FORENSIC

PHOTOGRAPHY
Handbook

COLLEGE OF CRIMINAL JUSTICE EDUCATION

NAME
Block
Forensic Photography
Introduction
Photography
Uses of Photography
History Development

Light
Theories of light
Light & material
Types of Light
Photographic Rays
Source of light
Electromagnetic spectrum
Visible Spectrum
Primary Colors & Secondary Colors
Color mixing
Attribute of colors
Selective & Non-selective
Mediums of light
The R.A.T law

Camera
Introduction
Essential part
Types of Camera
Camera & Accessories

Camera & lenses

Introduction
Principles of Lens Action
Typology of lenses
Group of lenses
Lens Defects
Other Optical defects

Sensitized Material
Film structure
Typology of films
Classification according to use
Types based on FILM SPEED (according to light sensitivity)
Types based on SPECTRAL SENSITIVITY (color sensitivity)
. Film speed
Film size
Film & light
Exposure
` Filter
Sensitized Paper
Structure of the photographic paper
Types of photographic paper
According to physical characteristics
According to grade of printing paper

Forensic Photography
Forensic Photographer
Importance of Crime Scene Photography
Sequential Photographs of the crime Scene
Three types of range photographs
Marking the field of View
Photographic Log
Macrophotography
Photomicrography
Microphotography
Mugshot
Rogues Gallery
Enlarging

Photography in court of justice

FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY
INTRODUCTION

Photography is an invaluable aid to modern day scientific crime detection and investigation as well as crime
prevention. Perhaps it could be stated that without photography our law enforcement officer in the so-called modern day
scientific crime detection would still be lagging a hundred years.
The year 1839 is considered generally as the birth year of photography. Its first landmark in police history is
generally confined to its application to the problem of personal identification. In those days the Bertillon system of the facial
features of the criminal were measured, as well as the bone structures of the various parts of the body. These measurements
were worked into a classification system and the photograph of the criminal was used to supplement the classification. Later,
the Bertillon system was superseded by the fingerprint system of personal identification. Under the fingerprint system the
photograph of the subject is still placed on his finger print chart, not to supplement the identification system but to have
available photograph if needed for investigation purposes.

This course is divided into two main topics: TECHNICAL PHOTOGRAPHY AND FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY.

TECHNICAL: technical concepts and principles which includes characteristics of photographic rays, the use of camera,
lenses, filters, structure of film and photographic papers, chemical processing and others.

FORENSIC: covers investigative photography, preparation of mug file and crime scene photography.

Objective:

The objective of this course is to help the students become aware of the basic principles and concepts of
photography. Although this course is not intended to make the students become professional photographers, it is designed to
give them enough information for them to realize the vital use of photography as a significant tool in law enforcement and
criminal investigation. As future law enforcers and criminal investigators, they must be knowledgeable on how to utilize
effectively and efficiently photographic evidences during court proceedings.
Significance:

The usefulness of Forensic Photography in criminal investigation is very extensive. Small objects but of great
importance in a crime committed may escape in the first phase of examination by the investigator but may be seen and
recovered, only after closed examination of the photographs of the crime scene.
Investigators are sometimes compelled to reconstruct or describe in court some of the details of the crime scenes
they investigated several months ago. With the bulk of cases the investigator handle, perhaps he would be confused or may
not exactly recall some of these details or exact location of objects. However, with the aid of photographs taken from the
crime scene, investigator will not find hard time to refresh in their minds and will be able to describe or explain exactly the
details in court.
A good photograph of the scene is a permanent record, which is always available, especially in court presentation.
In court proceedings, judges, prosecutors and defense lawyers have generally never visited the scene of the crime.
Therefore, photographers should bear in mind to obtain a normal, sharp and free of distortion photograph. As a general rule,
take many photograph of the crime scene and select the best.
A photograph of the crime scene is a factual reproduction and accurate record of the crime scene because it
captures TIME, SPACE AND EVENT. A photograph is capable of catching and preserving the:
SPACE - the WHERE of the crime (Locus Criminis)
TIME – the WHEN of the crime
EVENT – the WHAT of the crime – what is the nature or character of the crime?

PHOTOGRAPHY
Photographs are also means of communication. It is language sometimes defined as the “most universal of all
languages”. Photography has an advantage as language because it does not rely upon abstract symbols-words.
Photography, thus, is more direct and less subject to misunderstanding. As a communication medium-has few, if any, equal.

1. Photography = Derived from the Greek word “Phos” or “Photos” which means “light” and “Grapho” means “Writing”
or “Graphia” meaning “to Draw”. Sir John F. W. Herschel coined the word photography when he first wrote a letter
to Henry Fox Talbot.
a. = Is the art and science of reproducing image by means of light through some sensitized material with the
aid of a camera, Lens and its accessories and the chemical process required in order to produced a
photograph.
2. Forensic = Derived from the Latin word “Forum” which means “a market place” where people gathered for public
discussion.
= When used in conjunction with other science it connotes a relationship to the administration of justice. It
is sometimes used interchangeably with the word legal

3. Forensic Photography is the study of notion photography, the application to police works and preparation of
photographic evidence for court presentation, and this connotes legal aspects. According to (Redsicker 2001),
Forensic Photography is the art or science of documenting photographically a crime scene and evidence for
laboratory examination and analysis for purposes of court trial._
4. Police Photography = Is the application of the principles of photography is relation to the police work and in the
administration of justice.

5. Photograph = Is the mechanical and chemical result of Photography. Picture and photograph are not the same for a
picture is a generic term is refers to all kinds of formed image while a photograph is an image that can only be a
product of photography.
6. Digital Photography A method of photography in which an image is digitally encoded and stored for later
reproduction.
7. Modern Photography may be defined as any means for the chemical, thermal, electrical or electronic recording of
the images of scenes, or objects formed by some type of radiant energy, including gamma rays, X-rays, ultra-violet
rays, visible light and infrared rays.
This definition is broad enough to include not only the conventional methods of photography but almost any new
process that may be developed. Technical/Legal definition
USES OF PHOTOGRAPHY
1. Personal Identification
= Personal Identification is considered to be the first application of photography is police work. Alphonse
Bertillion was the first police who utilized photography in police work as a supplementary identification in his
Anthropometry system.
2. For Communication
= Photograph is considered to be one of the most universal methods of communication considering that no
other language can be known universally than photograph.
3. For Record Purposes
= Considered to be the utmost used of photography in police work.
Different Views in photographing
a. General View
= taking an over-all view of the scene of the crime. It shows direction and location of the crime
scene.
b. Medium View
= Is the taking of the photograph of the scene of the crime by dividing it into section. This view will
best view the nature of the crime.
c. Close-up View
= Is the taking of individual photograph of the evidence at the scene of the crime. It is design to show
the details of the crime.
d. Extreme Close-up View
= Commonly designed in laboratory photographing using some magnification such as
Photomacrography and photomicrography.

4. For Preservation
= Crime scene and other physical evidence requires photograph for preservation purposes. Crime scene
cannot be retain as is for a long period of time but through photograph the initial condition of the scene of the crime can
be preserved properly.

5. For Discovering and Proving

= Photography can extend human vision in discovering and proving things such as:
a. The use of Magnification
Photomicrography = Taking a magnified photograph of small object through attaching a camera to
the ocular of a compound microscope so as to show a minute details of the physical evidence.
Photomacrogaphy = Taking a magnified (enlarged) photograph of small object by attaching an
extended tube lens (macro lens) to the camera.
Microphotography = is the process of reducing into a small strips of film a scenario. It is first used in
filmmaking.
Macrophotography = used synonymously with photomacrogaphy.
Telephotography = Is the process of taking photograph of a far object with the aid of a long focus
and Telephoto lens.

b. Used of Artificial Light such as X-ray, Ultra-violet and Infra-red rays to show something which may not be visible
with the aid of human eye alone.

6. For Court Exhibits

= Almost all evidence presented in court before formally be accepted requires that they satisfy the basic
requirements for admissibility which is relevancy and competency. A question of relevancy is usually proved by proving
the origin of the evidence and its relation to the case and this is usually supplemented by photograph of the evidence
giving reference as to where it came from.
Evidence presented in court once accepted became known as Exhibit. Either Exhibit 1,2,3 etc. for the defense or
Exhibit A, B, C etc for the prosecution.

7. Crime Prevention
= with the used of video camera (hidden camera) and other advanced photographic equipment crimes are
being detected more easily and even to the extent of preventing them from initially occurring.

8. Police Training
= Modern facilities are now being used as instructional material not only in police training as well as in other
agencies.

9. Reproducing and Copying

= With the use of photography any number of reproduction of the evidence can be made those giving unlimited opportunity for
its examination and even allow other experts or person to examine the specimen without compromising the original.

Historical Development

Equipment -1700 – Camera Obscura (dark chamber) was designed by Leonardo da Vinci for accurate perspective and scale.

Chemicals-1725 – 1777 – Light sensitivity of silver nitrate and silver chloride solution had been discovered and investigated.

1839 – is generally known as the birth year of photography.

William Henry Fox Talbot – he had invented (calotype) at the Royal Society of London.

Calotype – used paper with its surface fibers impregnated with light sensitive compounds.

Joseph Niepce – He discover camera images on paper sensitized with silver chloride solution but failure.

Louis Jacques Mande Daguerre - made a public demonstration in Paris “Daguerreotype in collaboration with Joseph
Nicephore Niepce.

The Daguerreotype formed an image directly on the silver surface of a metal plate. With Talbots “calotype the fixation was
only partial while daguerre’s daguerrotypes, images were made permanent with the use of hypo.

1848- Abel Niepce de Saint-Victor introduced a process of negatives on glass using albumen (egg white) as binding medium.

