Chapter 7 Nervous Sytem

Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology

Thirteenth Edition
Global Edition

Chapter 7
The Nervous System

Lecture Presentation by
Patty Bostwick-Taylor
Florence-Darlington Technical College
Copyright © 2022 Pearson Education, Ltd. All Rights Reserved.

Functions of the Nervous System
1. Sensory input—gathering information
– Sensory receptors monitor changes, called stimuli,
occurring inside and outside the body
2. Integration
– Nervous system processes and interprets sensory
input and decides whether action is needed
3. Motor output
– A response, or effect, activates muscles or glands

Figure 7.1 The Nervous System’s
Functions

Concept Link 1
These three overlapping nervous system functions are very
similar to a feedback loop (Chapter 1, p. 41). Recall that in a
feedback loop, a receptor receives sensory input, which it
sends to the brain (control center) for processing
(integration); the brain then analyzes the information and
determines the appropriate output, which leads to a motor
response.

Organization of the Nervous System
• Nervous system classifications
– Structural classification is based on the structures of
the nervous system
▪ Central nervous system
▪ Peripheral nervous system
– Functional classification is based on the activities of
the nervous system
▪ Sensory (afferent) division
▪ Motor (efferent) division

Figure 7.2 Organization of the Nervous
System

Structural Classification (1 of 2)
• Central nervous system (CNS)
– Organs
▪ Brain
▪ Spinal cord
– Function
▪ Integration; command center
▪ Interprets incoming sensory information
▪ Issues outgoing instructions

Structural Classification (2 of 2)
• Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
– Nerves extending from the brain and spinal cord
▪ Spinal nerves—carry impulses to and from the
spinal cord
▪ Cranial nerves—carry impulses to and from the
brain
– Functions
▪ Serve as communication lines among sensory
organs, the brain and spinal cord, and glands or
muscles

Functional Classification (1 of 2)
• Sensory (afferent) division
– Nerve fibers that carry information to the central
nervous system
▪ Somatic sensory (afferent) fibers carry information
from the skin, skeletal muscles, and joints
▪ Visceral sensory (afferent) fibers carry information
from visceral organs
• Motor (efferent) division
– Nerve fibers that carry impulses away from the central
nervous system organs to effector organs (muscles
and glands)

Functional Classification (2 of 2)
• Motor (efferent) division
– Two subdivisions
▪ Somatic nervous system = voluntary
– Consciously (voluntarily) controls skeletal
muscles
▪ Autonomic nervous system = involuntary
– Automatically controls smooth and cardiac
muscles and glands
– Further divided into the sympathetic and
parasympathetic nervous systems

Nervous Tissue: Structure and
Function
• Nervous tissue is composed of two types of cells
– Neurons
– Supporting cells collectively called neuroglia

Nervous Tissue: Support Cells (1 of 7)
• Support cells in the CNS are grouped together as
neuroglia
• General functions
– Support
– Insulate
– Protect neurons

• Nervous tissue is made up of two principal cell types
– Supporting cells (called neuroglia, or glial cells,
or glia)
▪ Resemble neurons
▪ Unable to conduct nerve impulses
▪ Never lose the ability to divide
– Neurons

• CNS glial cells: astrocytes
– Abundant, star-shaped cells
– Brace and anchor neurons to blood capillaries
– Determine permeability and exchanges between blood
capillaries and neurons
– Protect neurons from harmful substances in blood
– Control the chemical environment of the brain

Figure 7.3a Support Cells (Neuroglia)
of Nervous Tissue

• CNS glial cells: microglia
– Spiderlike phagocytes
– Monitor health of nearby neurons
– Dispose of debris

Figure 7.3b Support Cells (Neuroglia)
of Nervous Tissue

• CNS glial cells: ependymal cells
– Line cavities of the brain and spinal cord
– Cilia assist with circulation of cerebrospinal fluid

Figure 7.3c Support Cells (Neuroglia)
of Nervous Tissue

• CNS glial cells: oligodendrocytes
– Wrap around nerve fibers in the central nervous
system
– Produce myelin sheaths

Figure 7.3d Support Cells (Neuroglia)
of Nervous Tissue

• PNS glial cells
– Schwann cells
▪ Form myelin sheath around nerve fibers in the PNS
– Satellite cells
▪ Protect and cushion neuron cell bodies

Figure 7.3e Support Cells (Neuroglia)
of Nervous Tissue

Nervous Tissue: Neurons (1 of 30)
• Neurons = nerve cells
– Cells specialized to transmit messages (nerve
impulses)
– Major regions of all neurons
▪ Cell body—nucleus and metabolic center of the cell
▪ Processes—fibers that extend from the cell body

• Cell body is the metabolic center of the neuron
– Nucleus with large nucleolus
– Nissl bodies
▪ Rough endoplasmic reticulum
– Neurofibrils
▪ Intermediate filaments that maintain cell shape

