PowerPoint® Lecture Slides

Prepared by Patty Bostwick-Taylor,

Florence-Darlington Technical College

CHAPTER 5
The Skeletal
System

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

The Skeletal System

•Parts of the skeletal system

•Bones (skeleton)
•Joints
•Cartilages
•Ligaments
•Two subdivisions of the skeleton
•Axial skeleton
•Appendicular skeleton

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Functions of Bones

• Support the body

• Protect soft organs
• Skull and vertebrae for brain and spinal cord
• Rib cage for thoracic cavity organs
• Allow movement due to attached skeletal muscles
• Store minerals and fats
• Calcium and phosphorus
• Fat in the internal marrow cavity
• Blood cell formation (hematopoiesis)

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Bones of the Human Body

•The adult skeleton has 206 bones

•Two basic types of bone tissue
•Compact bone
•Homogeneous
•Spongy bone
•Small needle-like pieces of bone
•Many open spaces

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Spongy
bone

Compact
bone
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.1
Spongy
bone

Compact
bone
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.1
Classification of Bones on the Basis of
Shape
•Bones are classified as:
•Long
•Short
•Flat
•Irregular

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.2
Classification of Bones

•Long bones
• Typically longer than they are wide
• Shaft with heads situated at both ends
• Contain mostly compact bone
• All of the bones of the limbs (except wrist,
ankle, and kneecap bones)
• Example:
• Femur
• Humerus

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.2a
Classification of Bones

•Short bones
•Generally cube-shaped
•Contain mostly spongy bone
•Includes bones of the wrist and ankle
•Sesamoid bones are a type of short bone
which form within tendons (patella)
•Example:
•Carpals
•Tarsals

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.2d
Classification of Bones

•Flat bones
•Thin, flattened, and usually curved
•Two thin layers of compact bone surround a
layer of spongy bone
•Example:
•Skull
•Ribs
•Sternum

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.2c
Classification of Bones

•Irregular bones
•Irregular shape
•Do not fit into other bone classification
categories
•Example:
•Vertebrae
•Hip bones

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.2b
Anatomy of a Long Bone

•Diaphysis
•Shaft
•Composed of compact bone
• Protected by fib connctive tissues
•Epiphysis
•Ends of the bone
•Composed mostly of spongy bone
• Distal or proximal

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Articular
cartilage

Proximal
epiphysis Spongy bone
Epiphyseal
line
Periosteum
Compact bone
Medullary
cavity (lined
by endosteum)
Diaphysis

Distal
epiphysis
(a)
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.3a
Anatomy of a Long Bone

•Periosteum
•Outside covering of the diaphysis
•Fibrous connective tissue membrane
•Perforating (Sharpey’s) fibers
•Secure periosteum to underlying bone
•Arteries
•Supply bone cells with nutrients

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Endosteum

Yellow
bone marrow
Compact bone
Periosteum
Perforating
(Sharpey’s)
fibers
Nutrient
arteries
(c)
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.3c
Anatomy of a Long Bone

•Articular cartilage
•Covers the external surface of the epiphyses
•Made of hyaline cartilage
•Decreases friction at joint surfaces

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Articular
cartilage

Compact bone

Spongy bone

(b)

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.3b

Anatomy of a Long Bone

•Epiphyseal plate
•Flat plate of hyaline cartilage seen in young,
growing bone
•Epiphyseal line
•Remnant of the epiphyseal plate
•Seen in adult bones

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Articular
cartilage

Proximal
epiphysis Spongy bone
Epiphyseal
line
Periosteum
Compact bone
Medullary
cavity (lined
by endosteum)
Diaphysis

Distal
epiphysis
(a)
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.3a
Anatomy of a Long Bone

•Marrow (medullary) cavity

•Cavity inside of the shaft
•Contains yellow marrow (mostly fat) in
adults
•Contains red marrow for blood cell formation
in infants
•In adults, red marrow is situated in cavities of
spongy bone and epiphyses of some long
bones