1889- Gelatin emulsion printing paper was commercially introduced based films.

John Frederick William Herschel coined the word “photography”

1861- James Clark Maxwell researched on color

1907 – Lumiere color process was introduced, a panchromatic film was used but with blue, green, and red filter.

1914- US Eastman Kodak Company introduce a two color subtractive process called Kodachrome.

1934- Holland. The first wire-filled bulb was introduced by Phillips.

The first commercially available digital camera was the 1992 Kodak DCS-100. It used a 1.3 megapixel sensor and was priced
at 13,000 dollars.
The first consumer camera with a Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) on the back was the Casio QV 10 in 1995 and the first camera
to use compact flash was the Kodak DC-25 in 1996.

In 1999 the Nikon D1, a 2.74 mega pixel camera was the first digital SLR with a price of under 6,000 dollars.

Sir John F.W. Herschel coins the word “photography”; (suggest “negative” and “positive” in the following year) and point out
that image can be made permanent by dissolving away unexposed silver compounds with a solution of hyposulfite of soda
(hypo or sodium thiosulfate), which he had discovered in 1819. 

1839- Daguerreotype consisted of two wooden boxes perfected his photographic process. Images are made permanent by
the use of hypo. The precision of details and exquisite beauty of these direct-positive images on silver plates make the
Daguerreotype an immediate success. 

1840- U.S. J. W. Draper is also one to produce photographic protraits using a lens with a diameter of five inches and a focus
of seven inches. 

1840, Australia-Hungary, J.M. Petzval designed the first lens specifically for photographic use. Its maximum aperture if f/3.6
makes it possible to take portrait exposure of less than one minute, launching the most widespread use of the
Daguerreotype. The lens is produced the following year by Volglander for use in the first all-metal camera.

1843-1848- Major achievements with the paper-negative process are made by Hill Adamson and by various photographers
on the continent beyond the reach of Talbot’s legal agents. 

1845- F Von Marten, France, Invented the panoramic camera, wherein the lens is rotated about its optical center while a
curved film is scanned by a slit. 

1848- Abel Niepce de Saint Victor introduced a process of negatives on glass using albumen (egg white) as binding medium.

1850 – Louis Desirie Blanquart Evard introduced a printing paper coated with albumen to achieve a glossy surface.

1851- England. Frederick Scott Archer published a method of using collodion in place of albumen for negative on glass, “wet
plate”.

1853- England. JB Dancer makes the first model of a twin lens camera for stereo photography, suggested by Sir David
Brewster.

1858- France Nadar takes the first aerial photograph over Paris from a free balloon. 

1861- First single lens reflex camera was patented by Thomas Sulton.

1861- Scotland. James Clerk Maxwell publishes research in color perception and the three color separation of light. He also
demonstrates additive color synthesis using hand colored materials in lantern slide projectors.

1880-The first twin-lens camera was produced by the British firm, R. & J. Beck. 

Eastman George, an American inventor, manufactured a dry plate process in 1880, the roll film in 1884 and made it available
to market in 1889, and the Kodak camera in 1888, (6 ½ X 3 ½ X 3 ½) 3 ½ to infinity, 100 exposure. 

1880- England. Sir William Abney discovers the use of hydroquinone as a developing agent. 

1882. England Sir William Abney produces silver chloride gelatin emulsion for printing-out paper; it takes more than ten
years for this and similar materials to supplant albumen paper.
1884- US. Eastman negative paper is introduced, consisting of a light sensitive emulsion or paper which after development
is made transparent enough for printing by treating with hot castor oil.

1888- US John Carbutt begin the manufacture of celluloid base sheet film.

1890- full corrected lenses were introduced.

1895- The pocket camera was designed by Frank Brownell & called it “Brownie”.

1906- a plate was placed on the market that could reproduce all colors in equivalent shades of gray.

1907- Lummiere color process was introduced, a panchromatic film was used but with blue, green, and red filter.

1914- US Eastman Kodak Company introduce a two color subtractive process called Kodachrome.

1925- The German firm of Ernst Leitz brought our to market the popular camera, LIECA.

HISTORY OF DIGITAL CAMERAS

1988 - The arrival of true digital cameras. The first true digital camera that recorded the image as a computerized file was
likely the Fuji DS-1P, which recorded to a 16 MB internal memory card that used a battery to keep the data. This camera was
never marketed in the USA.

1992 - The first commercially available digital camera was Kodak DCS-100. It used a 1.3 megapixel sensor and was priced at
13,000 dollars.

1995 -The first consumer camera with a Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) on the back was the Casio QV 10.

1996 - The first camera to use compact flash was the Kodak DC-25.

1999 The Nikon D1, a 2.74 mega pixel camera was the first digital SLR with a price of under 6,000 dollars. This camera also
used Nikon F-mount lenses which means that film based photographers could use the same lenses they already own.

2003, Canon introduced the 300D camera also known as digital rebel, a six (6) mega pixel and the first DSLR priced lesser
than 1,000 dollars to consumers.

Light
Light is defined as an electromagnetic energy with the speed of 186,00 miles per second. Its wave travel is said to
be characterized in certain extent based on velocity, wavelength and frequency of the number of vibration of the wave per
second.
Light wavelength is the distance measured between two (2) successive crest or through of wave and it is expressed
in either Millimicron (nanometer) or Angstrom. Millimicron is the units of light wavelength which is equivalent to one-millionth
part of a millimeter which the Angstrom is relatively smaller for it has an equivalent measurement of ten (10) millionth part of a
millimeter.

THEORIES OF LIGHT
1. The WAVE Theory (Huygens)
= It is the theory that was transcribed from the motion of the water that if we observe a piece of log floating in
the ocean and with the force of the air would naturally will make the log move up and down.
2. Corpuscular theory (Newton)
= this later opposed the wave theory stating that light has its effect by the motion of very small particles such as
electrons.
3. Modified Wave theory (Maxwell and hertz)
= Based on electromagnetics.
All these theories are still considered to be of little lacking that law enforcement need not to be very focus
on this but rather go along with the accepted conclusion that light is a form of energy, which is electromagnetic in
form.

LIGHT AND MATERIALS

Materials, which allow light to pass through so that objects on the other side can be distinguished, are called
transparent.
Those that allow light to pass through but diffuse the flow of light so that objects on the other side cannot be
distinctly seen are called translucent.
Materials, which allow no light to pass through, are called opaque. When light strikes an object such light is
absorbed, transmitted and or reflected practically. The amount of light transmitted or reflected depends upon the
characteristics of the material, the quantity and quality of the light the angle of the source etc.

THE LAW OF REFLECTION – refers to the rebounding or deflection of light. The angle of reflection depends upon
the angle of the light striking the material, which is referred to as the angle of incidence.

THE LAW OF REFRACTION – when the material in the path of the light is transparent a change in the direction of
the light occurs.

The change in the direction of light when passing from one medium to another is called the phenomenon of
refraction. The change in the direction of the light is due to the change in the speed of light when passing from one medium to
another. The displacement depends upon the angle of incidence, the kind of material and its thickness.

Types of Light
Lights can largely be classified into visible and invisible light.
Visible Light
= Is the type of light that produces different sensation when reach the human eye. It is the type of light,
which is capable of exciting the retina of the human eye.
Invisible Light
= lights in which their wavelength are either too short or too long to excite the retina of the human eye i.e.
X-ray, Ultrat-violet and Infra-red lights.

Photographic Rays
a. X-ray
=Light with the wavelength between .01 to 30 millimicrons. It is produced by passing an electric current
through a special type of vacuum tube. It was incidentally discovered by Conrad Welhelm Roentgen. This type of
light works in the principle of shadow photography.

b. Ultra-violet ray (Before the violet)

= Radiation having a wavelength of 30 to 400 nanometers designed to photograph fingerprints in multi colored
background, documents that are altered, decipherment of erase writing and developing invisible writing. It is
commercially known as “black Light”.

c. Visible Light
= It refers to the type of radiation having a wavelength of 400 to 700 millimicrons designed for ordinary photographing
purposes.

d. Infra-red (Beyond the Red)

= Considered as the photographic rays with the longest wavelength ranging from 700 to 1000 millimicrons. It is designed to
take photograph of over-written documents, obliterated writing, and charred documents or for black out photography. It is
sometimes referred to as heat rays).

SOURCES OF LIGHT

There are two sources of light, they are known as natural and artificial. Natural lights are lights which come to
existence without the intervention of man and artificial lights are lights which are man made. In photography natural light is
used for outdoor photography and artificial lights are utilized in indoor photography to augment the adverse lighting condition.

NATURAL LIGHT

The source of all daylight is the sun. The combination of color and contrast ascertains the quality of the daylight.
The lighting contrast depends upon the sunlight available in the daylight, when clouds do not cover the sun. Then, the
contrast is high on the contrary; if clouds cover the sun the contrast is low. In the process of photographing and object; the
lighting contrast must be considered in the exposure of the film. It is suggested that the recommendations, given by the
manufacturer of the film be observed religiously to produce good and presentable photographs.

Color of the daylight will also affect the appearance of the objects being photographed specially in color
photography. Some of the factors affecting the color of the daylight:

a) atmospheric vapor
b) atmospheric dust
c) reflected light reached the objects and directly coming from the source.

Daylight maybe classified according to its intensity. They are:

a) Bright sunlight
b) Hazy sunlight
c) Dull sunlight.

These classifications are modified by the film manufacturers like

a) Open bright sunlight
b) Under shade bright sunlight
c) Hazy sunlight
d) Cloudy bright sunlight
e) Cloudy dull sunlight.

