The Human Body: An Orientation: Lecture Presentation by Patty Bostwick-Taylor Florence-Darlington Technical College

Chapter 1

The Human Body:

An Orientation
Lecture Presentation by
Patty Bostwick-Taylor
Florence-Darlington Technical College

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Anatomy
 Anatomy
 Study of the structure and shape of the body and its
parts
 Observation is used to see sizes and relationships of
parts

Anatomy
 Gross anatomy
 Large structures
 Easily observable

Anatomy
 Let’s look at an example of gross anatomy using

the digestive system organs

Figure 1.2i The body’s organ systems.
Oral cavity
Esophagus
Stomach
Small
intestine
Large
intestine
Rectum
(i) Digestive System

Breaks food down into absorbable
nutrients that enter the blood for
distribution to body cells; indigestible
foodstuffs are eliminated as feces.
Anatomy
 Microscopic anatomy
 Structures are too small to be seen with the naked eye
 Cells and tissues can be viewed only with a
microscope

Anatomy
 Let’s look at an example of microscopic anatomy

using a digestive system organ, the stomach

Figure 14.4c Anatomy of the stomach.
Gastric pits
Surface
Gastric pit
epithelium
Pyloric
sphincter
Mucous
neck cells
Gastric gland
Parietal cells
Gastric
glands
Chief cells
(c)
Figure 14.4d Anatomy of the stomach.
Pepsinogen Pepsin
HCl
Parietal cells
Chief cells
Enteroendocrine
(d) cell

Physiology
 Physiology
 Study of how the body and its parts work or function

Physiology
 Structure determines what functions can occur

 For example, the air sacs of the lungs have very
thin walls, a feature that enables them to
exchange gases and provide oxygen to the body

Levels of Structural Organization
 Six levels of structural organization

1. Atoms
2. Cells
3. Tissues
4. Organs
5. Organ systems
6. Organisms

Figure 1.1 Levels of structural organization. Slide 1
Smooth muscle cell

Atoms
1 Chemical level Molecules
Atoms combine to 2 Cellular level
form molecules. Cells are made up
of molecules.
Smooth
muscle
tissue
3 Tissue level
Blood Tissues consist of
vessels similar types of
cells.
Heart
Epithelial
tissue
Smooth
muscle
tissue Blood
vessel
(organ)
Cardio– Connective
vascular tissue
system
4 Organ level
Organs are made up of
5 Organ system level
6 Organismal level different types of tissues.
Organ systems consist of
Human organisms are
different organs that work
made up of many organ
together closely.
systems.
Organ System Overview
 Integumentary system
 Forms the external body covering (skin) and includes
hair and fingernails
 Waterproofs the body
 Cushions and protects deeper tissue from injury
 Produces vitamin D with the help of sunlight
 Excretes salts in perspiration
 Helps regulate body temperature
 Location of cutaneous nerve receptors

Figure 1.2a The body’s organ systems.
Hair
Skin
Fingernails
(a) Integumentary System

Forms the external body covering;
protects deeper tissue from injury;
synthesizes vitamin D; location of
sensory receptors (pain, pressure,
etc.) and sweat and oil glands.
 Skeletal system
 Consists of bones, cartilages, ligaments, and joints
 Provides muscle attachment for movement
 Protects vital organs
 Site of blood cell formation
 Stores minerals

Figure 1.2b The body’s organ systems.
Cartilages
Joint
Bones
(b) Skeletal
System
Protects and supports body
organs; provides a framework the
muscles use to cause movement;
blood cells are formed within
bones; stores minerals.
 Muscular system
 Skeletal muscles contract (or shorten)
 Produces movement of bones

Figure 1.2c The body’s organ systems.
Skeletal
muscles
(c) Muscular System

Allows manipulation of the
environment, locomotion, and
facial expression; maintains
posture; produces heat.
 Nervous system
 Fast-acting control system
 Consists of brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sensory
receptors
 Responds to internal and external stimuli
 Sensory receptors detect changes
 Messages are sent to the central nervous system
 Central nervous system assesses information and
activates effectors (muscles and glands)

Figure 1.2d The body’s organ systems.
Brain
Sensory
receptor
Spinal
cord
Nerves
(d) Nervous System

Fast-acting control system of the
body; responds to internal and
external changes by activating
appropriate muscles and glands.
 Endocrine system
 Secretes chemical molecules, called hormones, into
the blood
 Body functions controlled by hormones include:
 Growth
 Reproduction
 Use of nutrients

 Endocrine system (continued)

 Endocrine glands include:
 Pituitary gland
 Thyroid and parathyroids
 Adrenal glands
 Thymus
 Pancreas
 Pineal gland
 Ovaries (females) and testes (males)

