FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY

Photography - is an art or science which deals with the reproduction of images through the action of light,
upon sensitized materials, with the aid of a camera and its accessories, and the chemical processes involved
therein.
Police Photography - is an art or science which deals with the study of the principles of photography, the
preparation of photographic evidence, and its application to police work. (Aquino 1972).
Forensic Photography - is the art or science of photographically documenting a crime scene and evidence for
laboratory examination and analysis for purposes of court trial. (Redsicker 2001)
Photograph - A mechanical and chemical result of photography.

Principles of Photography
1. A photograph is the mechanical and chemical result of photography.
2. To produce a photograph, light is needed aside from sensitized materials.
3. Lights reflected or radiated by a subject must reach the sensitized materials while all other lights must be
excluded.
4. The exclusion of all unwanted and unnecessary lights is achieved by placing the sensitized material inside a
camera.
5. The amount of light on the sensitized material after exposure is not immediately visible to the eyes.
6. To make the formed image visible, it must undergo the development process.
7. The visual effect that results from the chemical processing is dependent on the quantity and quality of the
exposing light.
8. More light will yield an opaque or black shade on the sensitized material after development.
9. Too little light will produce a transparent or white shade.
10. The varying shade of gray will finally form the complete image.

Kinds of Photography and its application

1. Photomicrography – The art of photographing minute objects when magnified by means of a
microscope and enlarged from 10 times and up. - It is used usually in question documents and Firearm
Identification
2. Photomacrography – Type of photography that directly enlarged on the negative and magnified
3. Microphotography – The process of reducing big objects or things of minute objects.
4. Crime Scene Photography – Deals with the photographing the scene of the crime or details of
perpetuated crime.
5. Surveillance Photography – Deals with photographing individuals without his knowledge, such as the
same in clandestine photography.
6. Infrared Photography – deals with the photographing of objects visible, divisible, and invisible even
with haze.
7. Ultra-Violet Photography – deals with the photographing objects or markings which are invisible using
reflected or fluorescent.
8. X-Ray Photography – deals with photographing hidden objects or things.
9. Traffic Accident Photography – deals with the photographing of traffic incidents or occurrence
especially in a vehicular accident.
10. Investigative Photography – deals with the study of the concept of photography, its application to law
enforcement or investigation process and the preparation of photographic evidence for court
presentation.
11. Mug-shot Photography – Deals with the study of photographing individuals for identification purposes.
12. Thermo photography – A kind of photo where we use laser beam radiation using laser beam film.
13. Aerial photography–A kind of photography applied for photo mapping. Taking a photograph above the
subject.
14. Underwater photography – photographing things under water.
15. Firearm Identification photography – Deals with the photographing of firearm shells and bullets. It is
also where photomicrography is applied.
16. Question Document photography- process of photographing document for purposes of examination
and as a substitute for duplicate copy when original is lost and the purpose of duplicate photograph is
to establish the contents of the lost original document.
17. Arson and Questionable Fire photography – It is the willful and malicious burning of property,
usually a building or dwelling unit.
18. Fingerprint Photography – Deals with the application of macro-photography so as to produces an
enlargement of finger print for comparison purposes.

General Application of Photography in Police Work

1. Identification purposes
a. Prisoners, person subject of investigation
b. Unidentified cadavers (victims of crimes, traffic accidents, explosions, calamities etc.)
c. Missing persons
d. Lost of stolen properties
e. Identification of civilian (clearance for employment like PNP, NBI, VISA, Passport)
2. Recording and preserving evidences
a. Crime scene
b. Traffic accident
c. Object of evidences
d. Evidential traces (fingerprint, footprint, and tool marks)
3. Discovering and proving of evidences not readily seen by the naked eye
a. Contrast control by lighting, use of filters, use of different films and papers.
b. Magnification or enlargement of tiny objects by the application of photomicrography and photomacrography.
c. Use of invisible radiation like x-rays, ultraviolet rays and infra-red rays
4. Recording action of offender
a. Surveillance
b. Entrapment
c. Extra-judicial confession
d. Re-enactment of a crime
5. For court exhibits
a. Individual photographs
b. Slide projections
c. Comparison charts
d. Motion picture or video coverage/presentation
6. For crime prevention
a. Visual presentation for lectures on traffic education, drug prevention seminars, informational services, and
others.
7. Public information
a. Photograph for press release, posters of wanted criminals, crime alerts, etc.
8. Police training
a. Prepared training films or video presentation of personnel indoctrination, police tactics, investigative
techniques, traffic control, civil disturbances controls, riots or prison disorders, documentaries for pre-and post-
briefings on