To distinguish this classification of daylight according to intensity, the appearance of the shadows of the objects
must be considered. In bright sunlight, the subject will produced a strong shadow, because the source of light in not covered
and the objects or subjects appear glossy in open space due to direct sunlight and reflected light coming from the sky which
act as a reflector.
In Hazy sunlight, the sun is covered by thin cloud and the shadow appears bluish because of the decrease of light
falling on the subject in open space. The shadow cast is transparent to the eye and more details are visible under this lighting
condition than a bright sunlight.

In dull sunlight, the sun is totally covered by thick clouds. No shadow is cast to the uniform illumination of lights all
around the subjects in open space.

ARTIFICIAL LIGHT

Almost all artificial light sources can be used in photographing of objects, as long as the light is capable of exposing
the sensitized materials (film). Some of the artificial lights are electronic flash, photoflood lamp, fluorescent lamp, and
Infrared and Ultra-Violet lamp.
THE ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM

By using a prism made of glass or plastic, it is possible to see the colors that made up the sunlight. The colors
separated in this way are called a spectrum. Another way to see the spectrum of sunlight is to look at a rainbow. The light is
bend as observed, and because some of wavelengths bend more than others, the colors are separated. The violet rays are
bent the most, and the red rays least.
The prism experiment shows how white light is made up of a combination of wavelengths of different colored lights.
To make colors it would seem that we would need paints or dyes of every possible colors and shade to get exactly what we
want but in fact any color can be made by combining various proportions of the three basic colors. These are called the
primary colors.
The whole range of radiant energy that includes radio waves, microwaves, infrared light, visible light, ultra violet
lights, x-rays and gamma rays. Visible light, which makes up only of a tiny fraction of the electromagnetic spectrum, is the
only electronic radiation that humans can perceive with in their eyes.

COLORS OF LIGHT FOUND IN VISIBLE SPECTRUM

Visible Spectrum - a small part of the electromagnetic spectrum where the visible light is found, the portion of the
electromagnetic spectrum that affect the human sense of sight. Visible light includes all those radiation having a wavelength
ranging from 400 – 700 mu.

COLOR

Primary Colors Approximate Wavelength

A. Red (longest wavelength) 700 mu

B. Blue 450 mu
C. Green 550 mu

Complementary Colors

A. Magenta (shortest wavelength) 400

B. Cyan 500
C. Yellow 590

Neutral Color

A. Gray
B. White
C. Black

COLOR MIXING

1. Color Addition
R+B+G = W
R+B= M M+Y= R
R+G= Y Y+C= B
B+G= C Y+C= G

2. Color Subtraction
W-R= C W-C=R C-G=B
W-B=Y W-Y=B Y-G=R
W-G=M W-M=G Y-R=G

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY COLORS

The three primary colors in light are red, green and blue. White light can be made by mixing red, blue and green.
The process of making colors by mixing primary colors of light is called addition, because one color is added to another.
Colors made by combining two primary colors are called secondary colors. They are yellow (red and green), cyan
(blue and green) and magenta (blue and red). When the primary colors are mixed in different proportions any color at all can
be produced.
Painted objects do not produce their own light, they reflect light, when objects look red, because it is reflecting only
red light to our eyes. To do this, it absorbed the other primary colors in the white light it is reflecting. It absorbed green and
blue and reflects red.

ATTRIBUTE OF COLORS

Radiant energy within a limited frequency range has the property of stimulating the retina of the eye to create color
sensation, which the brain interprets. Radiant energy, which has this property, is called light, the physical stimulus of vision.

Color can be defined in qualitative terms according to certain psychological attributes. These attributes are hue,
brightness and saturation. Hue is the attributes of chromatic colors, which distinguishes them from achromatic colors.
Brightness is the attributes of colors, which allows the relation of colors in it to be related to given tones of gray ranging in a
series from white to black. Saturation is the attribute of a chromatic color, which designates to which the color differs from a
gray of the same brightness. Brightness and saturation can be understood in a practical sense from the following, take a very
vivid red (single saturation) and either a small amount of white or black. The color will change to lighter or darker. In both
instances, the vividness of the color is lessened (decreased saturation). The purity of the color is then affected. By adding at
the same time small amount of white and black, the brightness can be held constant and only saturation is affected. When
sufficient amount of white and black are added the hue becomes no longer recognized from the gray tone to which it was
originally related in brightness.

SELECTIVE AND NON SELECTIVE

Absorption refers to the taking in of light by the material. Following the law of conservation of energy, such light
taken in is not lost but merely transformed into heat.
Materials in their appearance are sometimes deceiving when light strikes them. For instance, when light strikes a
material and all the light is practically reflected, it will appear white. However when red light strikes the same material, it will
appear red. And green light of the same material it will appear green. Such material exhibits what is called non-selective
absorption.
There are other materials, which behave differently as stated above, when light incident upon other such material
they appear red, or blue or green but not white. With green or blue light the same material appears black because practically
all lights are absorbed. A material appears red under white light because only red light is practically reflected while all other
wavelengths are absorbed. Such materials which selectively reflects and absorbed others wavelength exhibits selective
absorption characteristics.

MEDIUMS OF LIGHT

Objects that influence the intensity of light as they may reflect absorb or transmit.

Mediums of light maybe classified as:

TRANSPARENT OBJECTS – mediums that merely slow down the speed of light but allow to pass freely in other
respects, transmit 90% or more of the incident light.

TRANSLUCENT OBJECTS – mediums that allow light to pass through it in such a way that the outline of the
source of light is not clearly visible, transmit 50% or less of the incident light.

OPAQUE OBJECTS – A medium that divert or absorb light, but does not allow lights to pass though, they absorb
most of the light while reflecting some of it.

THE RAT LAW

When incident light hits a medium, three things might happen, the light maybe:

A. Reflected
B. Absorbed
C. Transmitted

MECHANICAL DEVICE (CAMERA)

Introduction

The principle of photography are derived from science and the images on the film or paper made by the rays or light
through the camera are dependent on the same general laws which produces images upon the retina through the lens which
produce images upon the retina through the lens of the eye.

A camera basically is nothing more than a light tight box with pinholes or lens, a shutter at one end and a holder of
the sensitized material at one end. While there is various kind of camera from the simplest in construction (the box type) to
the most complicated, all operate in the same principle. The exposure of the sensitized material to light is controlled by the
lens and its aperture and the shutter through its speed in opening and closing the lens to light.
Essential part of Camera
The essentials of any camera, therefore, are light tight box, a lens, a shutter, and a holder of sensitized material. All
other accessory of any camera merely makes picture taking easier, faster, and convenient for the operator and is call
accessories.

a. Light tight box suggests an enclosure devoid of light. An enclosure is one which would prevent light from
exposing the sensitized material inside the camera. This does not necessarily mean that the box or
enclosure be always light tight at all times because if it does, then no light can reach the sensitized
material during exposure. Light tight box means that before and after the exposed to extraneous light
which is not necessary to form the final image.

b. The lens, which must be focus at the object at the time of picture taking, is one of the most important
parts of any camera. The function of the lens is to focus the light coming from the subject. It operates
more or less the same way as the lens of the eye. It is chiefly responsible for the sharpness of the image
formed through which light passes during the exposure of the sensitized material inside the light tight box.
The area of the lens may large or small during the exposure of the sensitized material depending upon
the light coming form the subject to be pictured. The quantity and quality of the light coming from the
subject depend upon the light source. As a rule the more light we have from the source the more light will
be reflected and vice versa. Should the light be too great the area of the lens maybe reduced with the
focal number adjustment. The smaller the area of the lens the greater is the numerical value of the focal
number. The greater the focal number numerically the less light will pass through the lens but more
distance will appear in reasonable sharpness.

c. The shutter has for its function through its action called shutter speed the control of the duration of the
exposure of the sensitized material to light. The higher the numerical value of the shutter speed the
shorter will be the duration of the opening and closing of the lens. As an effect only a small amount of light
will pass through the lens.

d. The holder of sensitized material located at the opposite side of the lens has for its function to hold firmly
the sensitized material in its place during exposure to prevent the formation of a multiple or blurred image
of the subject.

CAMERA TYPES

Frequently it asked, “What is the best camera?” The answer would be the best camera is the one that takes the
best pictures. Regardless of the type or kind of camera, a good operator will get results even with a cheap one.

THE PINHOLE CAMERA - The simplest camera is a pinhole camera, which consists of a box with a small hole in
one of its sides. To produce a sharp image, the hole must be very small and this restricts the amount of light entering the
camera. Quite a long time may be necessary to let enough light through to affect the film and this causes problems because
if the subject moves the picture will be blurred. It is impossible to photograph anything like a moving car or a galloping horse
with a pinhole camera.

CAMERA OBSCURA - Is a box used for sketching large objects? The term means dark chamber. The box contains
a mirror set at 45-degree angle. Mounted in the front end of the box is a double convex lens like that in a photographic
camera. Light from the object or scene is transmitted through the lens. The mirror reflects this light upward to ground glass
screen on the top of the box. There the light forms an image of the object or scene that can be sketched easily.

FIXED FOCUS CAMERA - The most basic of all camera, have a non-adjustable lens. Most models have a single
diaphragm setting and only one or two shutter speeds. Most fixed focus cameras, including many inexpensive, pocket-sized
models, use 110 or 126 size film. The negative of such film require considerable enlargement, which may produce a fuzzy
image.
In general, a fixed focus camera can take satisfactory photographs in ordinary daylight but not in dim light, because
its lens does not admit much light. The camera may produce a blurred picture is moving or less than two meters away. Many
fix-focused cameras can take flash pictures.
Disposable cameras are a kind of fixed - focus camera that combine a plastic lens, a shutter, a film in one small
box. The entire camera is taken to the photo laboratory when the roll of film has been exposed.