Figure 1.2e The body’s organ systems.
Pineal gland
Pituitary gland
Thyroid gland
(parathyroid glands
on posterior aspect)
Thymus gland
Adrenal glands
Pancreas
Testis (male)
Ovary (female)
(e) Endocrine System

Glands secrete hormones that
regulate processes such as growth,
reproduction, and nutrient use by
body cells.
 Cardiovascular system
 Includes heart and blood vessels
 Heart pumps blood
 Vessels transport blood to tissues
 Blood transports:
 Oxygen and carbon dioxide
 Nutrients
 Hormones
 Blood also contains white blood cells and chemicals
that provide protection from foreign invaders

Figure 1.2f The body’s organ systems.
Heart
Blood
vessels
(f) Cardiovascular System

Blood vessels transport blood,
which carries oxygen, nutrients,
hormones, carbon dioxide, wastes,
etc.; the heart pumps blood.
 Lymphatic system
 Includes lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and
lymphoid organs
 Complements the cardiovascular system by returning
leaked fluids back to bloodstream
 Lymph nodes and other lymphoid organs cleanse the
blood
 Houses white blood cells, which are involved in
immunity

Figure 1.2g The body’s organ systems.
Lymph
nodes
Lymphatic
vessels
(g) Lymphatic System

Picks up fluid leaked from blood
vessels and returns it to blood;
disposes of debris in the
lymphatic stream; houses white
blood cells involved in immunity.
 Respiratory system
 Includes the nasal passages, pharynx, larynx, trachea,
bronchi, and lungs
 Gases are exchanged with the blood through air sacs
in the lungs
 Supplies the body with oxygen
 Removes carbon dioxide

Figure 1.2h The body’s organ systems.
Nasal
cavity
Pharynx
Larynx
Trachea
Bronchi
Lungs
(h) Respiratory System

Keeps blood constantly supplied
with oxygen and removes carbon
dioxide; the gaseous exchanges
occur through the walls of the air
sacs of the lungs.
 Digestive system
 Includes the oral cavity (mouth), esophagus, stomach,
small and large intestines, rectum, and accessory
organs
 Breaks down food
 Allows for nutrient absorption into blood
 Eliminates indigestible material as feces

Figure 1.2i The body’s organ systems.
Oral cavity
Esophagus
Stomach
Small
intestine
Large
intestine
Rectum
(i) Digestive System

Breaks food down into absorbable
nutrients that enter the blood for
distribution to body cells; indigestible
foodstuffs are eliminated as feces.
 Urinary system
 Includes the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and
urethra
 Eliminates nitrogenous wastes
 Maintains acid-base balance
 Regulates water and electrolyte balance
 Helps regulate normal blood pressure

Figure 1.2j The body’s organ systems.
Kidney
Ureter
Urinary
bladder
Urethra
(j) Urinary System

Eliminates nitrogen-containing
wastes from the body; regulates
water, electrolyte, and acid-base
balance of the blood.
 Reproductive system
 For males, includes the testes, scrotum, penis,
accessory glands, and duct system
 Testes produce sperm
 Duct system carries sperm to exterior
 For females, includes the ovaries, uterine tubes,
uterus, and vagina
 Ovaries produce eggs
 Uterus provides site of development for fetus

Figure 1.2k-l The body’s organ systems.
Mammary
glands
(in breasts)
Prostate
Seminal gland Uterine
vesicles tube
Ovary
Uterus
Penis
Testis
Vagina
Scrotum
(k) Male Reproductive System (l) Female Reproductive System

Overall function of the reproductive system is production of offspring. Testes
produce sperm and male sex hormone; ducts and glands aid in delivery of viable
sperm to the female reproductive tract. Ovaries produce eggs and female sex
hormones; remaining structures serve as sites for fertilization and development of
the fetus. Mammary glands of female breasts produce milk to nourish the newborn.
Maintaining Life: Necessary Life Functions
 Maintaining boundaries
 Boundaries separate the “inside” from the “outside”
 Movement
 Locomotion
 Movement of substances
 Responsiveness (irritability)
 Ability to sense changes and react
 Digestion
 Breakdown and absorption of nutrients

Necessary Life Functions
 Metabolism—chemical reactions within the body

 Breaks down complex molecules into smaller ones
 Builds larger molecules from smaller ones
 Produces energy (ATP)
 Regulated by hormones
 Excretion
 Eliminates excreta (waste) from metabolic reactions
 Wastes may be removed in urine, feces, or sweat

Necessary Life Functions
 Reproduction
 Occurs on cellular level or organismal level
 On cellular level—new cells are used for growth and
repair
 On organismal level—the reproductive system handles
the task
 Growth
 Increases cell size or body size (through increasing
the number of cells)
 Hormones play a major role

Survival Needs
 Nutrients
 Chemicals used for energy and cell building
 Include carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, vitamins, and
minerals
 Oxygen
 Required for chemical reactions
 Made available by the cooperation of the respiratory
and cardiovascular systems