IMPORTANCE OF FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPH

1. Small objects but of great importance in a crime committed may escape in the first phase of
examination by the investigator but maybe seen and recorded on the photograph.
2. Used as an aid by investigator to describe in court some of the details of the crime scene they have
investigated several months ago, the small details and exact locations of objects.
3. To assist the investigators in using photographic equipment and techniques in their effort to solve
crimes.
3 types of photographer in Law enforcement field

1. Lab Technician
2. Crime Scene Specialist (CSS)
3. Forensic Photographer

Light - is one of number of known forms of radiant electromagnetic energy which travel in wave motion.
Actually, there are other theories that explains the behavior of light but for one purpose, the wave theory is the
only one considered. This form of energy travels at speed of about 186,000 miles per second in air, but they
differ in wavelength and frequency.
Wavelength - is the distance from crest (highest point) to the wave of the next succeeding crest.
Frequency is the number of waves passing in a given point in one second.

Four Photographic Rays

1. X-ray – radiation having a wavelength between 01 to 30 nanometer or milli-microns. They are produced
by passing an electric current through a special type of vacuum tube.
2. Ultra-violet rays – radiation having a wavelength from 30 to 400 milli-microns. It is used to photograph
fingerprints on multi-colored background, documents that are altered chemically or over writings and
detection of secret writings.
3. Visible light rays or White light – rays having a wavelength of 400 to 700 milli-microns
4. Infra-red rays- radiation having a wavelength of 700 to 1000 milli-microns. It is used in taking
photographs of obliterated writing, burnt or dirty documents or blackout photography.
Effects of Light When it Hits an Object
The waves can be reflected or scattered off the object.
The waves can be absorbed by the object.
The waves can be refracted through the object.
The waves can pass through the object with no effect.
GENERAL TYPES OF LIGHT
1. Visible Light - Light with a wavelength of 400-700 nm
2. Invisible Light - Lights with shorter of longer wavelength

White Light
● When all the wavelengths between 400-700 nm are presented to the eye in nearly equal quantity, we
get the sensation or perception of colorless or white light.
● If a narrow beam of white light is allowed to pass a prism it will bend the light of a shorter wavelength
more than those with longer wavelength thus speeding them out into the visible spectrum. These are
the colors of the rainbow.
● If we will divide the wavelength of visible light into three, we will produce: ● Blue ● Green ● Red

Kinds of Object as to how they behave to Light

1. Transparent Object - Allows sufficient visible light to pass through them that the object on the other side
may be clearly seen.
2. Translucent Object - Allows light to pass, however diffuse it sufficiently that objects on the other side may
not be clearly distinguished.
3. Opaque Object - So greatly diffuse the light that recognizing the object on the other side is very difficult if
not impossible
Properties of Light
1. Reflection- It is the deflection or bouncing back of light when it hits a surface.
2. Refraction - The bending of light when passing from one medium to another.
3. Diffraction - The bending of light when it hits a sharp edge opaque object.
4. Rectilinear - The nature of light that normally travels in straight line.
5. Interference - Color can be produce by interference of light waves in thin film like in soap bubbles or a
film of oil floating in water.
6. Absorption - The nature of light to be absorbed in the process of dark surface.
7. Filtration - The character of light to be altered from its colorless into visible state.
8. Polarization - The process by which the vibration of light is confined to a definite plane, and the speed
of light can be measured.
9. Fluorescence - These happen when molecules of the fluorescent material absorb energy at one
wavelength and radiate it at another wavelength.
Sources of light

1. Natural - Coming from nature like the sun, moon, stars, other heavenly bodies, lightning, etc…
a. Bright Sunlight - A lighting condition where objects in open space cast a deep and uniform or
distinct shadow.
b. Hazy Sunlight - Objects in open space cast a transparent shadow.
c. Dull Sunlight - Objects in open space cast no shadow.
d. Cloudy Bright - Objects in an open space cast no shadow but objects at far distance are clearly
visible
e. Cloudy dull - Objects in an open space cast no shadow and visibility of distant objects are already
limited.
2. Artificial Light - sources of this category are man-made and are divided into the continuous radiation
and short duration.
a. Continuous Radiation - Those that can give continuous illumination.
b. Short Illumination (flash unit) - It gives a brief flash of light produced by a burning metallic wire
(flash bulb) or an electrical discharge through a gas-filled tube (electronic flash).

Forensic light Sources

1. Ultra violet lamp
2. Laser – Light amplification through stimulated emission of radiation
3. Alternative Light Source (ASL)
4. Forensic Light Sources (FLS)

EARLY FORMS OF CAMERA

1. Pinhole Camera – a camera of simple design and construction usually home-made consisting of a box
having a small aperture functioning as lens at one end, the image being projected on the film at the
other end.
2. Box Camera – a simple camera is little more than a pinhole camera. It has a lens and shutter. In the
box camera, the pinhole is replaced by the lens to enable the photographer gather more light to be
recorded.
3. Camera obscura (Lat. dark chamber) - was an optical device used in drawing, and one of the
ancestral threads leading to the invention of photography.

