Respiratory System

Respiratory System

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Organs of the Respiratory System
 Nose
 Pharynx
 Larynx
 Trachea
 Bronchi
 Lungs—alveoli


Figure 13.1 The major respiratory organs shown in relation to surrounding structures.
Nasal cavity
Oral cavity
Nostril Pharynx
Larynx
Trache
a
Left main
Right main (primary)
(primary) bronchus
bronchus
Left lung
Right lung
Diaphragm

Functional Anatomy of the Respiratory
System
 Gas exchanges between the blood and external
environment occur only in the alveoli of the lungs
 Upper respiratory tract includes passageways
from the nose to larynx
 Lower respiratory tract includes passageways
from trachea to alveoli
 Passageways to the lungs purify, humidify, and warm
the incoming air

The Nose
 The only externally visible part of the respiratory

system
 Nostrils (nares) are the route through which air enters
the nose
 Nasal cavity is the interior of the nose
 Nasal septum divides the nasal cavity

© 2015 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 13.2b Basic anatomy of the upper respiratory tract, sagittal section.
Cribriform plate
of ethmoid bone
Sphenoidal sinus Frontal sinus
Posterior nasal
Nasal cavity
aperture
• Nasal conchae (superior,
Nasopharynx middle, and inferior)
• Pharyngeal tonsil • Nasal meatuses (superior,

middle, and inferior)
• Opening of
pharyngotympanic • Nasal vestibule
tube
• Nostril
• Uvula
Hard palate
Oropharynx
• Palatine tonsil Soft palate
• Lingual tonsil Tongue
Laryngopharynx Hyoid bone
Larynx
Esophagus • Epiglottis
• Thyroid cartilage
Trachea • Vocal fold
• Cricoid cartilage
(b) Detailed anatomy of the upper respiratory tract
The Nose
 Olfactory receptors are located in the mucosa on

the superior surface
 The rest of the cavity is lined with respiratory
mucosa, which
 Moistens air
 Traps incoming foreign particles
 Enzymes in the mucus destroy bacteria chemically

The Nose
 Conchae are projections from the lateral walls

 Increase surface area
 Increase air turbulence within the nasal cavity
 Increased trapping of inhaled particles
 The palate separates the nasal cavity from the
oral cavity
 Hard palate is anterior and supported by bone
 Soft palate is posterior and unsupported

The Nose
 Paranasal sinuses
 Cavities within the frontal, sphenoid, ethmoid, and
maxillary bones surrounding the nasal cavity
 Sinuses:
 Lighten the skull
 Act as resonance chambers for speech
 Produce mucus

Cribriform plate
of ethmoid bone
Posterior nasal
Nasal cavity
aperture

• Opening of
tube
• Nostril
• Uvula
Hard palate
Oropharynx
Larynx
The Pharynx
 Commonly called the throat

 Muscular passageway from nasal cavity to larynx
 Continuous with the posterior nasal aperture
 Three regions of the pharynx
1. Nasopharynx—superior region behind nasal cavity
2. Oropharynx—middle region behind mouth
3. Laryngopharynx—inferior region attached to larynx

The Pharynx
 Oropharynx and laryngopharynx serve as

common passageway for air and food
 Epiglottis routes food into the posterior tube, the
esophagus
 Pharyngotympanic tubes open into the
nasopharynx
 Drain the middle ear

Figure 13.2a Basic anatomy of the upper respiratory tract, sagittal section.
Pharynx
• Nasopharynx
• Oropharynx
• Laryngopharynx
(a) Regions of the pharynx

The Pharynx
 Tonsils are clusters of lymphatic tissue that play a

role in protecting the body from infection
 Pharyngeal tonsil (adenoid), a single tonsil, is located
in the nasopharynx
 Palatine tonsils (2) are located in the oropharynx at the
end of the soft palate
 Lingual tonsils (2) are found at the base of the tongue

Cribriform plate
of ethmoid bone
Posterior nasal
Nasal cavity
aperture

• Opening of
tube
• Nostril
• Uvula
Hard palate
Oropharynx
Larynx
The Larynx
 Commonly called the voice box

 Functions
 Routes air and food into proper channels
 Plays a role in speech
 Located inferior to the pharynx
 Made of eight rigid hyaline cartilages
 Thyroid cartilage (Adam’s apple) is the largest