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Articular
cartilage

Proximal
epiphysis Spongy bone
Epiphyseal
line
Periosteum
Compact bone
Medullary
cavity (lined
by endosteum)
Diaphysis

Distal
epiphysis
(a)
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.3a
Bone Markings

• Surface features of bones

• Sites of attachments for muscles, tendons, and
ligaments
• Passages for nerves and blood vessels
• Categories of bone markings
• Projections or processes—grow out from the bone
surface
• Terms often begin with “T”
• Depressions or cavities—indentations
• Terms often begin with “F”

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Microscopic Anatomy of Compact Bone

•Osteon (Haversian system)

•A unit of bone containing central canal and
matrix rings
•Central (Haversian) canal
•Opening in the center of an osteon
•Carries blood vessels and nerves
•Perforating (Volkmann’s) canal
•Canal perpendicular to the central canal
•Carries blood vessels and nerves

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Osteon
(Haversian system)

Lamellae

Blood vessel continues into

medullary cavity containing marrow
Spongy bone
Perforating
fibers
Compact
bone
Periosteal
blood vessel Central (Haversian) canal
Periosteum
Perforating
(a) (Volkmann’s) canal
Blood vessel

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.4a

Microscopic Anatomy of Bone

•Lacunae
•Cavities containing bone cells (osteocytes)
•Arranged in concentric rings called lamellae
•Lamellae
•Rings around the central canal
•Sites of lacunae

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Lamella
Osteocyte

Canaliculus
(b) Lacuna
Central (Haversian) canal

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.4b

Osteon

Lacuna

(c) Central Interstitial

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
canal lamellae Figure 5.4c
Microscopic Anatomy of Bone

•Canaliculi
•Tiny canals
•Radiate from the central canal to lacunae
•Form a transport system connecting all bone
cells to a nutrient supply

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Lamella
Osteocyte

Canaliculus
(b) Lacuna
Central (Haversian) canal

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.4b

Formation of the Human Skeleton

•In embryos, the skeleton is primarily hyaline

cartilage
•During development, much of this cartilage is
replaced by bone
•Cartilage remains in isolated areas
•Bridge of the nose
•Parts of ribs
•Joints

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Bone Growth (Ossification)

•Epiphyseal plates allow for lengthwise growth

of long bones during childhood
•New cartilage is continuously formed
•Older cartilage becomes ossified
•Cartilage is broken down
•Enclosed cartilage is digested away,
opening up a medullary cavity
•Bone replaces cartilage through the action
of osteoblasts

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Bone Growth (Ossification)

•Bones are remodeled and lengthened until

growth stops
•Bones are remodeled in response to two
factors
•Blood calcium levels
•Pull of gravity and muscles on the
skeleton
•Bones grow in width (called appositional
growth)

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Articular
cartilage
Hyaline Spongy
cartilage bone
New center of
bone growth New bone
Epiphyseal forming
plate
cartilage Growth
Medullary in bone
cavity width
Bone starting Invading
to replace Growth blood
cartilage in bone vessels
length
New bone
Bone collar forming
Hyaline Epiphyseal
cartilage plate cartilage
model
In an embryo In a fetus In a child

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.5

Bone starting
to replace
cartilage

Bone collar
Hyaline
cartilage
model

In an embryo
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.5, step 1
Hyaline
cartilage
New center of
bone growth

Medullary
cavity
Invading
Growth blood
in bone vessels
length

In a fetus

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.5, step 2

Articular
cartilage
Spongy
bone

New bone
Epiphyseal forming
plate
cartilage Growth
in bone
width

Invading
blood
vessels

New bone
forming
Epiphyseal
plate cartilage

In a child

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.5, step 3

Bone growth Bone remodeling
Bone grows in Growing shaft is
length because: remodeled as:

1 Cartilage Articular cartilage

grows here.
Epiphyseal plate
2 Cartilage
is replaced 1 Bone is
by bone here. resorbed here.
3 Cartilage 2 Bone is added
grows here. by appositional
growth here.
4 Cartilage
is replaced by 3 Bone is
bone here. resorbed here.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.6