Kinds of Camera
1. Compact digital cameras - literally allow anyone to capture beautiful images by simply pointing the
camera at the subject and clicking the shutter. Also known as a point-and-shoot camera, it is the most
user-friendly of all camera types. It is smaller and lighter, and doesn’t require film or extra lenses. It also
does all the hard work of automatically adjusting its settings to deliver well-exposed photos every time.
2. Bridge camera - is “somewhere between” a point and shoot and an interchangeable lens camera. It
has a large zoom range, a viewfinder, and allows for some manual control of settings. It’s ideal for
someone who has “graduated” from a point and shoot but isn’t ready yet to invest in an interchangeable
lens camera (ILC) system or doesn’t want the inconvenience of carrying around and changing multiple
lenses.
3. Reflex Camera
a. Single Lens Reflex (SLR)- The term “Single lens” means that only one is used for both viewing the
scene and taking photographs of it, thereby preventing parallax. It has a detachable lens and is
mostly used in police photography.
b. Twin Lens Reflex Camera - Employs 2 separate lenses – one for viewing and one for focusing,
and the second is usually mounted under the first, transmitting the light to the focal plane recording.
The camera has permanently fixed lenses and an automatic
4. View Camera - The biggest and the most sophisticated among the different types of camera. A version
of press cameras; they have removable lenses, can be focused by moving either the front or the rear of
the camera, and are equipped with long bellows. Practically useless for Candid or Action Photography.
5. Digital Camera- A digital camera (or digicam) is a camera that encodes digital images and videos
digitally and stores them for later reproduction. Most cameras sold today are digital, [ and digital
cameras are incorporated into many devices ranging from PDAs and mobile phones (called camera
phones) to vehicles.
Essential Parts of a Camera
1. Body or Light Tight Box – suggest an enclosure devoid or light. An enclosure, which would prevent light
from exposing the sensitized material inside the camera. This does not necessarily mean that the box or
enclosure will always light tight at all the time because if it does, then no light could reach the sensitized
material during exposure. It means that before and after the extraneous light, which is not necessary to form
the final images.
2. Lens – the function of the lens is to focus the light coming from the subject. It is chiefly responsible for the
sharpness of the image formed through which light passes during the exposure.
3. Shutter – is used to allow light to enter through the lens and reach the film for a predetermined interval of
time, which light is again blocked off from the film.
4. Holder of sensitized material – located at the opposite side of the lens. Its function is to hold firmly the
sensitized material in its place during exposure to prevent the formation of a multiple or blurred image of the
subject.
5. View-finder – it is a means of determining the field of view of the camera or the extent of the coverage of
the lens.
Type of Lenses according to Shape
● Convergent/Positive/Convex Lens - It is always thicker at the center and thinner at the sides. Light
passing through it are bended toward each other on the other side of lens meeting at a point. It
produces a real image on the opposite side of the lens or where light is coming from.
● Divergent/Negative/Concave Lens - It is always thinner at the center and thicker at the sides. Light
passing through it are bended away from each other as if coming from a point. It produces a virtual
image on the same side of the lens or where light is coming from.
LENS CHARACTERISTICS
Focal length – is the distance measured from the optical center of the lens to the film plane when the
lens is set or focused at infinity position. As according to focal length, lenses may be classified as:
a. Wide-angle lens – a lens with a focal length of less than the diagonal of its negative material.
b. Normal lens – a lens with a focal length of approximately equal or more but not more than twice the
diagonal of its negative material.
c. Long or Telephoto lens – a lens with a focal length of more than twice the diagonal of its negative
material.
d. Zoom Lenses – lens of variable focal length that can be adjusted continuously by the movement of
one or more groups of elements in the lens system – (variable focus lens).
e. Fisheye Lenses- a lens with 180-degree angle of coverage.
Relative aperture – the light gathering power of the lens is expressed in the F-number system. It is otherwise
called the relative aperture. By increasing or decreasing the F-number numerically, it is possible to:
a. control has the amount of light passing through the lens
b. control the depth of field
c. control the degree of sharpness due to the lens defects.
Depth of field – is the distance measured from the nearest to the farthest object in apparent sharp
focus when the lens is set or focused at a particular distance.
Hyper focal distance – is the nearest distance at which a lens is focused with a given particular
diaphragm opening which will give the maximum depth of field
Focusing – is the setting of the proper distance in order to form a sharp image a lens of a camera except
those fixed focused requires focusing. A lens may be focused by any of the following.
Focusing scale or scale bed – a scale is usually found at the lens barrel indicating pre-settled
distance in feet or in meters. To focus the lens of the camera, the distance of the object to be
photographed is measured, estimated, or calculated and the pointer or maker on the lens barrel is
adjusted to the corresponding number on scale.
Range-finders – is a mechanism that measures the angle of the convergence of light coming from a
subject as seen from two apertures. There are two types of range-finders:
1. Split-image through the rangefinder
2. Co-incident image