Figure 7.4a Structure of a Typical
Motor Neuron

Figure 7.4b Structure of a Typical
Motor Neuron

• Processes (fibers)
– Dendrites—conduct impulses toward the cell body
▪ Neurons may have hundreds of dendrites
– Axons—conduct impulses away from the cell body
▪ Neurons have only one axon arising from the cell
body at the axon hillock
▪ End in axon terminals, which contain vesicles with
neurotransmitters
▪ Axon terminals are separated from the next neuron
by a gap

• Processes (fibers)
– Synaptic cleft—gap between axon terminals and
the next neuron
– Synapse—functional junction between nerves
where a nerve impulse is transmitted

• Myelin sheaths
– Myelin is a white, fatty material covering axons
– Protects and insulates fibers
– Speeds nerve impulse transmission

• Myelin sheaths
– Schwann cells—wrap axons in a jelly roll–like fashion
(PNS) to form the myelin sheath
▪ Neurilemma—part of the Schwann cell external to
the myelin sheath
▪ Nodes of Ranvier—gaps in myelin sheath along the
axon
– Oligodendrocytes—produce myelin sheaths around
axons of the CNS
▪ Lack a neurilemma (plays a role in fiber
regeneration)

Figure 7.5 Relationship of Schwann Cells to
Axons in the Peripheral Nervous System

• Terminology
– Nuclei—clusters of cell bodies in the CNS
– Ganglia—collections of cell bodies outside the CNS in
the PNS
– Tracts—bundles of nerve fibers in the CNS
– Nerves—bundles of nerve fibers in the PNS
– White matter—collections of myelinated fibers (tracts)
– Gray matter—mostly unmyelinated fibers and cell
bodies

• Functional classification
– Sensory (afferent) neurons
▪ Carry impulses from the sensory receptors to the
CNS
▪ Receptors include:
– Cutaneous sense organs in skin detect pain,
temperature, touch, pressure
– Proprioceptors in muscles and tendons detect
stretch

Figure 7.6 Neurons Classified by
Function (1 of 2)

Figure 7.7a Types of Sensory Receptors

Figure 7.7b Types of Sensory
Receptors

Figure 7.7c Types of Sensory Receptors

Figure 7.7d Types of Sensory
Receptors

Figure 7.7e Types of Sensory Receptors

• Functional classification
– Motor (efferent) neurons
▪ Carry impulses from the central nervous system to
viscera and/or muscles and glands
– Interneurons (association neurons)
▪ Cell bodies located in the CNS
▪ Connect sensory and motor neurons

Figure 7.6 Neurons Classified by
Function (2 of 2)

• Structural classification
– Based on number of processes extending from the
cell body
– Multipolar neurons—many extensions from the cell
body
▪ All motor and interneurons are multipolar
▪ Most common structural type

Figure 7.8a Classification of Neurons
on the Basis of Structure

– Bipolar neurons—one axon and one dendrite
▪ Located in special sense organs, such as nose
and eye
▪ Rare in adults

Figure 7.8b Classification of Neurons

– Unipolar neurons—have a short single process
leaving the cell body
▪ Sensory neurons found in PNS ganglia
▪ Conduct impulses both toward and away from
the cell body

Figure 7.8c Classification of Neurons

• Functional properties of neurons
– Irritability
▪ Ability to respond to a stimulus and convert it to a
nerve impulse
– Conductivity
▪ Ability to transmit the impulse to other neurons,
muscles, or glands

• Electrical conditions of a resting neuron’s membrane
– The plasma membrane at rest is inactive (polarized)
– Fewer positive ions are inside the neuron’s plasma
membrane than outside
▪ K  is the major positive ion inside the cell
▪ Na is the major positive ion outside the cell
– The polarized membrane is more permeable to
K  than to Na 
– As long as the inside of the membrane is more
negative (fewer positive ions) than the outside, the cell
remains inactive
Figure 7.9 The Nerve Impulse (1 of 6)

• Action potential initiation and generation
– A stimulus changes the permeability of the neuron’s
membrane to sodium ions
– Sodium channels now open, and sodium (Na+)
diffuses into the neuron
– The inward rush of sodium ions changes the polarity
at that site and is called depolarization


• Action potential initiation and generation (continued)
– A graded potential (localized depolarization) exists
where the inside of the membrane is more positive
and the outside is less positive
– If the stimulus is strong enough and sodium influx
great enough, local depolarization activates the
neuron to conduct an action potential (nerve impulse)


• Propagation of the action potential
– If enough sodium enters the cell, the action potential
(nerve impulse) starts and is propagated over the
entire axon
– All-or-none response means the nerve impulse
either is propagated or is not
– Fibers with myelin sheaths conduct nerve impulses
more quickly


• Repolarization
– Membrane permeability changes again—becoming
impermeable to sodium ions and permeable to
potassium ions
– Potassium ions rapidly diffuse out of the neuron,
repolarizing the membrane
– Repolarization involves restoring the inside of the
membrane to a negative charge and the outer surface
to a positive charge


