth and heathen folly Bring all your hope to nought.

Take up the White Man's burden--

No iron rule of kings, But toil of serf and sweeper-- The tale of common things.
The ports ye shall not enter,
The roads ye shall not tread,
Go, make them with your living And mark them with your dead.

Take up the White Man's burden,

And reap his old reward-- The blame of those ye better
The hate of those ye guard--
The cry of hosts ye humour
(Ah, slowly!) toward the light:-- "Why brought ye us from bondage,
Our loved Egyptian night?"
Take up the White Man's burden--
Ye dare not stoop to less--
Nor call too loud on Freedom
To cloak your weariness.
By all ye will or whisper,
By all ye leave or do,
The silent sullen peoples
Shall weigh your God and you.

Take up the White Man's burden!

Have done with childish days--
The lightly-proffered laurel,
The easy ungrudged praise:
Comes now, to search your manhood
Through all the thankless years,
Cold, edged with dear-bought wisdom,
The judgment of your peers.