The Larynx
 Epiglottis
 Spoon-shaped flap of elastic cartilage
 Protects the superior opening of the larynx
 Routes food to the posteriorly situated esophagus and
routes air toward the trachea
 During swallowing, the epiglottis rises and forms a lid
over the opening of the larynx

The Larynx
 Vocal folds (true vocal cords)

 Vibrate with expelled air
 Allow us to speak
 The glottis includes the vocal cords and the
opening between the vocal cords

Cribriform plate
of ethmoid bone
Posterior nasal
Nasal cavity
aperture

• Opening of
tube
• Nostril
• Uvula
Hard palate
Oropharynx
Larynx
The Trachea
 Commonly called the windpipe

 4-inch-long tube that connects to the larynx
 Walls are reinforced with C-shaped rings of
hyaline cartilage, which keep the trachea patent
(open)
 Lined with ciliated mucosa
 Cilia beat continuously in the opposite direction of
incoming air
 Expel mucus loaded with dust and other debris away
from lungs

Figure 13.3a Anatomy of the trachea and esophagus.
Posterior
Mucosa
Esophagus
Submucosa
Trachealis Lumen of Seromucous
muscle trachea
gland in
Hyaline
submucosa
cartilage
Adventitia
(a) Anterior
Figure 13.3b Anatomy of the trachea and esophagus.
(b)
The Main Bronchi
 Formed by division of the trachea

 Each bronchus enters the lung at the hilum
(medial depression)
 Right bronchus is wider, shorter, and straighter
than left
 Bronchi subdivide into smaller and smaller
branches

Figure 13.1 The major respiratory organs shown in relation to surrounding structures.
Nasal cavity
Oral cavity
Nostril Pharynx
Larynx
Trache
a
Left main
Right main (primary)
(primary) bronchus
bronchus
Left lung
Right lung
Diaphragm

The Lungs
 Occupy the entire thoracic cavity except for the

central mediastinum
 Apex of each lung is near the clavicle (superior
portion)
 Base rests on the diaphragm
 Each lung is divided into lobes by fissures
 Left lung—two lobes
 Right lung—three lobes

The Lungs
 Serosa covers the outer surface of the lungs

 Pulmonary (visceral) pleura covers the lung surface
 Parietal pleura lines the walls of the thoracic cavity
 Pleural fluid fills the area between layers
 Allows the lungs to glide over the thorax
 Decreases friction during breathing
 Pleural space (between the layers) is more of a
potential space

Figure 13.4a Anatomical relationships of organs in the thoracic cavity.
Intercostal muscle
Rib
Parietal pleura
Lung Pleural cavity
Trachea Visceral pleura
Thymus
Apex of lung Left

superior lobe
Right superior lobe Oblique
fissure
Horizontal fissure
Left inferior
Right middle lobe lobe
Oblique fissure
Right inferior lobe
Heart
(in pericardial cavity
of mediastinum)
Diaphragm
Base of lung
(a) Anterior view. The lungs flank mediastinal structures laterally.

Figure 13.4b Anatomical relationships of organs in the thoracic cavity.
Esophagus
(in posterior mediastinum)
Root of lung
at hilum
• Left main bronchus
Right lung • Left pulmonary artery
•Left pulmonary vein
Left lung
Thoracic wall
Pulmonary trunk
Pericardial
membranes Heart (in mediastinum)
Anterior mediastinum
(b) Transverse section through the thorax, viewed from above

The Lungs
 The bronchial tree

 Main bronchi subdivide into smaller and smaller
branches
 Bronchial (respiratory) tree is the network of branching
passageways
 All but the smallest passageways have reinforcing
cartilage in the walls
 Conduits to and from the respiratory zone
 Bronchioles (smallest conducting passageways)

Respiratory Zone Structures and the
Respiratory Membrane
 Terminal bronchioles lead into respiratory zone
structures and terminate in alveoli
 Respiratory zone includes the:
 Respiratory bronchioles
 Alveolar ducts
 Alveolar sacs
 Alveoli (air sacs)—the only site of gas exchange
 Conducting zone structures include all other
passageways