DEFECTS OF LENSES
1. Astigmatism - The inability of the lens to bring to focus both vertical and horizontal lines on the same
plane. Astigmatism is caused by axial rays (not parallel to the lens axis). It will appear that lines of
equal density (darkness) are less dense horizontally or vertically. Astigmatism is improved by stopping
down the lens (smaller lens opening, larger F number).
2. Coma - Coma causes parallel oblique rays passing through a lens to be imaged (focused) not as a
point, but as a comet shaped (oval) image. Coma can be improved by stopping down the lens.
3. Curvature of Field - The plane of sharpest focus becomes curved, not flat. It is caused by rays from
the outer limits of the subject plane coming to focus nearer to the lens than the axial rays (image comes
to focus in curved shape, away from the CCD). This defect is not improved by stopping down the lens.
4. Longitudinal Chromatic Aberration - The inability of a lens to focus all colors (wavelengths) at the
same plane on the lens axis (shorter wavelengths come to focus in front of the CCD, longer behind).
This defect is not improved by stopping down the lens. This is normally only noticeable in long
telephoto lenses. It is reduced by the use of special glass elements, referred to as ED, ID, LD or
Fluorite.
5. Lateral Chromatic Aberration - lateral displacement of color images at the focal plane (CCD). Caused
by different sizes of images by produced by different colors even though the image is all on the same
plane (CCD). Produces color fringing of red or blue. Not improved by stopping down.
6. Spherical Aberration – occurs when the light rays that passed by the outer portion of a lens and those
from the lens center do not converge at the same focal point.
7. Distortion - distortion causes the image of a straight line, at the edges of the field (CCD) to bow in or
out. Bowed in, pincushion, bowed out barrel distortions.
8. Flare – a stray or scratched light not controlled by the lens
9. Optical Flare – internal reflection & double images. / pear shape called Coma.
10. Ghost image – a secondary image sharp or not, caused by wrongly placed lamp, or due to window
reflection.
11. Mechanical flare – reflection from a bright spot close to the lens - from camera lens mounting, caused
by parts of diaphragm, shutter or mount that have worn shiny and can be prevented by blackening inner
surface thoroughly attaining minimum distortion & fewer common lens defects.

Types of lenses as according to their degree of correction:

1. Achromatic lens – a lens corrected for chromatic aberration.
2. Rapid Rectilinear lens – lens corrected for distortion.
3. Anastigmat lens – lens corrected for astigmatism.
4. Apochromat lens – lens corrected for astigmatism but with a higher correction to color.
5. Process Lens - A saucer-corrected lens for astigmatism

SHUTTER A device that opens to uncover the film to make an exposure for an accurately timed intervals then
close automatically.
Two (2) kinds of Shutter
1. Central/Leaf Shutter – located in the lens (between the lens shutters). Consists of a series of tiny
metal eaves or blades which, in a closed position, overlap to prevent the light from entering the camera.
2. Focal Plane Shutter – (operate near the focal plane of the camera) directly in front of the film.
Consisted of an opaque curtain interrupted by a slit a spring mechanism pulled the slit past the film, in
its transit exposing the film to light.
Aperture – like a shutter is a device for controlling the amount of light. It works not in a measured unit of time,
but by the measured units of time, but by the measured size of the opening through which light enters the
camera via the lens. The aperture usually has a form of over lapping thin metal leaves arranged in a circle,
which are called the diaphragm.
Diaphragm – a mechanical device, it can be made to expand or contrast and thus to admit into the camera
greater and smaller amount of light.

Types of Filters
1. Light Balancing filter - A filter used to change the color quantity of the exposing light in order to secure
proper color balance for artificial light films.
2. Color Compensating Filter - It is used to change the overall color balance of photographic results obtained
with color films and to compensate for deficiencies in the quality of exposing energy.
3. Neutral Density Film - It is being used when the light is too bright to allow the use of desired f-number of
shutter speed with a particular film.
4. Polarizing Filter - It is used to reduce or minimize reflection on subjects like water glass, and highly
polished surfaces.