Types of Bone Cells

•Osteocytes—mature bone cells

•Osteoblasts—bone-forming cells
•Osteoclasts—giant bone-destroying cells
•Break down bone matrix for remodeling and
release of calcium in response to
parathyroid hormone
•Bone remodeling is performed by both
osteoblasts and osteoclasts

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Bone Fractures

•Fracture—break in a bone
•Types of bone fractures
•Closed (simple) fracture—break that does
not penetrate the skin
•Open (compound) fracture—broken bone
penetrates through the skin
•Bone fractures are treated by reduction and
immobilization

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Common Types of Fractures

•Comminuted—bone breaks into many

fragments
•Compression—bone is crushed
•Depressed—broken bone portion is pressed
inward
•Impacted—broken bone ends are forced into
each other
•Spiral—ragged break occurs when excessive
twisting forces are applied to a bone
•Greenstick—bone breaks incompletely
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Repair of Bone Fractures

•Hematoma (blood-filled swelling) is formed

•Break is splinted by fibrocartilage to form a
callus
•Fibrocartilage callus is replaced by a bony
callus
•Bony callus is remodeled to form a permanent
patch

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Hematoma
External Bony
callus callus of
spongy
bone
New
Internal blood
callus vessels Healed
(fibrous fracture
tissue and Spongy
cartilage) bone
trabecula

1 Hematoma 2 Fibrocartilage 3 Bony callus 4 Bone remodeling

forms. callus forms. forms. occurs.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.7

Hematoma

1 Hematoma
forms.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.7, step 1

Hematoma
External
callus

New
Internal blood
callus vessels
(fibrous
tissue and Spongy
cartilage) bone
trabecula

1 Hematoma 2 Fibrocartilage
forms. callus forms.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.7, step 2

Hematoma
External Bony
callus callus of
spongy
bone
New
Internal blood
callus vessels
(fibrous
tissue and Spongy
cartilage) bone
trabecula

1 Hematoma 2 Fibrocartilage 3 Bony callus

forms. callus forms. forms.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.7, step 3

Hematoma
External Bony
callus callus of
spongy
bone
New
Internal blood
callus vessels Healed
(fibrous fracture
tissue and Spongy
cartilage) bone
trabecula

1 Hematoma 2 Fibrocartilage 3 Bony callus 4 Bone remodeling

forms. callus forms. forms. occurs.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.7, step 4

The Axial Skeleton

•Forms the longitudinal axis of the body

•Divided into three parts
•Skull
•Vertebral column
•Bony thorax

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Cranium
Skull
Facial bones

Clavicle
Thoracic cage Scapula
(ribs and
sternum) Sternum
Rib
Humerus

Vertebra
Vertebral
column Radius
Ulna
Sacrum
Carpals

Phalanges
Metacarpals
Femur
Patella

Tibia

Fibula

Tarsals
Metatarsals
Phalanges
(a) Anterior view
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.8a
Cranium

Bones of
Clavicle pectoral
girdle
Scapula
Upper
limb
Rib
Humerus

Vertebra
Radius Bones
Ulna of
pelvic
Carpals girdle

Phalanges
Metacarpals
Femur

Lower
limb
Tibia

Fibula

(b) Posterior view

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.8b
The Skull

•Two sets of bones

•Cranium
•Facial bones
•Bones are joined by sutures
•Only the mandible is attached by a freely
movable joint

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Coronal suture Frontal bone

Parietal bone
Sphenoid bone

Temporal bone Ethmoid bone

Lambdoid Lacrimal bone

suture

Squamous suture
Nasal bone
Occipital bone

Zygomatic process Zygomatic bone

Maxilla
External acoustic meatus
Mastoid process Alveolar
processes
Styloid process
Mandible (body)
Mental foramen
Mandibular ramus