Figure 13.5a Respiratory zone structures.
Alveolar duct Alveoli
Respiratory bronchioles Alveolar duct
Terminal
bronchiole Alveolar sac
(a) Diagrammatic view of respiratory

bronchioles, alveolar ducts, and alveoli

Figure 13.5b Respiratory zone structures.
Alveolar
duct Alveolar
pores
Alveolus
(b) Light micrograph of human lung tissue, showing

the final divisions of the respiratory tree (120×)

 Alveoli
 Simple squamous epithelial cells largely compose the
walls
 Alveolar pores connect neighboring air sacs
 Pulmonary capillaries cover external surfaces of
alveoli

 Respiratory membrane (air-blood barrier)
 On one side of the membrane is air, and on the other
side is blood flowing past
 Formed by alveolar and capillary walls
 Gas crosses the respiratory membrane by
diffusion
 Oxygen enters the blood
 Carbon dioxide enters the alveoli

 Alveolar macrophages (“dust cells”)
 Add protection by picking up bacteria, carbon particles,
and other debris
 Surfactant (a lipid molecule)
 Coats gas-exposed alveolar surfaces
 Secreted by cuboidal surfactant-secreting cells

Figure 13.6 Functional anatomy of the respiratory membrane (air-blood barrier).
Red blood
cell
Endothelial
cell nucleus Capillary
Alveolar
pores
Capillary O2
CO2
Macrophage
Alveolus
Nucleus of
squamous
epithelial cell
Respiratory Alveolar epithelium
membrane
Fused basement
membranes
Capillary endothelium
Alveoli Red blood Surfactant- Squamous
(gas-filled cell in secreting epithelial cell
air spaces) capillary cell of alveolar wall

Respiratory Physiology
 Functions of the respiratory system

 Supply the body with oxygen
 Dispose of carbon dioxide
 Respiration includes four distinct events
(discussed next)
 Pulmonary ventilation
 External respiration
 Respiratory gas transport
 Internal respiration

 Four events of respiration

1. Pulmonary ventilation—moving air into and out of
the lungs (commonly called breathing)
2. External respiration—gas exchange between
pulmonary blood and alveoli
 Oxygen is loaded into the blood
 Carbon dioxide is unloaded from the blood

 Four events of respiration (continued)

3. Respiratory gas transport—transport of oxygen and
carbon dioxide via the bloodstream
4. Internal respiration—gas exchange between blood
and tissue cells in systemic capillaries

Mechanics of Breathing
 Pulmonary ventilation
 Mechanical process that depends on volume changes
in the thoracic cavity
 Volume changes lead to pressure changes, which lead
to the flow of gases to equalize pressure

 Two phases of pulmonary ventilation

 Inspiration = inhalation
 Flow of air into lungs
 Expiration = exhalation
 Air leaving lungs

 Inspiration (inhalation)
 Diaphragm and external intercostal muscles contract
 Intrapulmonary volume increases
 Gas pressure decreases
 Air flows into the lungs until intrapulmonary pressure
equals atmospheric pressure

Figure 13.7a Rib cage and diaphragm positions during breathing.
Changes in anterior-posterior and Changes in lateral

superior-inferior dimensions dimensions
Ribs are elevated

as external
intercostals
contract
External
Full inspiration
intercostal
(External
muscles
intercostals contract)
Diaphragm moves
inferiorly during
contraction
(a) Inspiration: Air (gases) flows into
the lungs

Figure 13.8a Changes in (a) intrapulmonary pressure and (b) air flow during inspiration and expiration.
Inspiration Expiration
+2
to atmospheric pressure
Intrapulmonary
Pressure relative
+1 pressure
–1
–2
(a)

 Expiration (exhalation)
 Largely a passive process that depends on natural
lung elasticity
 Intrapulmonary volume decreases
 Gas pressure increases
 Gases passively flow out to equalize the pressure
 Forced expiration can occur mostly by contraction of
internal intercostal muscles to depress the rib cage

 Intrapleural pressure
 The pressure within the pleural space) is always
negative
 Major factor preventing lung collapse
 If intrapleural pressure equals atmospheric pressure,
the lungs recoil and collapse

Figure 13.7b Rib cage and diaphragm positions during breathing.
Changes in anterior-posterior and Changes in lateral

superior-inferior dimensions dimensions
Ribs are depressed

as external
intercostals relax
Expiration
External
(External
intercostal
muscles intercostals relax)
Diaphragm moves
superiorly as
it relaxes
(b) Expiration: Air (gases) flows out of
© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd. the lungs