• Repolarization
– Initial conditions of sodium and potassium ions are
restored using the sodium-potassium pump
– This pump, using ATP, restores the original
configuration
– Three sodium ions are ejected from the cell while two
potassium ions are returned to the cell
– Until repolarization is complete, a neuron cannot
conduct another nerve impulse


• Transmission of the signal at synapses
– Step 1: When the action potential reaches the axon
terminal, the electrical charge opens calcium channels

Figure 7.10 How Neurons Communicate
at Chemical Synapses (1 of 6)

– Step 2: Calcium, in turn, causes the tiny vesicles
containing the neurotransmitter chemical to fuse with
the axonal membrane


– Step 3: The entry of calcium into the axon terminal
causes porelike openings to form, releasing the
neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft


– Step 4: The neurotransmitter molecules diffuse
across the synaptic cleft and bind to receptors on
the membrane of the next neuron


– Step 5: If enough neurotransmitter is released, a
graded potential will be generated
▪ Eventually an action potential (nerve impulse) will
occur in the neuron beyond the synapse


– Step 6: The electrical changes prompted by
neurotransmitter binding are brief
– The neurotransmitter is quickly removed from the
synapse either by reuptake or by enzymatic activity
– Transmission of an impulse is electrochemical
▪ Transmission down neuron is electrical
▪ Transmission to next neuron is chemical


BioFlix: How Synapses Work
https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/assets/8ReRzSHzRzMAKz6fJ_q8NYX_wzmjadCv

• Reflexes
– Rapid, predictable, and involuntary responses to
stimuli
– Occur over neural pathways called reflex arcs
– Two types of reflexes
▪ Somatic reflexes
▪ Autonomic reflexes

Figure 7.11a Simple Reflex Arcs (1 of 6)

• Somatic reflexes
– Reflexes that stimulate the skeletal muscles
– Involuntary, although skeletal muscle is normally
under voluntary control
– Example: pulling your hand away from a hot object
• Autonomic reflexes
– Regulate the activity of smooth muscles, the heart,
and glands
– Example: regulation of smooth muscles, heart and
blood pressure, glands, digestive system

• Five elements of a reflex arc
1. Sensory receptor—reacts to a stimulus
2. Sensory neuron—carries message to the integration
center
3. Integration center (CNS)—processes information and
directs motor output
4. Motor neuron—carries message to an effector
5. Effector organ—is the muscle or gland to be stimulated






• Two-neuron reflex arcs
– Simplest type
– Example: patellar (knee-jerk) reflex

Figure 7.11b Simple Reflex Arcs (1 of 6)






• Three-neuron reflex arcs
– Consists of five elements: receptor, sensory
neuron, interneuron, motor neuron, and effector
– Example: flexor (withdrawal) reflex

Figure 7.11c Simple Reflex Arcs (1 of 6)






Central Nervous System (CNS)
• Functional anatomy of the brain
– Brain regions
▪ Cerebral hemispheres
▪ Diencephalon
▪ Brain stem
▪ Cerebellum

Functional Anatomy of the Brain (1 of 18)
• Cerebral hemispheres are paired (left and right)
superior parts of the brain
– Include more than half of the brain mass
– The surface is made of ridges (gyri) and grooves
(sulci)
– Fissures are deeper grooves
– Lobes are named for the cranial bones that lie
over them

• Three main regions of cerebral hemisphere
1. Cortex is superficial gray matter
2. White matter
3. Basal nuclei are deep pockets of gray matter

Figure 7.12a Development and
Regions of the Human Brain

Figure 7.12b Development and Regions
of the Human Brain (1 of 2)

Figure 7.13ab Left Lateral View of the
Brain

Table 7.1 Functions of Major Brain
Regions (1 of 2)

Table 7.1 Functions of Major Brain
Regions (2 of 2)

• Cerebral cortex
– Primary somatic sensory area
▪ Located in parietal lobe posterior to central sulcus
▪ Receives impulses from the body’s sensory
receptors
– Pain, temperature, light touch (except for
special senses)
▪ Sensory homunculus is a spatial map
▪ Left side of the primary somatic sensory area
receives impulses from right side (and vice versa)

Figure 7.13c Left Lateral View of the
Brain (1 of 2)

Figure 7.14 Sensory and Motor Areas
of the Cerebral Cortex (1 of 2)

• Cerebral areas involved in special senses
– Visual area (occipital lobe)
– Auditory area (temporal lobe)
– Olfactory area (temporal lobe)

• Cerebral cortex
– Primary motor area
▪ Located anterior to the central sulcus in the frontal
lobe
▪ Allows us to consciously move skeletal muscles
▪ Motor neurons form pyramidal (corticospinal) tract,
which descends to spinal cord
▪ Motor homunculus is a spatial map

Figure 7.13a Left Lateral View of the
Brain (1 of 2)

Figure 7.14 Sensory and Motor Areas
of the Cerebral Cortex (2 of 2)