Survival Needs
 Water
 60 to 80 percent of body weight
 Most abundant chemical in the human body
 Provides fluid base for body secretions and excretions
 Normal body temperature
 37ºC (98.6ºF)
 Below this temperature, chemical reactions slow and
stop
 Above this temperature, chemical reactions proceed
too rapidly

Survival Needs
 Atmospheric pressure
 Must be appropriate for gas exchange

Figure 1.3 Examples of interrelationships among organ systems that illustrate life functions.
Digestive system Respiratory system
Takes in nutrients, digests them Takes in oxygen, which is
(part of metabolism), and excretes required for metabolism, and
unabsorbed matter (feces) excretes carbon dioxide
Food O2 CO2
Cardiovascular system
Via the blood, distributes oxygen
and nutrients to all body cells and
delivers wastes and carbon dioxide
to disposal organs
Blood
CO2
O2
Heart
Urinary system
Nutrients Excretes nitrogen-
containing wastes
and excess ions
Interstitial fluid
Nutrients and wastes pass

between blood and cells
via the interstitial fluid
Integumentary system
Feces are Protects the body as a whole Urine is
excreted from the external environment excreted
by maintaining boundaries
The Language of Anatomy
 Special terminology is used to prevent

misunderstanding
 Exact terms are used for:
 Position
 Direction
 Regions
 Structures

The Language of Anatomy
 Anatomical position
 Standard body position used to avoid confusion
 Terminology refers to this position regardless of actual
body position
 Stand erect, feet parallel, arms hanging at the sides
with palms facing forward and thumbs pointing away
from the body

Figure 1.4a The anatomical position and regional terms.

Directional Terms
 Directional terms
 Explain location of one body structure in relation to
another

Directional Terms
 Superior (cranial or cephalic): toward the head or

upper part of a structure or the body; above
 Inferior (caudal): away from the head or toward
the lower part of a structure or the body; below

Directional Terms
 Anterior (ventral): toward or at the front of the

body; in front of
 Posterior (dorsal): toward or at the backside of
the body; behind

Table 1.1 Orientation and Directional Terms (1 of 3)

Directional Terms
 Medial: toward or at the midline of the body; on

the inner side of
 Lateral: away from the midline of the body; on the
outer side of
 Intermediate: between a more medial and a more
lateral structure

Directional Terms
 Proximal: close to the origin of the body part or

point of attachment to a limb to the body trunk
 Distal: farther from the origin of a body part or the
point of attachment of a limb to the body trunk


Directional Terms
 Superficial (external): toward or at the body

surface
 Deep (internal): away from the body surface;
more internal


Regional Terms
 Anterior (ventral) body landmarks

Figure 1.4a The anatomical position and regional terms.
Cephalic
Frontal
Orbital Upper limb
Nasal Acromial
Buccal Deltoid
Oral Brachial (arm)
Mental Antecubital
Cervical
Olecranal
Thoracic
Sternal Antebrachial
Axillary (forearm)
Pectoral Carpal (wrist)
Abdominal Manus (hand)

Umbilical Digital
Pelvic
Inguinal
(groin) Lower limb
Coxal (hip)
Pubic (genital) Femoral (thigh)
Patellar
Crural (leg)
KEY:
Thorax Fibular
Abdomen Pedal (foot)
Tarsal (ankle)
Digital
(a) Anterior/Ventral
Regional Terms
 Posterior (dorsal) body landmarks

Figure 1.4b The anatomical position and regional terms.
Cephalic
Upper limb Occipital (back
Acromial of head)
Cervical
Brachial (arm)
Olecranal Back (dorsal)

Antebrachial Scapular
(forearm) Vertebral
Lumbar
Manus (hand) Sacral

Digital
Gluteal
Lower limb
Femoral (thigh)
Popliteal
Sural (calf)
Fibular
KEY:
Pedal (foot)
Back (Dorsum)
Calcaneal
Plantar
(b) Posterior/Dorsal
Body Planes and Sections
 Sections are cuts along imaginary lines known as

planes
 Three types of planes or sections exist as right
angles to one another

Body Planes and Sections
 A sagittal section divides the body (or organ) into

left and right parts
 A median, or midsagittal, section divides the body
(or organ) into equal left and right parts
 A frontal, or coronal, section divides the body (or
organ) into anterior and posterior parts
 A transverse, or cross, section divides the body
(or organ) into superior and inferior parts

Figure 1.5 The planes of the body—median, frontal, and transverse—with corresponding MRI scans.
(a) Median (midsagittal) (b) Frontal (coronal) plane (c) Transverse plane
Vertebral Right Left

column lung Heart lung Liver Aorta Pancreas Spleen
Rectum Intestines Liver Stomach Spleen Subcutaneous Spinal

fat layer cord
Body Cavities
 Two internal body cavities

 Dorsal
 Ventral
 Body cavities provide varying degrees of
protection to organs within them