Figure 13.8 Changes in (a) intrapulmonary pressure and (b) air flow during inspiration and expiration.
Inspiration Expiration
to atmospheric pressure
+2
Pressure relative
Intrapulmonary
+1
pressure
–1
–2
(a)
Volume of
breath
0.5
Volume (L)
–0.5
(b)
Respiratory Volumes and Capacities
 Factors affecting respiratory capacity

 Size
 Sex
 Age
 Physical condition
 Tidal volume (TV)
 Normal quiet breathing
 500 ml of air is moved in/out of lungs with each breath

 Inspiratory reserve volume (IRV)

 Amount of air that can be taken in forcibly over the
tidal volume
 Usually around 3,100 ml
 Expiratory reserve volume (ERV)
 Amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled after a tidal
expiration
 Approximately 1,200 ml

 Residual volume
 Air remaining in lung after expiration
 Cannot be voluntarily exhaled
 Allows gas exchange to go on continuously, even
between breaths, and helps keep alveoli open
(inflated)
 About 1,200 ml

 Vital capacity
 The total amount of exchangeable air
 Vital capacity = TV + IRV + ERV
 4,800 ml in men; 3,100 ml in women
 Dead space volume
 Air that remains in conducting zone and never reaches
alveoli
 About 150 ml

 Functional volume
 Air that actually reaches the respiratory zone
 Usually about 350 ml
 Respiratory capacities are measured with a
spirometer

Figure 13.9 Graph of the various respiratory volumes in a healthy young adult male.
6,000
5,000 Inspiratory
reserve volume
Milliliters (ml)
4,000 3,100 ml
Vital
capacity
3,000 4,800 ml Total lung
Tidal volume 500 ml capacity
Expiratory 6,000 ml
2,000
reserve volume
1,200 ml
1,000
Residual volume
1,200 ml
0

Nonrespiratory Air Movements
 Can be caused by reflexes or voluntary actions

 Examples
 Cough and sneeze—clears lungs of debris
 Crying—emotionally induced mechanism
 Laughing—similar to crying
 Hiccup—sudden inspirations
 Yawn—very deep inspiration

Table 13.1 Nonrespiratory Air (Gas) Movements

Respiratory Sounds
 Sounds are monitored with a stethoscope

 Two recognizable sounds can be heard with a
stethoscope:
1. Bronchial sounds—produced by air rushing through
large passageways such as the trachea and bronchi
2. Vesicular breathing sounds—soft sounds of air filling
alveoli

External Respiration, Gas Transport, and
Internal Respiration
 Gas exchanges occur as a result of diffusion
 External respiration is an exchange of gases occurring
between the alveoli and pulmonary blood (pulmonary
gas exchange)
 Internal respiration is an exchange of gases occurring
between the blood and tissue cells (systemic capillary
gas exchange)
 Movement of the gas is toward the area of lower
concentration

Figure 13.10 Gas exchanges in external and internal respiration.
Inspired air: Alveoli

of lungs:
CO2 O2
O2 CO2 O2 CO2
External
respiration
Pulmonary Pulmonary
arteries Alveolar
capillaries veins
Blood Blood
leaving leaving
tissues and lungs and
entering entering
lungs: tissue
capillaries:
Heart
O2 CO2 O2 CO2
Tissue
capillaries
Systemic Systemic
veins arteries
Internal
respiration CO2 O2
Tissue cells:
O2 CO2
External Respiration
 Oxygen is loaded into the blood

 Oxygen diffuses from the oxygen-rich air of the alveoli
to the oxygen-poor blood of the pulmonary capillaries
 Carbon dioxide is unloaded out of the blood
 Carbon dioxide diffuses from the blood of the
pulmonary capillaries to the alveoli

Figure 13.11a The loading and unloading of oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) in the body.
(a) External respiration in the lungs

(pulmonary gas exchange)
Oxygen is loaded into the blood, and

carbon dioxide is unloaded.
Alveoli (air sacs)
O2 CO2
Loading
of O2 Unloading
of CO2
Hb  O2 HbO2 HCO3  H H2CO3 CO2  H2O

(Oxyhemoglobin Bicar- Carbonic Water
is formed) bonate acid
ion
Plasma
Red blood cell
Pulmonary capillary
Gas Transport in the Blood
 Oxygen transport in the blood