• Cerebral cortex
– Broca’s area (motor speech area)
▪ Involved in our ability to speak
▪ Usually in left hemisphere at the base of the
precentral gyrus
– Other specialized areas
▪ Anterior association area (frontal lobe)
▪ Posterior association area (posterior cortex)
▪ Speech area (for sounding out words)

Figure 7.13c Left Lateral View of the
Brain (2 of 2)

• Cerebral white matter
– Composed of fiber tracts deep to the gray matter
▪ Corpus callosum connects hemispheres
▪ Tracts, such as the corpus callosum, are known
as commissures
▪ Association fiber tracts connect areas within a
hemisphere
▪ Projection fiber tracts connect the cerebrum with
lower CNS centers

Figure 7.13a Left Lateral View of the
Brain (2 of 2)

Figure 7.15 Frontal Section (Facing Posteriorly) of the
Brain Showing Commissural, Association, and Projection
Fibers Running Through the Cerebrum and the Lower CNS

• Basal nuclei
– “Islands” of gray matter buried deep within the white
matter of the cerebrum
– Regulate voluntary motor activities by modifying
instructions sent to skeletal muscles by the primary
motor cortex

• Diencephalon (interbrain)
– Sits on top of the brain stem
– Enclosed by the cerebral hemispheres
– Includes three structures
1. Thalamus
2. Hypothalamus
3. Epithalamus

Figure 7.12b Development and Regions
of the Human Brain (2 of 2)

Figure 7.16a Diencephalon and Brain
Stem Structures (1 of 3)

Figure 7.16b Diencephalon and Brain

• Diencephalon: thalamus
– Encloses the third ventricle
– Relay station for sensory impulses passing upward to
the cerebral cortex

• Diencephalon: hypothalamus
– Makes up the floor of the diencephalon
– Important autonomic nervous system center
▪ Regulates body temperature, water balance,
metabolism
– Houses the limbic center for emotions
– Regulates the nearby pituitary gland
– Houses mammillary bodies
▪ Reflex centers for olfaction (smell)

• Diencephalon: epithalamus
– Forms the roof of the third ventricle
– Houses the pineal body (an endocrine gland)
– Includes the choroid plexus—forms cerebrospinal fluid

• Brain stem
– Provides pathway for ascending and descending tracts
– Produce programmed behaviors key for survival
– Includes three structures
1. Midbrain
2. Pons
3. Medulla oblongata


• Brain stem: midbrain
– Extends from the mammillary bodies to the pons
inferiorly
– Cerebral aqueduct (tiny canal) connects the third and
fourth ventricles
– Two bulging fiber tracts, cerebral peduncles, convey
ascending and descending impulses
– Four rounded protrusions, corpora quadrigemina, are
visual and auditory reflex centers

• Brain stem: pons
– The rounded structure protruding just below the
midbrain
– Mostly composed of fiber tracts
– Includes nuclei involved in the control of breathing

• Brain stem: medulla oblongata
– The most inferior part of the brain stem that merges
into the spinal cord
– Includes important fiber tracts
– Contains important centers that control:
▪ Heart rate
▪ Blood pressure
▪ Breathing
▪ Swallowing
▪ Vomiting
– Fourth ventricle lies posterior to pons and medulla
• Brain stem: reticular formation
– Diffuse mass of gray matter along the brain stem
– Involved in motor control of visceral organs
– Reticular activating system (RAS)
▪ Plays a role in awake/sleep cycles and
consciousness
▪ Filter for incoming sensory information

Figure 7.16b Diencephalon and Brain

• Cerebrum
– Two hemispheres with convoluted surfaces
– Outer cortex of gray matter and inner region of
white matter
– Controls balance
– Provides precise timing for skeletal muscle
activity and coordination of body movements
– Fibers connect to the cerebellum from the inner
ear, eye, proprioceptors of skeletal muscles and
more


Protection of the Central Nervous
System (1 of 6)
• In addition to bony protection of the brain and spinal cord,
the central nervous system is also protected by:
– Meninges
– Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
– Blood-brain barrier

System (2 of 6)
• Meninges
– Dura mater
▪ Outermost leathery layer
▪ Double-layered external covering
– Periosteal layer—attached to inner surface of
the skull
– Meningeal layer—outer covering of the brain
▪ Folds inward in several areas
– Falx cerebri
– Tentorium cerebelli

System (3 of 6)
• Meninges
– Arachnoid layer
▪ Middle layer
▪ Weblike extensions span the subarachnoid space to
attach it to the pia mater
▪ Subarachnoid space is filled with cerebrospinal fluid
▪ Arachnoid granulations protrude through the dura mater
and absorb cerebrospinal fluid into venous blood
– Pia mater
▪ Internal layer
▪ Clings to the surface of the brain and spinal cord