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.9

Frontal bone

Cribriform plate
Ethmoid
Crista galli bone
Sphenoid
bone Optic canal

Sella turcica
Foramen ovale

Temporal bone

Jugular foramen

Internal
acoustic meatus

Parietal bone

Occipital bone

Foramen magnum

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.10

Maxilla
Hard (palatine process)
palate
Palatine bone
Maxilla

Zygomatic bone
Sphenoid bone
Temporal bone (greater wing)
(zygomatic process)
Foramen ovale
Vomer

Mandibular fossa
Carotid canal
Styloid process

Mastoid process Jugular foramen

Temporal bone Occipital condyle

Parietal bone
Foramen magnum
Occipital bone

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.11

Coronal suture
Frontal bone
Parietal bone

Nasal bone
Superior orbital fissure

Sphenoid bone

Optic canal
Ethmoid bone
Temporal bone
Lacrimal bone
Zygomatic bone
Middle nasal concha
of ethmoid bone
Maxilla
Inferior nasal concha

Vomer
Mandible

Alveolar processes

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.12

Paranasal Sinuses

•Hollow portions of bones surrounding the

nasal cavity
•Functions of paranasal sinuses
•Lighten the skull
•Give resonance and amplification to voice

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Frontal sinus
Ethmoid sinus
Sphenoidal sinus
Maxillary sinus

(a) Anterior view

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.13a
Frontal sinus
Ethmoid sinus
Sphenoidal sinus
Maxillary sinus

(b) Medial view

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.13b
The Hyoid Bone

•The only bone that does not articulate with

another bone
•Serves as a moveable base for the tongue
•Aids in swallowing and speech

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Greater horn
Lesser horn

Body
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.14
The Fetal Skull

•The fetal skull is large compared to the infant’s

total body length
•Fetal skull is 1/4 body length compared to
adult skull which is 1/8 body length
•Fontanels—fibrous membranes connecting
the cranial bones
•Allow skull compression during birth
•Allow the brain to grow during later
pregnancy and infancy
•Convert to bone within 24 months after birth

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Anterior
fontanel
Frontal bone

Parietal
bone

Posterior fontanel
Occipital
bone
(a)
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.15a
Anterior fontanel
Sphenoidal
Parietal bone fontanel
Frontal
Posterior bone
fontanel

Occipital
bone
Mastoid
fontanel
Temporal bone
(b)
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.15b
The Vertebral Column

•Each vertebrae is given a name according to

its location
•There are 24 single vertebral bones
separated by intervertebral discs
•Seven cervical vertebrae are in the neck
•Twelve thoracic vertebrae are in the chest
region
•Five lumbar vertebrae are associated with
the lower back

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

The Vertebral Column

•Nine vertebrae fuse to form two composite

bones
•Sacrum
•Coccyx

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Anterior Posterior
1st cervical
vertebra (atlas) Cervical curvature
2nd cervical (concave)
vertebra (axis) 7 vertebrae,
C1 – C7
1st thoracic
vertebra
Transverse
process
Spinous Thoracic curvature
process (convex)
12 vertebrae,
Intervertebral T1 – T12
disc
Intervertebral
foramen
1st lumbar
vertebra Lumbar curvature
(concave)
5 vertebrae,
L1 – L5

Sacral curvature
(convex)
5 fused vertebrae

Coccyx
4 fused vertebrae
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.16
The Vertebral Column

•Primary curvatures are the spinal curvatures

of the thoracic and sacral regions
•Present from birth
•Form a C-shaped curvature as in newborns
•Secondary curvatures are the spinal
curvatures of the cervical and lumbar regions
•Develop after birth
•Form an S-shaped curvature as in adults

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.17
A Typical Vertebrae

•Body
•Vertebral arch
•Pedicle
•Lamina
•Vertebral foramen
•Transverse processes
•Spinous process
•Superior and inferior articular processes

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Posterior
Lamina Vertebral
arch
Transverse Spinous
process process

Superior
articular
process
and
facet

Pedicle Vertebral
foramen
Body

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Anterior Figure 5.19
(a) ATLAS AND AXIS

Transverse Posterior
process arch

Anterior
arch
Superior view of atlas (C1)