POINT AND SHOOT CAMERA - Have many automatic features that make them easy to use. Electronic devices
inside the cameras automatically adjust the focus, set the light exposure and the shutter speed and advance and rewind the
film. A built in electronic flash automatically supplies light when too little light reflects from the subject. The cameras are
equipped with high quality lenses that produce a sharp image. Some of them have a zoom lens. Point and Shoot cameras
use films that measure 35 mm. Since their introduction in 1970’s theses cameras have gained wide popularity among
amateur’s photographers.

SINGLE LENS REFLEX CAMERAS - Appealed to skilled amateur photographers and to professional
photographers. The camera’s name refers to its viewing system. The photographer views the subject through the camera lens
rather than through a separate viewing lens. A mirror between the lens and the film reflects the image onto a viewing screen.
When the shutter release button is pressed to take a picture, the mirror lifts out of the way to allow the light to expose the film.
Thus the photographer sees almost the exact image that is recorded on the film. SLR cameras use 35 mm film. The
photographer can adjust the focus, select the shutter speed, and control the opening of the diaphragm. Many new models can
also adjust the focus and control the light exposure automatically.

The standard lens of the SLR camera can be replaced by special purpose lenses that change the size and depth
relationship of objects in a scene. These lenses include wide-angle lens, telephoto lens, and zoom lenses. A wide-angle lens
provides a wider view of a scene than a standard lens does. A telephoto lens has a narrow angle of view and makes objects
appear larger and closer. A zoom lens combines many features of standard, wide angle and telephoto lenses. With other
accessories, many SLR cameras can take pictures through a microscope, telescope or underwater.

Reflex cameras, both the SLR and the TLR types, are equipped with mirrors that reflect in the viewfinder the
scene to be photographed. The twin-lens reflex is box-shaped, with a viewfinder consisting of a horizontal ground-glass
screen located at the top of the camera. Mounted vertically on the front panel of the camera are two lenses, one for taking
photographs and the other for viewing. The lenses are coupled, so that focusing one automatically focuses the other. The
image formed by the upper, or viewing, lens is reflected to the viewing screen by a fixed mirror mounted at a 45° angle.
The photographer focuses the camera and adjusts the composition while looking at the screen. The image formed by the
lower lens is focused on the film at the back of the camera. Like rangefinder cameras, TLRs are subject to parallax.
In the SLR type of reflex camera, a single lens is used for both viewing the scene and taking the photograph. A
hinged mirror situated between the lens and the film reflects the image formed by the lens through a five-sided prism and
on to a ground-glass screen on top of the camera. At the moment the shutter is opened, a spring automatically pulls the
mirror out of the path between lens and film. Because of the prism, the image recorded on the film is almost exactly that
which the camera lens “sees”, without any parallax effects.
Most SLRs are precision instruments equipped with focal-plane shutters. Many have automatic exposure-control
features and built-in light meters. Most modern SLRs have electronically triggered shutters; apertures, too, may be
electronically actuated or they may be adjusted manually. Increasingly, camera manufacturers produce SLRs with
automatic focusing, an innovation originally reserved for amateur cameras. Minolta's Maxxum series, Canon's EOS series,
and Nikon's advanced professional camera, the F-4, all have autofocus capability and are completely electronic. Central
processing units (CPUs) control the electronic functions in these cameras. Minolta's Maxxum 7000i has software “cards”
which, when inserted in a slot on the side of the camera, expand the camera's capabilities.
Autofocus cameras use electronics and a CPU to sample automatically the distance between camera and
subject and to determine the optimum exposure level. Most autofocus cameras bounce either an infrared light beam or
ultrasonic (sonar) waves off the subject to determine distance and set the focus. Some cameras, including Canon's EOS
and Nikon's SLRs, use passive autofocus systems. Instead of emitting waves or beams, these cameras automatically
adjust the focus of the lens until sensors detect the area of maximum contrast in a rectangular target at the centre of the
focusing screen.
TWIN LENS REFLEX CAMERAS - Have a viewing lens directly above the picture - taking lens. The image in the
viewfinder appears on a flat screen on top of the camera. Photographer found such a viewing screen helpful in composing a
picture. Photographers do not hold the viewfinder to the eye, as they do with a fixed focus, point and shoot, and single lens
reflex camera. They usually hold the camera at the chest or waist and look down into the viewfinder. The image appears
reversed from left to right. In most models, nearby subjects appear lower in the picture area of the viewfinder than they
appear in the photograph. Most twin lens reflex cameras use film that produces negatives measuring six by six centimeters.

VIEW CAMERAS - View cameras are generally larger and heavier than medium- and small-format cameras and
are most often used for studio, landscape, and architectural photography. These cameras use large-format films that produce
either negatives or transparencies with far greater detail and sharpness than smaller format film. View cameras have a metal
or wooden base with a geared track on which two metal standards ride, one at the front and one at the back, connected by a
bellows. The front standard contains the lens and shutter; the rear holds a framed ground-glass panel, in front of which the
film holder is inserted. The body configuration of the view camera, unlike that of most general-purpose cameras, is adjustable.
The front and rear standards can be shifted, tilted, raised, or swung, allowing the photographer unparalleled control of
perspective and focus.

It is the largest and most adjustable type of camera. Most have accordion like body, with a replaceable lens in front.
They have a large viewing screen instead of a viewfinder. Most models have an adjustable diaphragm and shutter speed.
View cameras must be mounted on a stand for efficient operation.

A photographer focuses a view camera by moving the lens end or the back end of the camera forward or backward
to produce a sharp image. A view camera can provide artistic distortions of subjects more effectively than any other kind of
camera.

Many professional photographers use view camera for portraits and other subjects. A view camera uses sheet of
film that range in size from 60 to 90 mm to 280 by 360 mm. The picture is often contact printed. A contact print is a
photograph made to exactly the same size a negative. It is made by shining light through the negative, which is held in
contact with light sensitive paper.

INSTANT CAMERAS - Use film that provides a print without first being developed into a negative. The cameras
produce a print 15 seconds to 2 minutes after the photographer takes a picture. The time varies according to the camera and
to the type of film. Instant camera use film that provides pictures ranging in size from 73 by 94 mm to 508 by 610 mm. Special
types of film for instant camera also provide negatives. Some instant cameras can take flash pictures and focus automatically
as the photographer lines up a subject in the viewfinder.

ELECTRONIC CAMERA - Create pictures that can be viewed on a television screen. The lens in most electronic
cameras focuses light on light sensitive mechanism called CHARGED COUPLED DEVICE OR CCD. The CCD changes the
light into electronic signals. The electronic pictures can then be stored on small magnetic discs similar to those I=used in
computers. With additional equipment, electronic images can also be sent over telephone lines or printed on paper.
FILM CAMERAS - Takes pictures that re-create the motion of a subject when they are viewed. Professional
filmmakers generally use large cameras that take 35 or 16 mm film. Most amateur’s records on 8 mm film called super 8.
Today, many amateur filmmakers use portable video cameras called CAMCORDERS. These cameras convert light reflected
by the subject into electronic signals that are recorded on magnetic tape. Most film cameras and camcorders can record
sound at the same as they record images. Most of them also have a zoom lens.

STEREO CAMERAS - Have two identical picture taking lenses with matched shutter. When a stereo camera takes
a picture, each lens photographs the same subject, but from a slightly different angle. When shown to a device called a
stereoscope or seen through glasses that polarize light, the two images blend in one picture that seems to have depth. Stereo
cameras are made for taking photographs or for making films.

SPECIAL PURPOSE CAMERA - Have been designed for industrial, medical, military, and scientific uses they
include aerial cameras used in space and underwater cameras.
Folding cameras favored for their compact design and movable bellows, have been in use for many years. The
camera’s lens is incorporated into the bellows, which is slid back and forth along a rail to change focus. The
dark clothe covering the photographer and the box body of the camera blocks out undesirable light, which might
otherwise interfere with the picture.
Box cameras like this “Brownie” were the earliest cameras used by the general public. Relatively simple in
design and operation, they consisted of a wooden or plastic box, a drop-blade shutter, and a holding device for
the film. Modern box cameras are similar to early models, generally featuring only one shutter speed and one
opening; the very easy operation makes it a popular camera among casual photographers.
The Polaroid, or instant, camera delivers a finished print directly following exposure. Although most models are
somewhat larger than the standard personal camera, the advantage of this system is the convenience and
speed of the results. Special film used in conjunction with the camera is designed to develop itself, and
represents one of the more recent chemical revolutions in photography.
Reflex cameras use mirrors to form an image of the scene to be photographed in the viewfinder. The 35-mm
single-lens reflex (SLR) camera is one of the most popular cameras on the market today because of its compact
size, speed, and versatility. Most models offer a combination of automatic and manual options.
.

CAMERA WITH LENSES

A lens can be used to focus the light onto the film to produce a bright, clear image. The hole behind the lens is
called the aperture and on many cameras the size of the hole, or aperture can be altered. The length of time that light is
allowed to enter the camera is called the exposure and is controlled by the shutter. In its normal position the shutter is closed
and prevents light entering the camera. When the button is pressed, the shutter flies open for a pre - determined length of
time, depending on the light conditions in which the photograph is being taken. This can be as long as one second or as short
as 1/1000 second or even shorter. On a dull day you need a longer exposure than on a sunny day.

Both the diaphragm and the shutter need to be adjusted according to the amount of light that is available for taking
a photograph. At midday in summer there will probably be plenty of light. On a winter afternoon there may not. In a living
room at night, the light maybe quite good for the eye, but not enough for the camera.

A camera is essentially a sealed with an opening at one end to admit light and a device at the other end for holding
photographic film or other light sensitive material.