Figure 7.17a Meninges of the Brain

Figure 7.17b Meninges of the Brain

System (4 of 6)
• Cerebrospinal fluid
– Similar to blood plasma in composition
– Formed continually by the choroid plexuses
▪ Choroid plexuses—capillaries in the ventricles of
the brain
– CSF forms a watery cushion to protect the brain and
spinal cord
– Circulated in the arachnoid space, ventricles, and
central canal of the spinal cord

System (5 of 6)
• Cerebrospinal fluid circulation
1. CSF is produced by the choroid plexus of each
ventricle
2. CSF flows through the ventricles and into the
subarachnoid space via the median and lateral
apertures. Some CSF flows through the central
canal of the spinal cord
3. CSF flows through the subarachnoid space
4. CSF is absorbed into the dural venous sinuses via
the arachnoid villi

Figure 7.18a Ventricles and Location of
the Cerebrospinal Fluid

Figure 7.18b Ventricles and Location of

Figure 7.18c Ventricles and Location of

System (6 of 6)
• Blood-brain barrier
– Includes the least permeable capillaries of the body
– Allows water, glucose, and amino acids to pass
through the capillary walls
– Excludes many potentially harmful substances from
entering the brain, such as wastes
– Useless as a barrier against some substances

Brain Dysfunctions (1 of 2)
• Traumatic brain injuries
– Concussion
▪ Slight brain injury
▪ Typically little permanent brain damage occurs
– Contusion
▪ Marked nervous tissue destruction occurs
▪ Coma may occur
– Death may occur after head blows due to:
▪ Intracranial hemorrhage
▪ Cerebral edema

Brain Dysfunctions (2 of 2)
• Cerebrovascular accident (CVA), or stroke
– Results when blood circulation to a brain area is
blocked and brain tissue dies
– Loss of some functions or death may result
▪ Hemiplegia—one-sided paralysis
▪ Aphasia—damage to speech center in left
hemisphere
• Transient ischemic attack (TIA)
– Temporary brain ischemia (restriction of blood flow)
– Numbness, temporary paralysis, impaired speech

Spinal Cord (1 of 3)
• Extends from the foramen magnum of the skull to the
first or second lumbar vertebra
• Provides a two-way conduction pathway to and from
the brain
• Protected by vertebrae and meninges
• 31 pairs of spinal nerves arise from the spinal cord
– Cauda equina is a collection of spinal nerves at the
inferior end

Figure 7.19 Anatomy of the Spinal Cord,
Posterior View

• Gray matter of the spinal cord and spinal roots
– Internal gray matter is mostly cell bodies
– Posterior (dorsal) horns house interneurons
▪ Receive information from sensory neurons in the
dorsal root; cell bodies housed in dorsal root
ganglion
– Ventral (anterior) horns house motor neurons of the
somatic (voluntary) nervous system
▪ Send motor information out ventral root
– Gray matter surrounds the central canal, which is
filled with cerebrospinal fluid

• White matter of the spinal cord
– Composed of myelinated fiber tracts
– Three regions: dorsal, lateral, ventral columns
– Sensory (afferent) tracts conduct impulses toward
brain
– Motor (efferent) tracts carry impulses from brain to
skeletal muscles

Figure 7.20 Spinal Cord With Meninges
(Three-Dimensional, Anterior View)

Figure 7.21 Schematic of Ascending (Sensory) and
Descending (Motor) Pathways Between the Brain
and the Spinal Cord

Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
• PNS consists of nerves and ganglia outside the CNS

Structure of a Nerve (1 of 2)
• Nerves are bundles of neuron fibers found outside the
CNS
• Protective connective tissue coverings
– Endoneurium is a connective tissue sheath that
surrounds each fiber
– Perineurium wraps groups of fibers bound into a
fascicle
– Epineurium binds groups of fascicles

Figure 7.22 Structure of a Nerve

Concept Link 2
The terms for the connective tissue coverings of a nerve
should seem familiar: We discussed similar structures in
the muscle chapter (Figure 6.1, p. 201). Names of muscle
structures include the root word mys, whereas the root
word neuro tells you that the structure relates to a nerve.
For example, the endomysium covers one individual
muscle fiber, whereas the endoneurium covers one
individual neuron fiber.

Structure of a Nerve (2 of 2)
• Mixed nerves
– Contain both sensory and motor fibers
• Sensory (afferent) nerves
– Carry impulses toward the CNS
• Motor (efferent) nerves
– Carry impulses away from the CNS

Cranial Nerves
• 12 pairs of nerves serve mostly the head and neck
• Only the pair of vagus nerves extends to thoracic and
abdominal cavities

Cranial Nerves Mnemonic Device
• Oh – Olfactory
• Oh – Optic
• Oh – Oculomotor
• To – Trochlear
• Touch – Trigeminal
• And – Abducens
• Feel – Facial
• Very – Vestibulocochlear
• Good – Glossopharyngeal
• Velvet – Vagus
• At – Accessory
• Home – Hypoglossal