Spinous
Transverse process
process
Facet on
superior
articular
Dens process
Body
Superior view of axis (C2)

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.20a

(b) TYPICAL CERVICAL VERTEBRAE
Facet on superior Spinous
articular process process
Vertebral
foramen
Transverse
process
Superior view
Superior
articular Body
process
Spinous
process Transverse
process
Facet on inferior
articular process
Right lateral view

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.20b

(c) THORACIC VERTEBRAE
Spinous process
Transverse Vertebral
process foramen

Facet Facet on
for rib superior
articular
process
Body
Superior view
Facet on Body
superior
articular
process
Facet on
transverse
Costal facet
process Spinous for rib
process
Right lateral view
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.20c
(d) LUMBAR VERTEBRAE
Spinous process

Vertebral
foramen
Transverse
process

Facet on
Body superior
articular
process
Superior view

Superior Body
articular
process

Spinous Facet on inferior

process articular process
Right lateral view
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.20d
Sacrum and Coccyx

•Sacrum
•Formed by the fusion of five vertebrae
•Coccyx
•Formed from the fusion of three to five
vertebrae
•“Tailbone,” or remnant of a tail that other
vertebrates have

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Superior Auricular
Sacral articular surface
canal process
Ala

Body

Median
Sacrum sacral
crest

Posterior
sacral
foramina
Sacral
Coccyx hiatus
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.21
The Bony Thorax

•Forms a cage to protect major organs

•Consists of three parts
•Sternum
•Ribs
•True ribs (pairs 1–7)
•False ribs (pairs 8–12)
•Floating ribs (pairs 11–12)
•Thoracic vertebrae

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

T1 vertebra
Jugular notch
Clavicular notch

Manubrium
Sternal angle
Body
Xiphisternal Sternum
True joint
ribs Xiphoid
(1 –7) process

False
ribs
(8–12)
Intercostal
spaces
L1
Vertebra
Floating Costal cartilage
ribs (11, 12)
(a)
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.22a
T2 Jugular
T3 notch
T4 Sternal
angle

Heart

T9 Xiphisternal
joint

(b)
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.22b
The Appendicular Skeleton

•Composed of 126 bones

•Limbs (appendages)
•Pectoral girdle
•Pelvic girdle

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Cranium
Skull
Facial bones

Clavicle
Thoracic cage Scapula
(ribs and
sternum) Sternum
Rib
Humerus

Vertebra
Vertebral
column Radius
Ulna
Sacrum
Carpals

Phalanges
Metacarpals
Femur
Patella

Tibia

Fibula

Tarsals
Metatarsals
Phalanges
(a) Anterior view
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.8a
Cranium

Bones of
Clavicle pectoral
girdle
Scapula
Upper
limb
Rib
Humerus

Vertebra
Radius Bones
Ulna of
pelvic
Carpals girdle

Phalanges
Metacarpals
Femur

Lower
limb
Tibia

Fibula

(b) Posterior view

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.8b
The Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle

•Composed of two bones

•Clavicle—collarbone
•Articulates with the sternum medially and
with the scapula laterally
•Scapula—shoulder blade
•Articulates with the clavicle at the
acromioclavicular joint
•Articulates with the arm bone at the
glenoid cavity
•These bones allow the upper limb to have
exceptionally free movement
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Acromio-
clavicular Clavicle
joint

Scapula

(a) Articulated right shoulder (pectoral) girdle

showing the relationship to bones of the
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
thorax and sternum Figure 5.23a
Posterior
Sternal (medial)
end

Acromial (lateral)
Anterior
end
Superior view

Acromial end Sternal end

Anterior

Posterior

Inferior view
(b) Right clavicle, superior and inferior views
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.23b
Coracoid process
Suprascapular notch

Superior Acromion
angle

Glenoid cavity
at lateral angle
Spine

Medial
border

Lateral border

(c) Right scapula, posterior aspect

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.23c
Acromion
Suprascapular notch
Superior border
Coracoid
process Superior
angle