THE CAMERA AND ACCESSORIES

LENS – The lens of a camera consist of one or more glass or plastic disk with flat, concave, or convex surfaces,
each disk is called element. The purpose of the lens is to focus light on the film. The focal length of the lens is the distance
between the optical center and the film. For any given film size, the shorter the focal length is, the greater the field of view –
that is, the greater the area covered in the picture. Focal length also affects depth of field – the amount of the foreground and
background that will be in sharp focus in the picture. The shorter the focal the greater is the depth of field.

Lenses of various focal lengths can be used interchangeably on some cameras, allowing the photographer to vary
the field of view without taking the camera to a different position. A zoom lens has an adjustable focal length and stays
focused on one object as its focal length is change.

The light power of the lens is determined by the ratio of its focal length to its effective diameter (the effective
diameter is equal to the diameter of the aperture - the circular opening that controls the amount of light that passes through
the lens). The ratio expressed with the symbol f/, is called the f- number. The larger the aperture in relation to the focal length,
the smaller is the f- number.

SHUTTER – The shutters on most cameras can be adjusted to different shutter speeds. The shutter speed means
the length of time the shutter is open. This might be several seconds ( or even hours if you are photographing a night sky ) or
one thousandth of a second or even less with special cameras. Most cameras have a shutter speed dial showing speeds from
one second to, for example, one thousand of a second. The dial is set to the speed the photographer wants. Of course, the
faster the shutter speeds the shorter the time the shutter is open and the smaller the amount of light let in. Shutter speed are
arrange so that each setting will let in half the amount of light let it half the amount let in by the one below it and twice the
amount of the one above it. There is usually also a time exposure setting so that the shutter can be left open for minutes or
even hours in certain conditions.
The shutter is a device that prevents light from reaching the film until the photographer is ready to take a picture.
When a lever or button is released or button is pushed, the shutter is released, and a spring or magnet snaps its aside,
exposing the film to light for a certain light of time. The length of time is adjustable on all but the simplest camera,, it ranges
from one second to 1/1000 of a second or less. Most adjustable cameras are capable of making time exposure – exposure of
more than one second. Typically, time exposure is made by using a special shutter setting marked “T “(FOR TIME) or “B’
(FOR BULB) referring to a shutter release device used with early cameras.

An adjustable speed shutter is one of two devices a camera has to permit the photographer to regulate the amount
of light reaching the film ( the diaphragm is the other ) At a given aperture setting, a small shutter speed will let more light
reach the film than a fast shutter speed. However, the lower the shutter speed, the greater is the chance that the image on
the film will be blurred by the movement of the subject or camera. Some cameras have electronic shutter control. After the
shutter is released the control uses a light sensing device called a photocell to determine when enough light has been
received for a proper exposure and it then it closes the shutter automatically.

The shutter is located behind the lens, between the elements of the lens (between the lens shutter) or immediately
in front of the films (focal plane shutter).

The shutter is a sliding door that allows light to pass through the aperture (opening) onto the film. Different settings
on a small dial on the top of the camera determine how long the shutter will remain open. The aperture selector is on the body
of the lens. The numbers that indicate the size of the aperture are called f-numbers or f-stops. The f-stop is equal to the ratio
of the focal length of the lens to the diameter of the opening. The shutter speed and f-stop determine the exposure—that is,
the overall amount of light that will reach the film. However, even when the amount of light is constant, the effect may be
different. Photographers experiment with different combinations to achieve various effects.

The shutter, a spring-activated mechanical device, keeps light from entering the camera except during the interval
of exposure. Most modern cameras have focal-plane or leaf shutters. Some older amateur cameras use a drop-blade shutter,
consisting of a hinged piece that, when released, pulls across the diaphragm opening and exposes the film for about 1/30th of
a second.
In the leaf shutter, at the moment of exposure, a cluster of meshed blades springs apart to uncover the full lens aperture and
then springs shut. The focal-plane shutter consists of a black shade with a variable-size slit across its width. When released,
the shade moves quickly across the film, exposing it progressively as the slit moves.

DIAPHRAGM – The diaphragm changes the size of the aperture of the lens. Like a shutter with valuable speed, a
diaphragm regulates the amount of light reaching the film. The diaphragm also affects depth of field – the smaller the aperture
the greater the depth of field.

The diaphragm controls the size of the aperture in the same way as the iris of the eye, if you look at a cat’s eye
when it comes in out of the darkness you will that the irises have contracted to make the pupils bigger. After a few moments
in a bright light the irises expand and cause the pupils to become much smaller. The aperture of the camera must also be
larger in dim light and smaller in bright light.
The diaphragm is usually a ring of overlapping metal leaves, which can be adjusted. The control settings for the diaphragm
are referred to as f – stops and going from one f – stop to the next reduces the amount of light by one half. The common
setting are f /2.8, f/4, f/5.6, f/8, f/11, f/16 and f/22.

The diaphragm usually consists of a series of movable blades attached to a supporting ring. Its various positions
are called stops, or f – stops. The diaphragm is controlled by a hand operated ring or lever, or by automatic electromechanical
device. Simple cameras do not have diaphragm, so the aperture can not be changed.

Most cameras with diaphragms have a series of standard f- stop numbers marked on the lens mount, in some
cameras, theses numbers are also visible in the viewfinder. At each succeeding stop, the lens admits half as much light as at
the previous one.

As the shutter speed is increased, the aperture must be larger, if the same amount of light is to reach the film. The
amount of light reaching the film is the same at f/8 and 1/500 of a second as at f/11 and 1/250 ( the setting of f/8 provides
twice as much light f/11, but the shutter speed of 1/500 provides half as much light as 1/250).

In taking pictures, a photographer will often select a particular shutter speed and then adjust the f – stop for getting
the proper exposure or the photographer will select a particular f-stop and then adjust the shutter speed.

The diaphragm, a circular aperture behind the lens, operates in conjunction with the shutter to admit light into the
light-proof chamber. This opening may be fixed, as in many amateur cameras, or it may be adjustable. Adjustable
diaphragms are composed of overlapping strips of metal or plastic that, when spread apart, form an opening of the same
diameter as the lens; when meshed together, they form a small opening behind the centre of the lens. The aperture openings
correspond to numerical settings, called f-stops, on the camera or the lens.

The function of the Diaphragm (F/Number)

1. By expanding or contracting the diaphragm or increasing or decreasing the F/ number numerically it is

possible to regulate the amount of light passing through the lens reaching the sensitized material.

2. By expanding or increasing or decreasing the f/number numerically it is possible to control the depth of
field.

3. By expanding or contracting the diaphragm, it is possible to control the degree of sharpness due to lens
defects.

VIEWING AND FOCUSING DEVICES – The viewfinder shows the photographer the scene being photographed. It
maybe a viewing screen, a miniature lens system, or a sample wire frames.

Most modern cameras also have some sort of viewing system or viewfinder to enable the photographer to see,
through the lens of the camera, the scene being photographed. Single-lens reflex cameras (SLRs) all incorporate this design
feature, and almost all general-use cameras have some form of focusing system as well as a film-advance mechanism.
LENS APERTURE – Adjustable cameras are equipped with an iris diaphragm, a device located in or near the lens
and consisting of thin overlapping leaves that fold together to create a hole of continuously variable size. In this way the
aperture or lens opening, can be adjusted to admit more or less light as required. The diaphragm is usually marked with a
series of settings called STOPS, which are designated by F- NUMBERS, such as f/5.6 or f/5.8. The f/ number expresses the
ratio of focal length to aperture. The larger the number, the smaller the aperture.

To “stop down” or “close one stop” is to set the diaphragm control at the next smaller marked stop, for instance from
f/4 to f/6, or from f/6 to f/11. This reduces the amount of light admitted by one half. To open up one stop, means to set the
diaphragm control at the next wider aperture.

DEPTH OF FIELD - The lens aperture not only controls the amount of light entering the camera, it also affects
another fundamental aspect of the photograph – depth of field. Depth of field is the range in front of and behind a sharply
focused subject in which details also look sharp in the final photographic image. It depends on lens aperture, the focused
distance, and the focal length of the lens. A small lens aperture, great camera to subject distance, and focal length result in
greater depth of field.

SHUTTER SPEED AND MOTION – Shutter speed determines how effectively a moving object can be stopped, that
is, how sharply it can be reproduced without blurring, or streaking in the final image. With a fast shutter speed, the shutter is
opened only briefly and the moving object has little time to change its position before exposure is completed. With a slow
shutter speed, on the other hand, the shutter remains open for a relatively long time. Thus, the faster the shutter speed, the
sharper the moving object will appear on the final image, and the slower the shutter speed, the more blurred object will
appear.

The camera shutter must stop the subjects’ apparent speed or the speed at which its image move across the film,
regardless of the subjects’ actual motion through space. Factors such as distance, direction of motion, and focal length of the
lens must all be taken into consideration. Generally, the closer the moving subject is to the camera, the greater it’s apparent,
motion will be. Thus, if they wish to get sharp image, most photographers avoid extreme close – ups of moving subjects.

FILM TRANSPORT MECHANISM – Moves new, unexposed film into position for the next picture.

FILM ADVANCER – Necessary so that the exposed film can be transferred to the take up spool while the
unexposed film remain on the opposite side of the lens for another exposure.

FILM ADVANCE LEVER

FILM REWIND CRANK
FILM REWIND KNOB
FILM TAKE-UP SPOOL

SHUTTER SPEED DIAL – Controls the opening and closing of the shutter, regulates the quantity of light that
reaches and affects the sensitized material, a dial which sets the length of time in which the light is allowed to enter the
camera.

SHUTTER RELEASE BUTTON – The “click” of the camera that releases the shutter

FOCUSING MECHANISM – The mechanism that estimates the appropriate objects distance from the camera to
form a sharp or clear image on the photograph.