Figure 7.23 Distribution of Cranial
Nerves

Table 7.2 The Cranial Nerves (1 of 6)
Name/number Origin/course Function Test
I. Olfactory
One. Fibers arise from Purely sensory; carries Subject is asked to sniff
olfactory receptors in impulses for the sense and identify aromatic
the nasal mucosa and of smell substances, such as oil
synapse with the of cloves or vanilla
olfactory bulbs (which,
in turn, send fibers to
the olfactory cortex)
II. Optic
Two. Fibers arise from the Purely sensory; carries Vision and visual field
retina of the eye and impulses for vision are tested with an eye
form the optic nerve. chart and by testing the
The two optic nerves point at which the
form the optic chiasma subject first sees an
by partial crossover of object (finger) moving
fibers; the fibers into the visual field; eye
continue to the optic interior is viewed with
cortex as the optic an ophthalmoscope
tracts

III. Oculomotor
Three. Fibers run from the Supplies motor fibers to Pupils are examined for
midbrain to the eye four of the six muscles size, shape, and size
(superior, inferior, and equality; pupillary reflex
medial rectus, and is tested with a penlight
inferior oblique) that (pupils should constrict
direct the eyeball; to when illuminated); eye
the eyelid; and to the convergence is tested,
internal eye muscles as is the ability to follow
controlling lens shape moving objects
and pupil size
IV.
Four. Trochlear Fibers run from the Supplies motor fibers Tested in common with
midbrain to the eye for one external eye cranial nerve III for the
muscle (superior ability to follow moving
oblique) objects

V. Trigeminal
Five. Fibers emerge from the Conducts sensory Sensations of pain,
pons and form three impulses from the skin touch, and temperature
divisions that run to the of the face and mucosa are tested with a safety
face of the nose and mouth; pin and hot and cold
also contains motor objects; corneal reflex
fibers that activate the tested with a wisp of
chewing muscles cotton; motor branch
tested by asking the
subject to open mouth
against resistance and
move jaw from side to
side
VI.
Six. Abducens Fibers leave the pons Supplies motor fibers to Tested in common with
and run to the eye the lateral rectus cranial nerve III for the
muscle, which rolls the ability to move each
eye laterally eye laterally

VII. Facial
Seven. Fibers leave the pons Activates the muscles Anterior two-thirds of
and run to the face of facial expression and tongue is tested for
the lacrimal and ability to taste sweet,
salivary glands; carries salty, sour, and bitter
sensory impulses from substances; subject is
the taste buds of asked to close eyes,
anterior tongue smile, whistle, etc.;
tearing of eyes is tested
with ammonia fumes
VIII. Vestibulocochlear
Eight. Fibers run from the Purely sensory; Hearing is checked by
equilibrium and hearing vestibular branch air and bone
receptors of the inner transmits impulses for conduction, using a
ear to the brain stem the sense of balance, tuning fork
and cochlear branch
transmits impulses for
the sense of hearing

IX. Glossopharyngeal
Nine. Fibers emerge from the Supplies motor fibers to the Gag and swallowing
medulla and run to the pharynx (throat) that reflexes are checked;
throat promote swallowing and subject is asked to speak
saliva production; carries and cough; posterior
sensory impulses from tongue may be tested for
taste buds of the posterior taste
tongue and from pressure
receptors of the carotid
artery
X. Vagus
Ten. Fibers emerge from the Fibers carry sensory Tested in common with
medulla and descend into impulses from and motor cranial nerve IX because
nine
the thorax and abdominal impulses to the pharynx, they both serve muscles of
cavity larynx, and the abdominal the throat
and thoracic viscera; most
motor fibers are
parasympathetic fibers that
promote digestive activity
and help regulate heart
activity

XI. Accessory
Eleven. Fibers arise from the Mostly motor fibers that Sternocleidomastoid
superior spinal cord activate the and trapezius muscles
(C1 – C5 ) * and travel to
C sub 1 to C sub 5, asterisk
sternocleidomastoid are checked for
muscles of the neck and trapezius muscles strength by asking the
and back subject to rotate head
and shrug shoulders
against resistance
XII. Hypoglossal
Twelve. Fibers run from the Motor fibers control Subject is asked to
medulla to the tongue tongue movements; stick out tongue, and
sensory fibers carry any position
impulses from the abnormalities are noted
tongue
*Until recently, it was thought that the accessory nerves also received a contribution from cranial rootlets, but it has now
been determined that in almost all people, these cranial rootlets are instead part of the vagus nerves. This raises an
interesting question: Should the accessory nerves still be considered cranial nerves? Some anatomists say yes because
they pass through the cranium. Other anatomists say no because they don’t arise from the brain. Stay tuned!