Glenoid
cavity

Lateral
(axillary) Medial
border (vertebral)
border

Inferior angle
(d) Right scapula, anterior aspect
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.23d
Bones of the Upper Limbs

•Humerus
•Forms the arm
•Single bone
•Proximal end articulation
•Head articulates with the glenoid cavity of
the scapula
•Distal end articulation
•Trochlea and capitulum articulate with the
bones of the forearm
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Head of
Greater humerus
tubercle
Lesser
tubercle Anatomical neck
Intertubercular
sulcus

Deltoid
tuberosity

Radial
fossa Medial
epicondyle
Coronoid
fossa
Capitulum Trochlea
(a)
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.24a
Head of
humerus

Anatomical Surgical
neck neck

Radial
groove
Deltoid
tuberosity

Medial Olecranon
epicondyle fossa

Lateral
Trochlea epicondyle
(b)
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.24b
Bones of the Upper Limbs

•The forearm has two bones

•Ulna—medial bone in anatomical position
•Proximal end articulation
• Coronoid process and olecranon
articulate with the humerus
•Radius—lateral bone in anatomical position
•Proximal end articulation
• Head articulates with the capitulum of
the humerus

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Trochlear notch
Olecranon
Head Coronoid
Neck process
Radial Proximal
tuberosity radioulnar
joint
Radius

Ulna

Inter-
osseous
membrane

Ulnar styloid
Radial process
styloid Distal
process radioulnar
joint
(c)
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.24c
Bones of the Upper Limbs

•Hand
•Carpals—wrist
•Eight bones arranged in two rows of four
bones in each hand
•Metacarpals—palm
•Five per hand
•Phalanges—fingers and thumb
•Fourteen phalanges in each hand
•In each finger, there are three bones
•In the thumb, there are only two bones
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Distal
Middle
Phalanges
(fingers)
Proximal

4 3 2
Metacarpals 5
(palm) 1

Hamate Trapezium
Carpals Pisiform Trapezoid
(wrist) Triquetrum Scaphoid
Lunate Capitate
Ulna
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Radius Figure 5.25
Bones of the Pelvic Girdle

•Formed by two coxal (ossa coxae) bones

•Composed of three pairs of fused bones
•Ilium
•Ischium
•Pubis
•Pelvic girdle = 2 coxal bones, sacrum
•Bony pelvis = 2 coxal bones, sacrum, coccyx

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Bones of the Pelvic Girdle

•The total weight of the upper body rests on the

pelvis
•It protects several organs
•Reproductive organs
•Urinary bladder
•Part of the large intestine

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

lliac crest
Sacroiliac
joint

llium
Coxal bone
(or hip bone) Sacrum
Pelvic brim
Pubis Coccyx Ischial spine
Acetabulum
Ischium Pubic symphysis

Pubic arch
(a)

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.26a

IIium
Ala

Posterior IIiac crest

superior
iliac Anterior superior
spine iliac spine
Posterior
inferior Anterior inferior
iliac spine iliac spine
Greater sciatic
notch Acetabulum
Ischial body
Body of pubis
Ischial spine
Pubis
Ischial
tuberosity Inferior pubic
ramus
Ischium
Obturator
Ischial ramus foramen
(b)
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.26b
Gender Differences of the Pelvis

•The female inlet is larger and more circular

•The female pelvis as a whole is shallower, and
the bones are lighter and thinner
•The female ilia flare more laterally
•The female sacrum is shorter and less curved
•The female ischial spines are shorter and
farther apart; thus the outlet is larger
•The female pubic arch is more rounded
because the angle of the pubic arch is greater

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

False pelvis

Inlet of
true
pelvis

Pelvic brim

Pubic arch
(less than
90°)
False pelvis

Inlet of
true
pelvis

Pelvic brim

Pubic arch
(more than
(c) 90°)
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.26c
Bones of the Lower Limbs

•Femur—thigh bone
•The heaviest, strongest bone in the body
•Proximal end articulation
•Head articulates with the acetabulum of
the coxal (hip) bone
•Distal end articulation
•Lateral and medial condyles articulate
with the tibia in the lower leg