Sensitized Materials: a general term which refers to materials which are sensitive to light.
ex. a) Film b) Photographic paper

Photographic Film - is a chemically reactive material that records a fixed or still image when exposed to light.
A sheet or strip of thin, flexible transparent material (acetate or polyester plastic) coated on one side with a
light sensitive emulsion capable of recording an image as a result of exposure in camera.
KINDS OF FILM
1. Ordinary/Panchromatic Film It is sensitive to all colors especially to blue and violet. It is suitable for
general use in the preparation of black and white photographs.
2. Blue Sensitive Film-A film especially treated that makes it more sensitive too blue rays of light.
3. Orthochromatic/Kodalith Film Sensitive to all colors except red. Good for fingerprint photography or
document.
4. Minicopy Film - Film with limited enlargement capability.
5. Polaroid film Contains chemicals for developing and fixation. A special type of sensitized material that
produces a photograph immediately after exposure.
6. Color Film -All film ending in “COLOR”. Color Negatives – for prints, ends in word “COLOR”, Color
Transparency – for slides, ends in the word “CHROME”.
7. Color Infrared Film A special type of film which is sensitive to infra-red radiation. It is also sensitive to
violet and blue-green. In is useful in penetrating haze because of its longer wavelength. In investigative
photography, it is useful in laboratory analysis of questionable documents. In the discovery of old or
faded tattoos or areas where small objects are hidden under the skin, and in the construction.
8. X-ray Film A material which is sensitive to x-ray region of electromagnetic spectrum.
9.
Six (6) layers of black & white film
1. Top Coat – is a layer of hard gelatin that insulates the emulsion against scratches.
2. Emulsion layer – where the image forms, consists of gelatin containing light-sensitive crystals of silver
halides.
3. Subbing layer – special glue-like gelatin, adheres the emulsion to its support below.
4. Support – provides a strong but flexible plastic (cellulose acetate) base for all the other component
layers of the film.
5. Second Adhesive layer – bonds the support to the anti-halation backing below.
6. Anti-halation Backing – contains dye that prevents light from reflecting off the support off the camera
itself and back onto the emulsion, which reflections could create halos around bright areas of the images.
Six (6) basic characteristics of black & white film
1. Color Sensitivity – the ability of the film to respond to certain wavelength of the light in the visible
portion of the electromagnetic spectrum – and therefore unable to represent these effectively in black &
white.
2. Contrast – a films ability to record values of gray - that is white through gray to black.
a) Films - that record only a limited number of values are referred to as contrasty, while those that
record a greater number of values are considered to be not contrasty.
3. Light Sensitivity – or the film’s speed, as it is determined by the size of the silver halide crystals in the
film’s emulsion. The larger the crystals are, the greater sensitivity and the other way around.
4. Grain – (size of the light sensitive crystals in a film’s emulsion determine the nature of
its grain).
5. Resolving Power – refers to the film’s ability to distinguish between closely spaced lines or the ability
of the film to reproduce fine details.
[Link] – is a term that describes a film’s sharpness.

Emulsion- this is the most important layer; it contains the silver halide crystals that react when the film is
exposed to light, causing a latent (unseen) image.
Different Indicators of Emulsion Speed
a. ASA (American Standard Association) Rating. This is expressed in arithmetical value.
b. DIN (Deutche Industri Normen) Rating. This is expressed in logarithmic Value
c. ISO (International Standards Organization) rating. This is expressed in the combined arithmetical and
logarithmic values

Slow films - These range from ASA 25 (or lower) to approximate ASA 80.
Medium-speed films - from about ASA 100 to 250, a film falls between slow and fast, has good grain
structure, medium inherent contrast, and is appropriate for many subjects and conditions.
Fast films - From ASA 250 to 400 is the fast speed range, and in this range Kodak Tri-X is the favorite of
many professionals.
Superfast films - There are only a few superfast films in the ASA 1000 to 3200 range, and these are for
special purposes. Superfast films - are designed for use in very poor lighting conditions when you can’t or don’t
want to add artificial light, or they are used for obvious grain effects.

PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPERS
1. Chemical contents
a) Bromide papers (Silver Bromide) – with fast emulsion speed; for projection printing (enlarging); about
100-1000 times as sensitive as chloride papers; they give black tones in hydroquinone developers and take
about 1 ½ mins to develop at 18-22degreesC; give neutral to cold black tone which is only affected by
development type and techniques.
b) Chloride papers (Silver Chloride) –with slow emulsion speed; for contact printing; image size is the same
as that of the negatives; they give blue black tones in a 65-58 degrees F to develop.
c) Chlorobromide papers (Silverchlorobromide) – the slow is used for contact and fast is for
enlargement/projection printing; they give an image tone from warm black to reddish brown, depending on
length of exposure, dilution and duration of developer
d) Variable contrast papers (contrast range)
● low contrast
● normal or medium contrast
● very hard or extra contrast