Spinal Nerves (1 of 3)
• Spinal nerves
– 31 pairs
– Formed by the joining of the ventral and dorsal roots
of the spinal cord
– Named for the region of the spinal cord from which
they arise

Figure 7.24a Spinal Nerves

• Spinal nerves divide soon after leaving the spinal cord into
a dorsal ramus and a ventral ramus
– Ramus—branch of a spinal nerve; contains both motor
and sensory fibers
– Dorsal rami—serve the skin and muscles of the
posterior trunk
– Ventral rami (T1 – T12 ) —form the intercostal nerves that
supply muscles and skin of the ribs and trunk
– Ventral rami (except T1 – T12 ) —form a complex of
networks (plexus) for the anterior

Figure 7.24b Spinal Nerves

• Plexus—networks of nerves serving motor and sensory
needs of the limbs
• Form from ventral rami of spinal nerves in the cervical,
lumbar, and sacral regions
• Four plexuses
1. Cervical
2. Brachial
3. Lumbar
4. Sacral

Table 7.3 Spinal Nerve Plexuses (1 of 3)
Origin (from ventral Important Result of damage to
Plexus rami) nerves Body areas served plexus or its nerves
C1 – C5
C sub 1 to C sub 5, asterisk
Cervical Phrenic Diaphragm; skin and Respiratory paralysis (and

muscles of shoulder and death if not treated
neck promptly)
C5 – C8 and T1
C sub 5 to C sub 8 and T sub 1
Brachial Axillary Deltoid muscle and skin of Paralysis and atrophy of

shoulder; muscles and skin deltoid muscle
of superior thorax
Brachial C sub 5 to C sub 8 and T sub 1
Radial Triceps and extensor Wristdrop—inability to

muscles of the forearm; extend hand at wrist
skin of posterior upper limb
Median Flexor muscles and some Decreased ability to flex and

muscles of hand; skin abduct hand and flex and
of lateral two-thirds of abduct thumb and index
anterior hand and posterior finger—therefore, inability to
of fingers 2 and 3 pick up small objects
Musculocutane Flexor muscles of arm; skin Decreased ability to flex

ous of lateral forearm forearm at elbow
Ulnar Some flexor muscles of Clawhand—inability to

forearm; wrist and many spread fingers apart
hand muscles; skin of hand

Figure 7.25a Distribution of the Major Peripheral
Nerves of the Upper and Lower Limbs

Origin (from ventral Result of damage to
Plexus rami) Important nerves Body areas served plexus or its nerves
L1 – L 4
L sub 1 to L sub 4
Lumbar Femoral (including Lower abdomen, Inability to extend leg

lateral and anterior anterior and medial and flex hip; loss of
cutaneous branches) thigh muscles (hip cutaneous sensation
flexors and knee
extensors), and skin
of anteromedial leg
and thigh
Lumbar L sub 1 to L sub 4
Obturator Adductor muscles of Inability to adduct

medial thigh and thigh
small hip muscles;
skin of medial thigh
and hip joint

Figure 7.25b Distribution of the Major Peripheral

Origin (from Body areas Result of damage to
Plexus ventral rami) Important nerves served plexus or its nerves
L 4 – L5 and S1 – S3
L sub 4 to L sub 5 and S sub 1 to S sub 3
Sacral Sciatic (largest nerve in body; Lower trunk and Inability to extend hip
splits to common fibular and posterior surface of and flex knee; sciatica
tibial nerves just above knee) thigh (hip extensors
and knee flexors)
• Common fibular (superficial
and deep branches) Lateral aspect of Footdrop—inability to
leg and foot dorsiflex foot
• Tibial (including sural and
plantar branches) Posterior aspect of Inability to plantar flex
leg and foot and invert foot;
shuffling gait
Sacral L sub 4 to L sub 5 and S sub 1 to S sub 3
Superior and inferior gluteal Gluteus muscles of Inability to extend hip

hip (maximus) or abduct
and medially rotate
thigh (medius)

Figure 7.25c Distribution of the Major Peripheral

Autonomic Nervous System
• Motor subdivision of the PNS
– Consists only of motor nerves
– Controls the body automatically (and is also known
as the involuntary nervous system)
– Regulates cardiac and smooth muscles and glands
– Two subdivisions
▪ Somatic nervous system
▪ Autonomic nervous system

Somatic and Autonomic Nervous
Systems Compared
• Somatic nervous system
– Motor neuron cell bodies originate inside the CNS
– Axons extends to skeletal muscles that are served
• Autonomic nervous system
– Chain of two motor neurons
▪ Preganglionic neuron is in the brain or spinal cord
▪ Postganglionic neuron extends to the organ
– Has two arms
▪ Sympathetic division
▪ Parasympathetic division

Figure 7.26 Comparison of the Somatic
and Autonomic Nervous Systems

Anatomy of the Parasympathetic
Division
• Parasympathetic division is also known as the
craniosacral division
• Preganglionic neurons originate in:
– Cranial nerves III, VII, IX, and X
– S2 through S 4 regions of the spinal cord
• Preganglionic neurons synapse with terminal ganglia;

from there, postganglionic axons extend to organs that
are served

Figure 7.27 Anatomy of the Autonomic
Nervous System (1 of 2)