 Most oxygen travels attached to hemoglobin and forms
oxyhemoglobin (HbO2)
 A small dissolved amount is carried in the plasma



Alveoli (air sacs)
O2 CO2
Loading
of O2 Unloading
of CO2

ion
Plasma
Red blood cell
Pulmonary capillary
 Carbon dioxide transport in the blood

 Most carbon dioxide is transported in the plasma as
bicarbonate ion (HCO3–)
 A small amount is carried inside red blood cells on
hemoglobin, but at different binding sites from those of
oxygen

 For carbon dioxide to diffuse out of blood into the

alveoli, it must be released from its bicarbonate
form:
 Bicarbonate ions enter RBC
 Combine with hydrogen ions
 Form carbonic acid (H2CO3)
 Carbonic acid splits to form water + CO2
 Carbon dioxide diffuses from blood into alveoli



Alveoli (air sacs)
O2 CO2
Loading
of O2 Unloading
of CO2

ion
Plasma
Red blood cell
Pulmonary capillary
Internal Respiration
 Exchange of gases between blood and tissue

cells
 An opposite reaction from what occurs in the
lungs
 Carbon dioxide diffuses out of tissue cells to blood
(called loading)
 Oxygen diffuses from blood into tissue (called
unloading)

Figure 13.11b The loading and unloading of oxygen (O2) and carbon dioxide (CO2) in the body.
(b) Internal respiration in the body

tissues (systemic capillary gas exchange)
Oxygen is unloaded and carbon
dioxide is loaded into the blood.
Tissue cells
CO2
O2
Loading
Unloading
of CO2
of O2
CO2  H2O H2CO3 H  HCO3

Water Carbonic Bicar-
acid bonate HbO2 Hb  O2
Plasma ion
Systemic capillary
Red blood cell

Control of Respiration
 Neural regulation: setting the basic rhythm

 Activity of respiratory muscles is transmitted to and
from the brain by phrenic and intercostal nerves
 Neural centers that control rate and depth are located
in the medulla and pons
 Medulla—sets basic rhythm of breathing and contains a
pacemaker (self-exciting inspiratory center) called the
ventral respiratory group (VRG)
 Pons—smoothes out respiratory rate

 Normal respiratory rate (eupnea)

 12 to 15 respirations per minute
 Hyperpnea
 Increased respiratory rate, often due to extra oxygen
needs

Figure 13.12 Neural control of respiration.
Breathing control centers:

• Pons centers
• Medulla centers
Afferent Efferent nerve impulses from

impulses to medulla trigger contraction of
medulla inspiratory muscles:
• Phrenic nerves
• Intercostal nerves
Breathing control
centers stimulated by:
CO2 and H increase Nerve impulse

from O2 sensor Intercostal
in tissue. muscles
indicating O2
decrease Diaphragm
O2 sensor
in aortic body
of aortic arch

 Non-neural factors influencing respiratory rate

and depth
 Physical factors
 Increased body temperature
 Exercise
 Talking
 Coughing
 Volition (conscious control)
 Emotional factors such as fear, anger, and excitement


and depth (continued)
 Chemical factors: CO2 levels
 The body’s need to rid itself of CO2 is the most
important stimulus for breathing
 Increased levels of carbon dioxide (and thus, a
decreased or acidic pH) in the blood increase the rate
and depth of breathing
 Changes in carbon dioxide act directly on the medulla
oblongata


 Chemical factors: oxygen levels
 Changes in oxygen concentration in the blood are
detected by chemoreceptors in the aorta and common
carotid artery
 Information is sent to the medulla
 Oxygen is the stimulus for those whose systems have
become accustomed to high levels of carbon dioxide as
a result of disease


 Chemical factors (continued)
 Hyperventilation
 Rising levels of CO2 in the blood (acidosis) result in
faster, deeper breathing
 Exhale more CO2 to elevate blood pH
 May result in apnea and dizziness and lead to alkalosis


 Chemical factors (continued)
 Hypoventilation
 Results when blood becomes alkaline (alkalosis)
 Extremely slow or shallow breathing
 Allows CO2 to accumulate in the blood

Respiratory Disorders
 Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)