2. Contrast Range
No. 0 – extreme contrast negatives
No. 1 – high contrast negative
No. 2 – for printing normal contrast negative
No. 3 – for negatives that have weak contrast
No. 4 – provides sufficient contrast to compensate for very weak contrast
No. 5 – for flat negatives that are relatively unprintable
3. Physical Characteristics
a) Surface – glossy-semi matte, matte
b) Weight or thickness –light weight (involve folding), single weight (all ordinary photographic purposes),
double weight (forlarge prints)
c) Color – white cream.
Chemical Processing
1. Development – processes of reduction, exposed silver halides are reduced into metallic silver.
2. Stop-bath – it is an intermediate bath between development and fixer - To prevent contamination of the
chemical
3. Fixation – the process of removing unexposed silver halides remaining in the emulsion after the first
stage of development of the latent image.
4. Washing – use of running water.
5. The application “Wetting Agent”/Photo-flo/Foto-glo – to prevent watermark and easier to dry.
6. Drying.
CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF DEVELOPER
1. Reducers or developing agents – Elon, Hydroquinone
2. Preservative – sodium sulfite
3. Accelerator – sodium carbonate
4. Restrainer or fog preventer – potassium bromide
Chemical component of a fixer:
1. Dissolving Agent – Hypo or sodium thiosulphite
2. Preservative – Sodium sulphite
3. Neutralizer – boric and acetic acid
4. Hardener – Potassium alum
Two systems of film developing:
1. Repeated use system – after each development the solution is poured in a container for use again.
2. One shot system - after development the solution is
Tray Method of Film Development
● The developer is placed on a tray.
● In total darkness, remove the film from the cartridge then hold the end of the film and immerse the film
in the developer in the tray making, make sure that the film is thoroughly dipped until the whole length
of the film is evenly wet.
● Timer will start.
● With a see-saw of pulling up or down motion, move the film from the one end to the other then back,
continuously until the developing time of 4-5 minutes is done.
● Then transfer it to the stop-bath for 10-15 seconds with the same motion.
● Thereafter, place the film in the fixer and execute the same motion for about 5 minutes then you can
now open the white light.
● Continue the fixing until the required time is finished.
● Next will be the washing and drying of the negative.
● This developing procedure is actually not recommended because the film has long contact with air
during the procedure which can cause aerial fog. Besides it is more tedious and tiring especially with a
36-exposure film.
PHOTOGRAPHIC PRINTING
Factors to consider in selecting negative:
1. Sharpness
2. Density
3. Contras
General Types of Photographic Printing
1. Contact Printing
⮚ The procedure of exposing photographic print materials while it is pressed in contact with the negative being
reproduced.
⮚ When the photograph is made through direct negative and paper contact, this process is known as contact
printing.
⮚ This is the simplest and the most economical method of photographic printing.

⮚ In terms of print quality, it can surpass enlargement in tonality because there is no scattering of image
forming lights as these can be projected beams of an enlarger.
⮚ It usually looks sharper because there is no lens on the printing system to add its aberrations in the print
process and also because details that may be slightly out of focus are not enlarged so the unsharpness is not
apparent.
2. Projection Printing or Enlarging
⮚ This is the type of printing where the image in a negative is optically or enlarged onto a print material for
exposure to produce a picture image. The main equipment used is the enlarger
Enlarger Parts and Functions:
1. Enlarger Head – the main working part of enlarger contains: Light, condenser, lens, negative holder, the lens
itself.
2. Lamp – light that passes through the negative that exposed photo paper.
3. Condenser Lens – lens that spread the light coming from the lamp of the enlarger.
4. Negative carrier – hold the negative flat and level.
5. Lens Aperture – the opening of the lens that controls rays of light passing through it.
6. Lens – it is the one responsible in forming the image coming from the negative.
7. Focusing Mechanism – it moves the lens up and down to focus the projected image.
8. Enlarger Column – it is the holder of the enlarger head and commonly serves as a rail in controlling the
height of enlarger head.
9. Elevating Control Knob – control size of image by raising or lowering the enlarger head.
10. Base Board – the support of the entire unit of the enlarger
CRIME SCENE PHOTOGRAPHY
Objectives of Crime Scene Photography
1. To produce a pictorial record of everything regarding the crime.
2. To help in keeping the police officer’s memory accurately as possible as to where he finds things.
3. To help in securing or obtaining confession, description and information to the case.
Importance of Crime Scene Photography
1. For identification of persons, documents, fingerprints, shoe prints, and splashes of blood.
2. Preservation of evidence in court
3. Described better than words.
4. Proves statement.
5. Records things you may fail