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Neck

Head
Inter-
trochanteric
Lesser trochanter
line

Lateral
condyle

Patellar
surface
(a)
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.27a
Greater
Head trochanter
Inter-
Lesser trochanter trochanteric
crest
Gluteal tuberosity

Intercondylar
fossa
Medial Lateral
condyle condyle

(b) Figure 5.27b

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Bones of the Lower Limbs

•The lower leg has two bones

•Tibia—Shinbone; larger and medially
oriented
•Proximal end articulation
• Medial and lateral condyles articulate
with the femur to form the knee joint
•Fibula—Thin and sticklike; lateral to the tibia
•Has no role in forming the knee joint

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Intercondylar
eminence

Lateral Medial
condyle condyle
Head Tibial
tuberosity
Proximal
tibiofibular
joint
Interosseous
membrane

Anterior
border
Fibula

Tibia

Distal
tibiofibular
joint
Medial
Lateral
malleolus
malleolus
(c) Figure 5.27c
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Bones of the Lower Limbs

•The foot
•Tarsals—seven bones
•Two largest tarsals
• Calcaneus (heel bone)
• Talus
•Metatarsals—five bones form the sole of
the foot
•Phalanges—fourteen bones form the toes

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Phalanges:
Distal
Middle
Proximal

Tarsals:
Medial Metatarsals
cuneiform
Tarsals:
Intermediate
cuneiform Lateral
cuneiform
Navicular
Cuboid

Talus

Calcaneus

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.28

Arches of the Foot

•Bones of the foot are arranged to form three

strong arches
•Two longitudinal
•One transverse

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Medial longitudinal arch

Transverse arch

Lateral longitudinal
arch

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.29

Joints

•Articulations of bones
•Functions of joints
•Hold bones together
•Allow for mobility
•Two ways joints are classified
•Functionally
•Structurally

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Functional Classification of Joints

•Synarthroses
•Immovable joints
•Amphiarthroses
•Slightly moveable joints
•Diarthroses
•Freely moveable joints

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Structural Classification of Joints

•Fibrous joints
•Generally immovable
•Cartilaginous joints
•Immovable or slightly moveable
•Synovial joints
•Freely moveable

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Fibrous Joints

•Bones united by collagenic fibers

•Types
• Sutures
• Immobile
• Syndesmoses
• Allows more movement than sutures but
still immobile
• Example: Distal end of tibia and fibula
• Gomphosis
• Immobile
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
Fibrous joints

Fibrous
connective
tissue
(a) Suture

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.30a

Fibrous joints

Tibia
Fibula
Fibrous
connective
tissue
(b) Syndesmosis
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.30b
Cartilaginous Joints

•Bones connected by cartilage

•Types
•Synchrondrosis
•Immobile
•Symphysis
•Slightly movable
•Example: Pubic symphysis, intervertebral
joints

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Cartilaginous joints

First rib

Hyaline
cartilage

Sternum

(c) Synchondrosis

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.30c

Cartilaginous joints

Vertebrae

Fibrocartilage

(d) Symphysis

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.30d

Cartilaginous joints

Pubis
Fibro-
cartilage

(e) Symphysis
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.30e
Synovial Joints

•Articulating bones are separated by a joint

cavity
•Synovial fluid is found in the joint cavity

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Synovial joints

Scapula
Articular
capsule
Articular
(hyaline)
cartilage
Humerus
(f) Multiaxial joint
(shoulder joint)

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.30f

Synovial joints

Humerus
Articular
(hyaline)
cartilage
Articular
capsule
Radius
Ulna
(g) Uniaxial joint
(elbow joint)

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.30g

Synovial joints

Ulna
Radius
Articular
capsule
Carpals

(h) Biaxial joint

(intercarpal joints of hand)
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.30h
Features of Synovial Joints

•Articular cartilage (hyaline cartilage) covers

the ends of bones
•Articular capsule encloses joint surfaces and
lined with synovial membrane
•Joint cavity is filled with synovial fluid
•Reinforcing ligaments