 Exemplified by chronic bronchitis and emphysema
 Shared features of these diseases
1. Patients almost always have a history of smoking
2. Labored breathing (dyspnea) becomes progressively
worse
3. Coughing and frequent pulmonary infections are
common
4. Most COPD patients are hypoxic, retain carbon
dioxide and have respiratory acidosis, and ultimately
develop respiratory failure

 Chronic bronchitis
 Mucosa of the lower respiratory passages becomes
severely inflamed
 Excessive mucus production impairs ventilation and
gas exchange
 Patients become cyanotic and are sometimes called
“blue bloaters” as a result of chronic hypoxia and
carbon dioxide retention

 Emphysema
 Alveoli walls are destroyed; remaining alveoli enlarge
 Chronic inflammation promotes lung fibrosis, and lungs
lose elasticity
 Patients use a large amount of energy to exhale; some
air remains in the lungs
 Sufferers are often called “pink puffers” because
oxygen exchange is efficient
 Overinflation of the lungs leads to a permanently
expanded barrel chest
 Cyanosis appears late in the disease

Homeostatic Imbalance 13.13 The pathogenesis of COPD.
• Tobacco smoke
• Air pollution
Continual bronchial Breakdown of elastin in

irritation and connective tissue of lungs
inflammation
Chronic bronchitis Emphysema

• Excessive mucus • Destruction of alveolar
produced walls
• Chronic productive • Loss of lung elasticity
cough
• Airway obstruction
or air trapping
• Dyspnea
• Frequent infections
Respiratory
failure
 Lung cancer
 Leading cause of cancer death for men and women
 Nearly 90 percent of cases result from smoking
 Aggressive cancer that metastasizes rapidly
 Three common types
1. Adenocarcinoma
2. Squamous cell carcinoma
3. Small cell carcinoma

Developmental Aspects of the Respiratory
System
 Lungs do not fully inflate until 2 weeks after birth
 This change from nonfunctional to functional
respiration depends on surfactant
 Surfactant lowers surface tension so the alveoli do not
collapse
 Surfactant is formed late in pregnancy, around 28 to 30
weeks

System
 Respiratory rate changes throughout life
 Newborns: 40 to 80 respirations per minute
 Infants: 30 respirations per minute
 Age 5: 25 respirations per minute
 Adults: 12 to 18 respirations per minute
 Rate often increases again in old age

System
 Asthma
 Chronically inflamed, hypersensitive bronchiole
passages
 Respond to irritants with dyspnea, coughing, and
wheezing

System
 Youth and middle age
 Most respiratory system problems are a result of
external factors, such as infections and substances
that physically block respiratory passageways

System
 Aging effects
 Elasticity of lungs decreases
 Vital capacity decreases
 Blood oxygen levels decrease
 Stimulating effects of carbon dioxide decrease
 Elderly are often hypoxic and exhibit sleep apnea
 More risks of respiratory tract infection

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Respiratory System

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 The only externally visible part of the respiratory

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

• Pharyngeal tonsil • Nasal meatuses (superior,

• Lingual tonsil Tongue

Laryngopharynx Hyoid bone

 Olfactory receptors are located in the mucosa on

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 Conchae are projections from the lateral walls

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

• Pharyngeal tonsil • Nasal meatuses (superior,

• Lingual tonsil Tongue

Laryngopharynx Hyoid bone

 Commonly called the throat

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 Oropharynx and laryngopharynx serve as

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

(a) Regions of the pharynx

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 Tonsils are clusters of lymphatic tissue that play a

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

• Pharyngeal tonsil • Nasal meatuses (superior,

• Lingual tonsil Tongue

Laryngopharynx Hyoid bone

 Commonly called the voice box

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 Vocal folds (true vocal cords)

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

• Pharyngeal tonsil • Nasal meatuses (superior,

• Lingual tonsil Tongue

Laryngopharynx Hyoid bone

 Commonly called the windpipe

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 Formed by division of the trachea

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 Occupy the entire thoracic cavity except for the

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 Serosa covers the outer surface of the lungs

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Apex of lung Left

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

(b) Transverse section through the thorax, viewed from above

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

 The bronchial tree

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

Alveolar duct Alveoli

Respiratory bronchioles Alveolar duct

(a) Diagrammatic view of respiratory

© 2018 Pearson Education, Ltd.

(b) Light micrograph of human lung tissue, showing