Figure 1.6 Body cavities.
Cranial
cavity
Thoracic
cavity
Diaphragm
Abdominal
Abdominopelvic
Spinal cavity
cavity
cavity
Pelvic
cavity
KEY:
Dorsal body cavity Ventral body cavity
Body Cavities
 Dorsal body cavity has two subdivisions

1. Cranial cavity
 Houses the brain
 Protected by the skull
2. Spinal cavity
 Houses the spinal cord
 Protected by the vertebrae

Body Cavities
 Ventral body cavity has two subdivisions

separated by the diaphragm
1. Thoracic cavity
2. Abdominopelvic cavity

Body Cavities
 Thoracic cavity
 Cavity superior to the diaphragm
 Houses heart, lungs, and other organs
 Mediastinum, the central region, houses heart,
trachea, and other organs
 Protected by the rib cage

Body Cavities
 Abdominopelvic cavity
 Cavity inferior to the diaphragm
 Superior abdominal cavity contains the stomach, liver,
and other organs
 Protected only by trunk muscles
 Inferior pelvic cavity contains reproductive organs,
bladder, and rectum
 Protected somewhat by bony pelvis
 No physical structure separates abdominal from pelvic
cavities

Body Cavities
 Abdominopelvic cavity subdivisions

 Four quadrants
 Nine regions

Figure 1.7 The four abdominopelvic quadrants.
Right upper Left upper

quadrant quadrant
(RUQ) (LUQ)
Right lower Left lower

quadrant quadrant
(RLQ) (LLQ)

Figure 1.8 The nine abdominopelvic regions.
Diaphragm
Liver Stomach
Right Left Large

hypochondriac Epigastric hypochondriac
region region region intestine Large
intestine
Right Left Small intestine
lumbar Umbilical lumbar
region region region
Appendix
Right iliac Hypogastric Left iliac Urinary
(inguinal) (pubic) (inguinal) bladder
region region region
(b) Anterior view of the nine regions
(a) Nine regions delineated by four planes showing the superficial organs

Body Cavities
 Other body cavities include:

 Oral and digestive cavities
 Nasal cavity
 Orbital cavities
 Middle ear cavities

Homeostasis
 Homeostasis—maintenance of relatively stable

internal conditions
 A dynamic state of equilibrium, or balance
 Necessary for normal body functioning and to sustain
life
 Main controlling systems
 Nervous system
 Endocrine system
 Homeostatic imbalance
 A disturbance in homeostasis results in disease

Maintaining Homeostasis
 All homeostatic control mechanisms have at least

three components: receptor, control center, and
effector
 Receptor
 Responds to changes in the environment (stimuli)
 Sends information to control center along an afferent
pathway

Maintaining Homeostasis
 Control center
 Determines set point
 Analyzes information
 Determines appropriate response
 Effector
 Provides a means for response to the stimulus
 Information flows from control center to effector along
efferent pathway

Feedback Mechanisms
 Negative feedback
 Includes most homeostatic control mechanisms
 Shuts off the original stimulus or reduces its intensity
 Works like a household thermostat

Figure 1.9 The elements of a homeostatic control system. Slide 1
3 Input: Information 4 Output: Information

is sent along afferent Control is sent along efferent
pathway to control Center pathway to effector.
center. Efferent
Afferent
pathway pathway
Receptor Effector
2 Receptor
detects change. 5 Response
of effector feeds
IM back to reduce
B AL
1 Stimulus AN the effect of
CE stimulus and
produces
change in returns variable
VARIABLE (in homeostasis) to homeostatic
variable.
level.
IM
BA
LA
NC
E

Feedback Mechanisms
 Positive feedback
 Rare in the human body
 Increases the original stimulus to push the variable
farther
 Reaction occurs at a faster rate
 In the body, positive feedback occurs in blood clotting
and during the birth of a baby

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Chapter 1

The Human Body:

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Let’s look at an example of gross anatomy using

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

(i) Digestive System

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Let’s look at an example of microscopic anatomy

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Structure determines what functions can occur

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Six levels of structural organization

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Smooth muscle cell

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

(a) Integumentary System

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

(c) Muscular System

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

(d) Nervous System

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 Endocrine system (continued)

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(e) Endocrine System

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

(f) Cardiovascular System

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(g) Lymphatic System

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

(h) Respiratory System

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(i) Digestive System

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

(j) Urinary System

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(k) Male Reproductive System (l) Female Reproductive System

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Metabolism—chemical reactions within the body

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

Nutrients and wastes pass

 Special terminology is used to prevent

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Superior (cranial or cephalic): toward the head or

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

 Anterior (ventral): toward or at the front of the

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Inc.