TYPES OF CRIME SCENE

A. AS TO LOCATION
1. INDOOR CRIME SCENE this crime scene entails that the offender committed the crime in an enclosed
place.
2. OUTDOOR CRIME SCENE this crime scene is located in an open area. It could be inside the vehicle,
airship and vessel.
3. CONTINUING CRIME SCENE this crime scene has a mixed location from indoor to outdoor or vice-versa or
the continuing outdoor alone or from one place to another of the same jurisdiction, or from one place crossing
to another area of jurisdiction.
B. AS TO TIME OF COMMISSION
1. DAYTIME CRIME SCENE refers to a crime scene committed from sunrise to sunset.
2. NIGHT-TIME CRIME SCENE refers to a crime committed from sunset to sunrise.

Photography Procedures at the Crime Scene

1. General/Overview or long-range view-Include photos leading up to the crime scene (ex. From exterior to
interior of a structure, and also include the entrance/exit(s). The purposes of the overview photograph is to
show the scene exactly as it was when you first saw it
2. Medium view or mid-range view-Shows relationships between evidence. Relationship of internal
structures.
3. Close-up view
4. Extreme close up

Techniques for Demonstrating Evidence Prints

1. Composite Exhibits- this consist of two photographs placed side by side to show points of similarities or
differences. This is generally used in the comparison of fingerprint or handwriting.
2. Matching photographs- this is another technique of illustrating similarities. Place a part of one photograph
over and in careful alignment with the other. Used in toolmarks, shells, pair illustrations or in matching glass
fragments or paint chips. 3. Matching Transparencies- this is used to show objects have identical outlines. A
positive transparency of one is placed over the other, adjusted so the outline coincides, like in proving traced
forgery.
Points of Objection on the Admissibility of a Photograph
● Accuracy of Color
● Alterations on negatives or on prints
● Computer generated image
● Enlargements
● Errors in printing
● Equipment
● Lighting
● Markings on photographs such as lines, circles, arrows, numbers, etc. are to be avoided except on
comparison charts
What are the Requirements for its Admissibility?
a. Relevance. Evidence must have such relation to the fact in issue as to induce belief in its existence or non-
existence.
b. Competency. Evidence is admissible when it is relevant to the fact in issue and not excluded by the
Constitution, the law or these Rules. Note: The Constitution is herein now enclosed in section 3 of the Rule 128
of Rules on Evidence.
c. Proof of Authentication

IMPORTANT TERMS IN PHOTOGRAPHY:

Accelarator - One of the four subparts of a developer solution; purpose is to increase the activity of reducing
agent.
Angle of View-The view of the subject subtended by two lines emerging from the corners of the film, extending
to the center of the lens.
Bellows-A light tight folding accordion type sleeve that connects the camera body and the lens, also provides
flexibility.
Bellows-The folding (accordion) portion in some cameras that connects the lens to the camera body (like the
Mamiya RZ). Also, a camera accessory that, when inserted between lens and camera body, extends the lens-
to- film distance for close focusing or macro photography. Some retains the automatic functions where some
have to stop down the lens for manual exposure reading.
Bracketing-Taking a series of photographs of the same subject at different exposures to insure the correct
exposure; useful when shooting in situations where a normal metering reading is difficult to obtain. Taking
additional pictures of the subject through a range of exposures-both lighter and darker-when unsure of the
correct exposure. Some top cameras have provision for automatic bracketing, while manually you can bracket
by the use of, say, adjust apertures or shuttle speeds setting or both, manually influent the ASA setting or even
adjust the flash output power etc.
Bracket Exposures-Making one or more exposure calculated to be correct.
Burning-In- is a darkroom process that gives additional exposure to part of the image projected on an enlarger
easel to make that area of the print darker. This is accomplished after the basic exposure by extending the
exposure time to allow additional image-forming light to strike the areas in the print you want to darken while
holding back the image-forming light from the rest of the image. Sometimes called printing-in.
Contrast Filter- Those intended to darken or lighten certain colors which would be produced of the same
brightness without the use of such.
Correction Filter- Those intended to alter the response of the film’s spectral sensitivity in term of brightness
value as seen by the naked eye.
Cropping- Printing only part of the image that is in the negative or slide, usually for a more pleasing
composition, in medium format, esp the 6 x 6, some form of cropping is necessary for publishing on A4
magazine format. It may also refer to the framing of the scene in the viewfinder.
Depth of Field – The distance between the nearest and the farthest object in apparent sharp focus when the
lens is focused at a given point.
Depth of Focus- The maximum permissible distance within which the film may be placed without exceeding
the circle of confusion in order to produce the image sharp.
Diaphragm- an adjustable device inside the lens which is similar to the iris in the human eye; comprised of six
or seven overlapping metal blades; continuously adjustable from & wide open to stopped down controls the
amount of light allowed to pass through the lens and expose the film when a picture is taken; a]so controls the
amount of depth of field the photograph will have.
Distortion- A general label referring to a particular distortion.
Dodging- holding back the image-forming light from a part of the image projected on an enlarger easel during
part of the basic exposure time to make that area of the print lighter.
Double Exposure- Two pictures taken on one frame of film, or two images printed on one piece of
photographic paper. Some cameras can have double exposure level depressed with multiple exposures one
even with a motor drive.
Electromagnetic-Spectrum- whole reange of radiant energy that includes radio waves, microwaves, infrared
light, visible light, ultraviolet light, x-rays, and gamma rays.
Filter- A homogeneous medium which (transmit and /or absorb) differentially wavelenght of the
electromagnetic energy.
Filter Factor-The ratio of the time of exposure with and without the filter for the same effective exposure.
Flash Meter-A hand held light sensing device used to measure the burst of light from one or more electric
flash unit.
Flash Synchronization- The mechanical or electrical adjustments to make the shutter open and the flash
lamp reach the peak of it’s flash at the same time.
Focal Length-The distance measured from the center of the lens to the film plane when the lens is set or
focused in infinity position.
Focus- The means by which the object distance is estimated or calculated to form the image sharp.
Haze Filters- Those which are intended to minimize haze of distant objects due to atmospheric haze or bluish
color of the sky.
Hyper Focal Distance- The nearest distance at which the lens is focused at a particular F# to give maximum
depth of field
Lens- A medium or system which converge or diverge the light passing through it to form images.
Light Meter- An instrument designed to measure the amount of light falling on or reflected from the subject.
The information is used to make the aperture and shutter settings on a camera.
Light Meter Acceptor- The eye of the camera metering system.
Magnification-Described as changing by the use of optical instrument, the ratio between photographic images
and the object.
Negative Lens- A diverging lens which is always thinner at the center than the edge. Form an image virtual on
the same side or source of light.
Neutral Density Filter-Those which are intended to reduce the intensity of brightness
Parallax Error- The displacement of an image point when viewed at different points of angle.
Photon-Electromagnetic Radiation-energy wave produced by the oscillation or acceleration of an electric
charge.
Polar Screen Filters- An optical slit which transmits light vibrating in the plain of the slit. Used primarily to
control light reflected from highly polished surfaces, metallic objects & etc.
Positive Lens- A converging lens which is characterized by the fact that it is thicker at the center than the
edges and therefore has a positive focal length. Forms the real image on the opposite side of the lens or the
source of light.
Relative Aperture- The speed or light gathering power of the lens equal to the ratio of the focal length to the
diameter of it’s lens pupil or the relative brightness of the image produced by the lens as compared with the
brightness of the subject.
Resolution or Resolving Power-Is an expression of quality measured by visibly separated lines. It is
expressed as the maximum number of the lines per millimeter that can be resolved or seen as individual
separated lines. Any magnification beyond that required to make the line count for the resolution of the final
print will decrease the image quality.
Resolving Power of the Lens- The maximum angle of resolution.
Shadow- The absence or reduction of light in a given space; caused by an opaque object blocking light rays.
Shape- Relates the general form, configuration, or outline of an individual object.
Shutter- A contraption placed on the path of the light which passes through the lens.
Tone- refers to the brilliance with which light is reflected by an object without tone difference between
photographic images, the shape of the object obviously could not be discerned.
Tripod- a three-legged supporting stand used to hold the camera steady to prevent blurred image. This is
useful when using slow shutter speeds and/or telephoto lenses. Another is the monopod, single leg tripod.
Vignetting - is a reduction of an image's brightness or saturation at the periphery compared to the image
center. The word vignette, from the same root as vine, originally referred to a decorative border in a book.
Later, the word came to be used for a photographic portrait which is clear in the center, and fades off at the
edges.
Visible light- radiation with wavelength ranging from 400 mu to 700 mu.
Visible Spectrum- a small part of the electromagnetic spectrum where the visible light is found; the portion of
the electromagnetic spectrum that affects the human sense of sight.
REFERENCES

Villarba, Waynefred H. “Forensic Photography for Criminology Students and Practitioner

Mancini, K., & Sidoriak, J. (2018). Fundamentals of forensic photography : practical techniques for evidence
documentation on location and in the laboratory. Routledge.

Adorama. (2017, June 9). What are the Different Types of Cameras Used for Photography? 42 West, the
Adorama Learning Center. [Link]
photography/