Anatomy of the Sympathetic
Division (1 of 2)
• Sympathetic division is also known as the thoracolumbar
division
• Preganglionic neurons originate from T1 through L 2
– Axons pass through a ramus communicans to enter a
sympathetic trunk ganglion
– Sympathetic trunk, or chain, lies near the spinal cord

Anatomy of the Sympathetic
Division (2 of 2)
• After synapsing at the ganglion, the axon may synapse
with a second neuron at the same or different level
• Or, the preganglionic neuron may pass through the
ganglion without synapsing and form part of the
splanchnic nerves
– Splanchnic nerves travel to the collateral ganglion
– Collateral ganglia serve the abdominal and pelvic
organs

Figure 7.27 Anatomy of the Autonomic

Figure 7.28 Sympathetic Pathways

Autonomic Functioning (1 of 4)
• Body organs served by the autonomic nervous system
receive fibers from both divisions
– Exceptions: blood vessels, structures of the skin,
some glands, and the adrenal medulla
– These exceptions receive only sympathetic fibers

• When body divisions serve the same organ, they cause
antagonistic effects due to different neurotransmitters
– Parasympathetic (cholinergic) fibers release
acetylcholine
– Sympathetic postganglionic (adrenergic) fibers
release norepinephrine
– Preganglionic axons of both divisions release
acetycholine

• Sympathetic—“fight or flight” division
– Response to unusual stimulus when emotionally
or physically stressed or threatened
– Takes over to increase activities
– Remember as the “E” division
▪ Exercise
▪ Excitement
▪ Emergency
▪ Embarrassment

• Parasympathetic—“housekeeping” activites
– “Rest-and-digest” system
– Conserves energy
– Maintains daily necessary body functions
– Remember as the “D” division
▪ Digestion
▪ Defecation
▪ Diuresis

Table 7.4 Effects of the Sympathetic and
Parasympathetic Divisions of the Autonomic
Target organ/system Parasympathetic effects Sympathetic effects
Adipose tissue No effect Stimulates fat breakdown
Adrenal medulla No effect Stimulates medulla cells to secrete

epinephrine and norepinephrine
Arrector pili muscles attached to No effect Stimulates; produces “goose bumps”
hair follicles
Blood vessels No effect on most blood vessels Constricts blood vessels in viscera and
skin (dilates those in skeletal muscle and
heart); increases blood pressure
Cellular metabolism No effect Increases metabolic rate; increases blood
sugar levels; stimulates fat breakdown
Digestive system Increases smooth muscle mobility Decreases activity of digestive system
(peristalsis) and amount of secretion and constricts digestive system
by digestive system glands; relaxes sphincters (for example, anal sphincter)
sphincters

Table 7.4 Effects of the Sympathetic and
Parasympathetic Divisions of the Autonomic
Target organ/system Parasympathetic effects Sympathetic effects
Eye (ciliary muscle) Stimulates to increase bulging of lens Inhibits; decreases bulging of lens;
for close vision prepares for distant vision
Eye (iris) Stimulates constrictor muscles; Stimulates dilator muscles; dilates
constricts pupils pupils
Glands—salivary, lacrimal, gastric Stimulates; increases production of Inhibits; result is dry mouth and dry
saliva, tears, and gastric juice eyes
Heart Decreases rate; slows and steadies Increases rate and force of heartbeat
Kidneys No effect Decreases urine output
Liver No effect Causes glucose to be released to

blood
Lungs Constricts bronchioles Dilates bronchioles
Penis Causes erection due to vasodilation Causes ejaculation (emission of

semen)
Sweat glands of skin No effect Stimulates to produce perspiration
Urinary bladder/urethra Relaxes sphincters (allows voiding) Constricts sphincters (prevents

voiding)

Developmental Aspects of the Nervous
System (1 of 5)
• The nervous system is formed during the first month of
embryonic development
• Infections and other exposures can have harmful effects during
pregnancy
– German measles (rubella)
– Smoking
– Radiation
– Drugs
• Oxygen deprivation destroys brain cells
• The hypothalamus is one of the last areas of the brain to
develop

System (2 of 5)
• Severe congenital brain diseases include:
– Cerebral palsy
– Anencephaly
– Hydrocephalus
– Spina bifida

System (3 of 5)
• Premature babies have trouble regulating body
temperature because the hypothalamus is one of the last
brain areas to mature prenatally
• Development of motor control indicates the progressive
myelination and maturation of a child’s nervous system

System (4 of 5)
• Brain growth ends in young adulthood. Neurons die
throughout life and are not replaced; thus, brain mass
declines with age
• Orthostatic hypotension is low blood pressure due to
changes in body position
• Healthy aged people maintain nearly optimal intellectual
function

System (5 of 5)
• Disease—particularly cardiovascular disease—is the major
cause of declining mental function with age
– Arteriosclerosis is decreased elasticity of blood vessels
– Decline in oxygen leads to senility
▪ Forgetfulness, irritability, difficulty concentrating and
thinking clearly, confusion

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