FOCUSING RING – The outer ring of the lens which is rotated or adjusted to obtain a clear and sharp photograph
and it enables the photographer to adjust focal range.

F-STOP RING
F-NUMBERS
ASA DIAL/SHUTTER SPEED DIAL
FLASH UNIT
FLASH TERMINAL
FLASH ACCESSORY SHOE
TIMER/SELF-TIMER
CABLE RELEASE
TRIPOD

CAMERA LENSES

Introduction
A camera lens is a transparent material made of glass or plastic, which has two opposite symmetrical and spherical
surfaces. A lens is also a piece of transparent material that has at least one curved surface. The lenses refract (bend) light
rays and in doing so can form images of an object. The image maybe larger, smaller or the same as the object itself.

The higher the numerical value of the shutter speed, the shorter will be the duration of the opening and closing of
the lens. As an effect only small amount of light will pass through the lens.

Artificial lenses are made of various transparent materials such as glass, plastics or crystals. Quartz crystals are
used to refract ultra violet light, which a very short wavelength.

Interchangeable lenses allow a photographer to capture a variety of pictures that would otherwise be difficult or
impossible to obtain with a single camera. For instance, a zoom lens may be used to photograph individual drops of dew on a
spider’s web. A telephoto lens might be used to shoot a close-up view of a dangerous or easily frightened wild animal. Other
options provided by special lenses include wide-angle lenses such as the fisheye lens, which curves outward to show a view
of 180 degrees or more.

The lens is as important a part of a camera as the body. Lenses are referred to in generic terms as wide-angle,
normal, and telephoto. The three terms refer to the focal length of the lens, which is customarily measured in millimetres.
Focal length is defined as the distance from the centre of the lens to the image it forms when the lens is set at infinity. In
practice, focal length affects the field of view, magnification, and depth of field of a lens.

A fourth generic lens type, the zoom lens, is designed to have a variable focal length, which can be adjusted
continuously between two fixed limits. Zoom lenses are especially useful in conjunction with single-lens reflex cameras, for
which they allow continuous control of image scale.

Principles of Lens Action

The ability of a lens to bring light to a focus or make it diverge derives from the fact that the velocity of light changes
as the light passes through different materials. Thus when a ray of light leaves the atmosphere and enters a lens, it slows
down. According to the angle at which it strikes the lens surface, it is refracted – that is, it changes direction. The ratio of
velocity of light in air to its velocity in the lens material is called the index of refraction of the material.

A lens refracts light rays in such a way that on of three things will occur:
1. The rays will come together at a point.
2. The rays will produce an image.
3. The rays will move in parallel lines or in diverging lines.

A LENS can be used to focus the light onto the film to produce a bright, clear and sharp image. The hole behind the
lens is called the aperture and on many cameras the size of the hole or aperture can be altered. The length of time that the
light is allowed to enter the camera is called the exposure and is controlled by the shutter. In its normal position the shutter is
closed and prevents the light entering the camera. Both the diaphragm and the shutter need to be adjusted according to the
amount of light that is available for taking a photograph.

All photographic lenses do the same basic job. Collect light rays from a scene in front of the camera and project
them as images unto the film at the back. However, the choice of lenses also plays a very important role in the creative
aspects of photography.
CAMERA LENSES CAN BE USED TO CONTROL THE

1. Amount of light that reaches the film.

2. Magnification of the image.
3. Lastly, area of the image to be recorded on the film.

TYPOLOGY OF LENSES

There are two types of lenses, the converging and diverging lens. As to converging lenses we have the double
convex, Plano convex and the concavo-convex. Under diverging lenses we have double concave, Plano concave and the
concavo concave.

1. CONVEX LENS – DIVERGING LENS

A convex lens causes light rays to converge, or come together, and is called a positive lens. A positive lens focuses
light form a distant source into visible image that appears on then opposite side of the lens to the object.

A convex lens is thicker in the middle than at the edges. When parallel rays of light pass through this type of lens,
they are bent inward and meet at a point called the focus. The distance from the center of the lens to the focus is known as
the focal length.

The size, position, and type of image produced by a converging lens vary according to the distance of the object
from the lens. If an object is more than one focal length from the lens, an inverted real image of it is formed on the opposite
side of the lens. Light rays from the object pass through a real image and can be focused on a screen. When an object is
located a distance of two focal lengths on a converging lens, the image is the same size as the object and is located on the
opposite side of the lens. A smaller image of the object can be obtained by moving the objects by more than two focal lengths
from the lens. Placing the object between one and two focal lengths from the lens can produce a larger image.

If the object is less than one focal length from the lens, no real image can be formed. Instead a magnified virtual
image is formed behind the object and is right side up. Light rays from the object do not pass through a virtual image, and
such an image cannot be focused on the screen.

A convex lens has a thick centre and thinner edges. Light passing through a convex lens is bent inward, or
made to converge. This causes an image of the object to form on a screen on the opposite side of the lens. The image is
in focus if the screen is placed at a particular distance from the lens that depends upon the distance of the object and the
focal point of the lens. This diagram shows how rays of light starting from a point, O, on the object, strike the lens and are
then brought to focus at another point, I. The same applies to every point on the object, as is shown by the pair of points P
and J; thus an image, exactly similar to the object is built up.

1. SIMPLE CONVEX – convexo – convex

2. SPECIAL CONVEX – special positive lens
a. – Plano – convex
b. – convexo – concave
2. CONCAVE LENS – DIVERGING LENS

Concave lens or negative lens spreads the light depends on the amount of curved on the faces of the lens. The
distance between the lens and the image it produces is called the FOCAL LENGTH. The shorter the focal length, the smaller
the image. The greater the curvature of the faces of the lens, the shorter its focal length will be. Lens that posses at least one
surface that curves inward. It is a diverging lens, spreading out those light rays that have been refracted to it. Concave lens is
thicker at the edges than they are at the center. Light rays passing through a diverging lens are bent outward. Diverging lens
form only virtual image.

SIMPLE CONCAVE – concavo – concave - Biconcave lens (with both surfaces curved inward)
SPECIAL CONCAVE – special negative lens
a. Plano - concave – lens with one flat surface and one concave.
b. Concavo – convex

A concave lens is curved inward; it is shaped like two dishes placed back-to-back. Light passing through a
concave lens bends outward, or diverges. Unlike convex lenses, which produce real images, concave lenses produce only
virtual images. A virtual image is one from which light rays only appear to come. This one appears as a smaller image just
in front of the actual object (in this case a shamrock). Concave lenses are generally prescribed for myopic, or short-
sighted, people. Concave lenses help the eyes to produce a sharp image on the retina instead of in front of it.
© Microsoft Corporation. All Rights Reserved.

3. COMPOUND LENSES

Simple lenses generally produce aberrated (imperfect) images. This imperfection in image formation can be
reduced using compound lenses.

GROUP OF LENSES ACCORDING TO THE ANGLE OF VIEW

1. Normal Lens – A lens with a focal length equal to the diagonal measure the image area. The image area of 35 mm
camera is 24x36 mm, thus a normal lens for any 35 mm SLR is 50 mm international standards, 50 mm lens may
have an actual focal length of 48 – 52 mm, and the normal lens has a picture angle of 5 degrees that correspond to
the viewing angle of the human eye.

CHARACTERISTICS:
 Optimum area coverage than any lens type.
 Minimum distortion and fewer common lens
defects.
 Angle of view equal to 75 degrees but not less than
45 degrees.

2. Wide Angle Lens – The wide-angle lens has a shorter focal length than the normal lens. As a result, it covers a
picture angle of 60 – 90 degrees. It enables photographing a widely extended scene from a close proximity or within
a confined area. The range for wide angles for 35 mm SLR cameras includes 8mm, 24mm, 28 mm, and 35 mm.
The 28 mm and 35 mm are the most important for general wide angle for police work.

CHARACTERISTICS:
 Reduced scale but increases area coverage
compared with any lens at the same distance.
 Increased deep perception at a given scale.
 Increased distortion toward the edges of the
negative material.
 Reducing illumination from the center toward the
edges of the negative material.
 Angle of view exceeds 75 degrees.

3. Telephoto Lens – as telephoto lens, or long focus lens has a longer focal length and provides a close up image of a
distant object. In contrast to the wide-angle lens, the telephoto lens covers a small field of view and a shallower
depth of field. Because of shallow depth of field, there will be lack of sharpness of the subject focus areas in the
photograph to be produced. Another characteristics of the telephoto lens is production of flat composition, far
objects appear enlarged while near objects do not appear proportionally large.

CHARACTERISTICS:
 Increase scale but reduced area coverage
compared to any lens type.
 Decreased depth perception.
 Image quality usually deteriorates which is
apparent when subject is in great motion.
 Angle of view less than 45 degrees.

Lenses beyond 58 mm are included in the group of telephoto lenses. For identification shots in police works, lenses
of 85 to 135 mm focal length are frequently used. Long tele lenses are those beyond 200 mm.

4. Super wide Angle Lenses – In this category are fish eye lenses with a 180 degrees angle of view. Focal lengths run
from an amazing 6 mm to about 18mm. F stop ranges begin at F 1.8 but average f 3.5 and f 4.

5. Macro Lenses – The word macro is derived from the Greek word and means, “ to enlarge “. In photographic terms,
a macro lens is designed with extended focusing capabilities to shoot a few inches from a subject. A lens used for
close up photography particularly in taking pictures in minute objects. Using a macro lens, the subject being
photographed will appear bigger than its actual size. This group of lens is most helpful in fingerprint work, in
recording evidences such as pollen grains, hair, fiber and the like.