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Structures Associated with the Synovial
Joint
•Bursae—flattened fibrous sacs
•Lined with synovial membranes
•Filled with synovial fluid
•Not actually part of the joint
•Tendon sheath
•Elongated bursa that wraps around a tendon

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Acromion of
scapula

Ligament Joint cavity

containing
Bursa synovial fluid
Ligament
Articular
(hyaline)
Tendon cartilage
sheath
Synovial membrane

Tendon of Fibrous layer of the

biceps muscle articular capsule

Humerus

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.31

Nonaxial
Uniaxial
Biaxial
Multiaxial

(a) Plane joint

(a)

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.32a

Nonaxial
Uniaxial
Biaxial
Multiaxial

(b)

Humerus
Ulna

(b) Hinge joint

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.32b

Nonaxial
Uniaxial
Biaxial
Multiaxial

Ulna
(c) Radius

(c) Pivot joint

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.32c

Nonaxial
Uniaxial
Biaxial
Multiaxial

(d)

Metacarpal
Phalanx

(d) Condylar joint

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.32d

Nonaxial
Uniaxial
Biaxial
Multiaxial

Carpal
Metacarpal #1

(e)

(e) Saddle joint

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.32e

Nonaxial
Uniaxial
Biaxial
Multiaxial
(f)

Head of
humerus

Scapula
(f) Ball-and-socket joint

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.32f

Inflammatory Conditions Associated
with Joints
•Bursitis—inflammation of a bursa usually
caused by a blow or friction
•Tendonitis—inflammation of tendon sheaths
•Arthritis—inflammatory or degenerative
diseases of joints
•Over 100 different types
•The most widespread crippling disease in
the United States
•Initial symptoms: pain, stiffness, swelling of
the joint

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Clinical Forms of Arthritis

•Osteoarthritis
•Most common chronic arthritis
•Probably related to normal aging processes
•Rheumatoid arthritis
•An autoimmune disease—the immune
system attacks the joints
•Symptoms begin with bilateral inflammation
of certain joints
•Often leads to deformities

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.33
Clinical Forms of Arthritis

•Gouty arthritis
•Inflammation of joints is caused by a
deposition of uric acid crystals from the
blood
•Can usually be controlled with diet
•More common in men

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Developmental Aspects of the Skeletal
System

•At birth, the skull bones are incomplete

•Bones are joined by fibrous membranes called
fontanels
•Fontanels are completely replaced with bone
within two years after birth

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Parietal
bone
Frontal
bone
of skull
Occipital
bone

Mandible
Clavicle
Scapula

Radius
Ulna
Humerus

Femur

Tibia
Ribs

Vertebra
Hip bone
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.34
Skeletal Changes Throughout Life

•Fetus
•Long bones are formed of hyaline cartilage
•Flat bones begin as fibrous membranes
•Flat and long bone models are converted to
bone
•Birth
•Fontanels remain until around age 2

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

Skeletal Changes Throughout Life

•Adolescence
•Epiphyseal plates become ossified and long
bone growth ends
•Size of cranium in relationship to body
•2 years old—skull is larger in proportion to
the body compared to that of an adult
•8 or 9 years old—skull is near adult size and
proportion
•Between ages 6 and 11, the face grows out
from the skull

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.35a
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.35b
Skeletal Changes Throughout Life

•Curvatures of the spine

•Primary curvatures are present at birth and
are convex posteriorly
•Secondary curvatures are associated with a
child’s later development and are convex
anteriorly
•Abnormal spinal curvatures (scoliosis and
lordosis) are often congenital

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.

© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.18
Skeletal Changes Throughout Life

•Osteoporosis
•Bone-thinning disease afflicting
•50 percent of women over age 65
•20 percent of men over age 70
•Disease makes bones fragile and bones can
easily fracture
•Vertebral collapse results in kyphosis (also
known as dowager’s hump)
•Estrogen aids in health and normal density
of a female skeleton
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.18
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.36
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc. Figure 5.37