Two Main Types of MACRO LENS:

- One is meant to be used on a held tripod mounted camera and ranges from 40 mm to about 90 mm with the
average about 25 mm.
- The other type is either a wide angle or a lens with a focal length with 100 mm or more and is designed with a close
up bellows attachment to the camera. The longer lenses give a larger image and are most suitable for static
subjects and painstaking photography.

6. Zoom Lenses – The macro zoom is relatively new in both long and short-range classes. By turning a ring on the
lens barrel, you are able to focus as close as three four inches and still use zoom capability. Such lens gives you
close – ups as well as variable focal lengths. and the macro zoom is taking this field. A final zoom category is the
variable- focal length lens that operates in the same manner as the zoom.

7. Special Purpose Lenses – Two special- purpose lenses in particular should be familiar to you. The first is adjustable
through movement of the front portion up and down for perspective control (PC). Architectural photographers
benefit using a PC lens that offers some control of perspective similar to the using the tilting front and back of a
view camera.
The other lens, a guide-number (GN) lens, includes a diaphragm mechanism that changes aperture as the lens is
focused to synchronize exposure and distance with specific flash attachment on the camera. A GN lens can be
handy, but the use of automatic electronic flash unit would make the GN lens unnecessary.

Incidentally, a number of compact 35 mm range finder cameras with fixed (non interchangeable) lenses are guide-
number equipped. As a flash unit slips into the accessory shoe on top of the camera a small pin is activated that
synchronizes change of aperture with focusing. In this way distant subjects are photographed through wider f tops
than close ones, giving the effect of exposure automation.

8. Add – On Teleconverter Lenses – Add-on lenses. Principal among add- on lenses is the fishnet lens that is screwed
into the front of a normal 35 mm camera lens, offering a super wide effect for less cost than a separate fisheye lens.

LENS DEFECTS

No lens is perfect in every respect. Usually a lens maker tries to find the best compromise among such qualities as
sharpness of definition, speed of light transmission, simplicity of construction and others. Special purpose lenses however are
computed for a single purpose only and in order to achieve the maximum of usefulness in one special field, other qualities are
sacrificed.
Except, the very finest lenses, traces of the following common lens defects will be found in all, such as chromatic
aberration, spherical aberration, curvilinear, distortion, curvature of field, astigmatism and others. No camera lens will produce
defects so exaggerated as the ones which will be demonstrated. However, even considerably less pronounced fault
manifestation maybe enough to produce fuzziness, which usually becomes more severe toward the edges of a picture.

ABERRATION in optics, is the failure of light rays to focus properly after they pass through a lens or reflect from a
mirror. Proper focus occurs when the light rays cross one another at a single point. ABERRATION occurs because of minute
variations in lenses and mirrors, and because different parts of the light spectrum are reflected or refracted by varying
amounts.

ABERRATION also defined as an optical imperfection responsible for image distortion. It can be avoided by
combining several lenses and by elimination of marginal rays refracted through the outer edges of the lens. Lenses or mirrors
that are sections of spheres produce spherical aberrations. If a beam of parallel rays reflects from a concave mirror, the rays
that reflects from the center of the mirror cross one another at a single point. The rays that reflects far from the center cross at
points closer to the mirror surface. The imaginary line connecting these points of focus is called a CAUSTIC.

A CAUSTIC appears as a bright line if it shines on a surface. For example, when sunlight shines through the open
top of a glass of milk and onto the curve interior acts as a mirror. Consequently, the light reflects onto the milk in a caustic
curve. Without aberration, a bright spot would appear on the milk. Convex lenses also produce spherical aberration. The light
rays that pass through the middle of the lens focus farther from the lens than do the rays that pass through the lens of the
edges. If the lens is in a camera, the image on this is blurry. To sharpen the image, a camera has a small opening called a
stop. The stop allows only the rays passing through the center of the lens to reach the film. Thus, the rays focus at one spot
on the film, and the picture is clear.

There are six ( 6 ) types of optical aberrations:

1. Spherical Aberration
2. Chromatic Aberrations
3. Astigmatism
4. Coma
5. Curvature of Field
6. Distortion

SPHERICAL ABERRATION
Aberration Geometrical optics predicts that rays of light emanating from a point are imaged by spherical optical
elements as a small blur. The outer parts of a spherical surface have a focal length different from that of the central area, and
this defect causes a point to be imaged as a small circle. The difference in focal length for the various parts of the spherical
section is called spherical aberration

Spherical Aberration is found in all lenses bounded by spherical aberration / surfaces. The marginal portions of the
lens bring rays of light to shorter focus than the central region. The image of a point in space is therefore not a point, but a
blur circle. Spherical aberration is the focusing at the different parts of spherical lens. This aberration occurs because light
hitting the outer parts of the lens is bent more sharply and comes to a focus sooner than that passing through the middle. In
spherical aberration, the image is blurred because different parts of a spherical lens or mirror have different focal lengths.

CHROMATIC ABERRATION

Chromatic aberration is the failure of different colored light rays to focus after passing through a lens, focusing of
light of different colors at different points resulting in a blurred image. When white light, which consists of colors, passes
through a lens, the lens bends the rays. The rays then cross one another on the other side. The violet rays bend more than
the other colors and focus close to the lens. The red rays bend the least and focus farther from the lens. Rays on the other
colors focus at points between these two points. In chromatic aberration the image is surrounded by colored fringes, because
light at different colors is brought to different focal points by a lens.

ASTIGMATISM

Astigmatism is the defect in which the light coming from an off-axis object point is spread along the direction of the
optic axis. If the object is a vertical line, the cross section of the refracted beam at successively greater distances from the
lens is an ellipse that collapses first into a horizontal line, spreads out again, and later becomes a vertical line

Astigmatism is the failure of a lens to produce a point image of an object point. Such condition occurs when the lens
surfaces are not symmetrical with respect to the principal axis of the lens. An extreme example would be one surface is
spherical and the other is cylindrical, or when the lens surfaces are perfectly spherical but the beam of light from the object
point passes through the lens very obliquely.

In astigmatism, the image appears elliptical or cross shaped because of an irregularity in the curvature of the lens.
This is the inability of the lens to bring horizontal and vertical lines in the subject to the same plane of focus in the image.

COMA

The result of differences in lateral magnification for rays coming from an object point not on the optic axis is an
effect called coma. If coma is present, light from a point is spread out into a family of circles that fit into a cone, and in a plane
perpendicular to the optic axis the image pattern is comet-shaped. Coma may be eliminated for a single object-image point
pair, but not for all such points, by a suitable choice of surfaces.

A pear – shaped image of small circle or point near the edges of the image plane.

Coma occurs when light falling obliquely on the lens and passing through different circular zones is brought to a
focus at different distances from the plane film. A spot of light appears to have a tail, rather like a comet. In come, the images
appear progressively elongated toward the edge of the field of view. The term Coma was coined 1733 by French
mathematician Alexis Clairaut ( 1713 – 1765 ).

CURVATURE OF FIELD

A curved, concave, or saucer – shaped image of an object which has a flat surface produced by simple lens.
In curvature aberration the relation of the images of the different points are incorrect with respect to one another. In
curvature, the images of the different points of the plane image lie on a curved surface, with points at the edge of the field
lying nearer to the lens than those at the center. In curvature, the images distance is different for different points of the same
object due to their differing distance from the axis.

The fuzziness increases toward the edge of the film. Refocusing brings different circle into focus but others now are
blurred.

DISTORTION

Distortion arises from a variation of magnification with axial distance and is not caused by a lack of sharpness in the
image.

When there exists a different magnification for rays at different angles distortion exists. Any straight light extending
across the field is considered curved and for different lenses the curvature maybe from or toward the center. The distortion is
called barrel distortion (in the first case). It is the common type of curvilinear defect. The second distortion is the pincushion
defect.

OTHER OPTICAL DEFECTS

These defects are usually corrected when the lens is designed; however, they can occur if the lens is misused or
through normal wear.

1. FLARE or OPTICAL FLARE

In a result of double reflection from inner lens surfaces. It exhibits itself as a misty haze, or a cloudy semicircular
patch of light, which may cover part or the entire image. This doubly reflection may form an image called a ghost
image.
2. MECHANICAL FLARE
Are bright spots on the film caused by stray light from worn shiny parts of the lens such as the stop, shutter lens
mount, or from the camera itself.
3. LIGHT LOSS
Most corrected lenses is coated with a substance which will reduce one type of flare ( optical ) and which will also
increase the optics ability to transmit light thus reducing light loss.
4. STRAY LIGHT
Can be reduced or eliminated by using the proper lens shade placed on the front of the lens as shield.

SENSITIZED MATERIAL

Sensitized Material refers to films and papers that are composed of emulsion containing SILVER HALIDE crystals
suspended in gelatin and coated on a transparent or reflective support.

FILM

A film consists basically, of a random scattering of light sensitive silver halides suspended in a layer of animal
gelatin which is coated onto acetate support or base.

THE FILM STRUCTURE

A. STRUCTURE OF WHITE and BLACK FILM

1. TOP COATING (TOP LAYER) – scratch resistant coating also called gelatin coating, an over coating composed of
a thin transparent layer of a hard gelatin which help protect the silver halide emulsion from scratches and abrasions.
The hard gelatin, which is derived from cows, contains SULFUR. The SULFUR is very much compatible with silver
halides.
2. EMULSION LAYER – SILVER SALT + GELATIN – A layer composed of silver compounds which are light sensitive
and halogens (such as bromide, chloride and iodide bromide in fast film emulsion). A silver compound when
combined with a halogen becomes SILVER HALIDE. Silver Halides are rare compound that are responsible in
forming the so called the LATENT IMAGE in the photographic film.
3. FILM BASE – commonly made of cellulose or other material such as paper, plastic, or glass, which supports the
emulsion layer and is coated with a non-curling antihalation backing.
4. ANTIHALATION BACKING – a black dye applied on the rare surface of the film. Its function is to absorb light that
may penetrate the emulsion thus making the image sharper since it suppresses double image. It prevents halo
formation in the photograph. The black dye is removed during processing by one of the chemicals in the developer.
Its second function is to control the film from curling inwards. (Towards the emulsion surface).

B. STRUCTURE OF COLOR FILM

1. TOP LAYER – sensitive to blue light only, green and red light passes through it without exposing the color halide.
2. EMULSION LAYER

a. Blue filter
b. Yellow filter – CAREY LEA silver suspended in gelatin, it is coated between the top and second layer to
absorb any penetrating blue light but allowing green and red light to pass through.
c. Green filter – a layer that is orthochromatic, the layer sensitive to blue light (which can not reach it) and
green, but not to red light pass on to the bottom of the emulsion layer.
d. Red filter – a panchromatic layer, sensitive to blue (which can’t reach it) and red. It is also sensitive to
green light but to a slight degree that is insignificant.

3. ANTIHALATION BACKING / COATING

4. FILM BASE – Plastic film base
Emulsions are thin, gelatinous, light-sensitive coatings on film that react chemically to capture the color and
shadings of a scene. The four layers pictured above show the same image as it would appear on different emulsions in
photographic film after the first stage of developing. For black-and-white photographs, only one emulsion is required,
because it is the amount of light, not the colour that activates the chemical reaction. Color film requires three layers of
emulsion, each of which is sensitive to only one of the primary colors of light: blue, green, or red. As light passes through
the layers, each emulsion records areas where its particular color appears in the scene. When developed, the emulsion
releases dye that is the complementary color of the light recorded: blue light activates yellow dye, green light is magenta,
and red light is cyan (bluish-green). Complementary colors are used because they produce the original color of the scene
when the film is processed.
Color films are more complex than black-and-white films because they are designed to reproduce the full range
of color tones as color, not as black, white, and grey tones. The design and composition of most color transparency films
and color negative films are based on the principles of the subtractive color process, in which the three primary colors,
yellow, magenta, and cyan (blue-green), are combined with their complements to reproduce a full range of colors. Such
films consist of three silver halide emulsions on a single layer. The top emulsion is sensitive only to blue. Beneath this is a
yellow filter that blocks blues but transmits greens and reds to the second emulsion, which absorbs greens but not red.
The bottom emulsion records reds.
When color film is exposed to light by a camera, latent black-and-white images are formed on each of the three
emulsions. During processing, the chemical action of the developer creates actual images in metallic silver, just as in
black-and-white processing. The developer combines with dye couplers incorporated into each of the emulsions to form
cyan, magenta, and yellow images. Then the film is bleached, leaving a negative image in the primary colors. In color
transparency film, unexposed silver-halide crystals not converted to metallic silver during the initial development are
converted to positive images in dye and silver during a second stage of development. After the development action has
been arrested, the film is bleached and the image fixed on it.

C. TYPOLOGY OF FILMS

Exposure is made simultaneously in the three layers. Each layer responding to only one of the additive primary
colors (red, blue and green). After exposure and during the film processing, the yellow color of the filter layer is destroyed.
Films maybe classified according to their forms and types. Basically, films that are available in the markets today
are in various forms. They can be in rolls, in cartridges and cut sheets. Light sensitivity of the film can be ascertained through
its various types.

There are some films that are sensitive to all colors while there is some that are sensitive only to one or specific set
of colors.

Classification according to USE

1. BLACK and WHITE FILM – for B and W Photography

2. COLOR FILM – films that have names ending in COLOR
- Color negatives for prints
The negative in this type of film is divided into blocks and is color positive. It is composed of hue dyes. In between
the blue and green hues, yellow gelatin is placed so that the blue rays of light would not affect the green hue and in between
the green and the red dye, magenta gelatin is placed so that the green rays of light would not affect the red hue dye of the
emulsion.

3. CHROME FILMS – films with names ending in CHROME

- For color transparency (slides); films that are exposed by slides, mounted in a cardboard for slide
projectors: reversal type.
4. X – RAY FILM – films that are sensitive to X- radiations

Types based on FILM SPEED (according to light sensitivity)

1. FAST FILM – contains numerous number of large grains of silver halides that usually develop in groups; film that
are very sensitive to light. When the available is dim, this type of film is the best choice because of the low reflection
power of the subject against a background. It is low in contrast but high in brightness. However, the use of fast
speed film is not advisable due to its graininess result.

2. SLOW FILM – film that require longer period of time to completely expose their emulsion to light; film with fine
grains of silver halides.

Film Speed Film is classified by speed as well as by format. Film speed is defined as an emulsion's degree of
sensitivity to light, and determines the amount of exposure required to photograph a subject under given lighting conditions.
The manufacturer of the film assigns a standardized numerical rating in which high numbers correspond to “fast” emulsions
and low numbers to “slow” ones. The standards set by the International Standards Organization (ISO) are used throughout
the world, although some European manufacturers still use the German Industrial Standard, or Deutsche Industrie Norm
(DIN). The ISO system evolved by combining the DIN system with the ASA (the industry standard previously used in the
United States). The first number of an ISO rating, equivalent to an ASA rating, represents an arithmetic measure of film
speed, whereas the second number, equivalent to a DIN rating, represents a logarithmic measure.

Low-speed films are generally rated from ISO 25/15 to ISO 100/21, but even slower films exist. Kodak's Rapid
Process Copy Film, a special process film, has an ISO rating of 0.06/-12. Films in the ISO 125/22 to 200/24 range are
considered medium speed, while films above ISO 200/24 are considered fast. In recent years, many major manufacturers
have introduced super fast films with ISO ratings higher than 400/27. And certain films can be pushed well beyond their
ratings by exposing them as though they had a higher rating and developing them for a greater length of time to
compensate for the underexposure.
DX coding is a recent innovation in film and camera technology. DX-coded cartridges of 35-mm film have printed
on them a characteristic panel corresponding to an electronic code that tells the camera the ISO rating of the film as well as
the number of frames on the roll. Many of the newer electronic cameras are equipped with DX sensors that electronically
sense this information and automatically adjust exposures accordingly.
Differences in sensitivity of a film emulsion to light depend on various chemical additives. For example,
hypersensitizing compounds increase film speed without affecting the film's color sensitivity. High-speed film can also be
manufactured by increasing the concentration of large silver-halide crystals in the emulsion. In recent years, a generation
of faster, more sensitive films has been created by altering the shape of crystals. Flatter silver-halide crystals offer greater
surface area. Films incorporating such crystals, such as Kodak's T-grain Kodacolour films, have a correspondingly greater
sensitivity to light.
The grain structure of faster films is generally heavier than that of slower films. Grain structure may give rise to a
mottled pattern on prints that have been greatly enlarged. Photographs taken with slower-speed film appear less grainy
when enlarged. Because of the small size of their silver-halide grains, slow-speed films generally have a higher resolution
—that is, they can render fine details with greater sharpness—and can produce a broader range of tones than fast films.
When tonal range and sharpness of detail are not as important as capturing a moving subject without blurring, fast films are
used.

Types based on SPECTRAL SENSITIVITY (color sensitivity)

Spectral sensitivity – responsiveness of the film emulsion to the different wavelength of light source.

1. MONOCHROMATIC FILM – film that is sensitive to a single color of light (for white and black)
a. BLUE SENSITIVE FILM – a film specially treated that makes it more sensitive to blue rays of light
b. ULTRA-VIOLET SENSITIVE FILM – sensitive to UV rays only

2. PANCHROMATIC FILM – sensitive to ultra-violet rays, and all light found in the visible spectrum, especially to
blue and violet light. It is suitable for general use in the preparation of black and white photography because it
produces the most natural recording of colors.

Panchromatic films are further sub classified according to their degree of sensitivity to each primary colors or light.
There are three classes of panchromatic film. They are the following:

a. Process Panchromatic Film – permit short exposures under average lighting condition and has the
advantage of fine grain structure.
b. Grain Panchromatic Film
c. High Speed Panchromatic Film – designed originally for photographing objects under adverse lighting
condition.

Contrast of the panchromatic film usually varies with the color of the light and using filters can attain proper contrast
in photograph.

3. ORTHOCHROMATIC FILM – film that is sensitive to UV rays, blue and green colors, but not to red. Red portions
are recorded as dark tones, while green and blue parts appear as light tones when printed. This type of film is
popular in the market as the KODALITH FILM.
4. INFRARED FILM – a special type of film that is sensitive to infrared and ultra-violet radiation (radiation beyond the
human eye’s sensitive). It is also sensitive to all the colors found in the visible spectrum. Although the infrared film
is sensitive to blue color, a red filter can exclude the blue color. The red filter transmits only long red and infrared
radiation. IR film is useful in penetrating haze because of its longer wavelength. In Investigative Photography, it is
useful in laboratory analysis of questioned documents, in discovering old ( or faded ) tattoos under the skin, and in
the construction of camera types.

D. FILM SPEED – (EMULSION SPEED)

EMULSION SPEED – the sensitivity of the film to light; the extent to which emulsion is sensitive to light.
The light sensitivity of the film is also known as the FILM SPEED. Speed of the film is determined through the numerical film
speed labels given by the film manufacturer. There are two classical speed ratings that became popular:

1. ASA (American Standard Association) rating - This is expressed in arithmetical value system. The speed in
numbers is directly proportional to the sensitivity of the material. A film with an arithmetical value of 400 is four times
as fast as one with a speed of 100.
2. DIN (Deutche Industrie Norman) rating – This is expressed in logarithmic value system. In this system, an increase
of 3 degree doubles the sensitivity of the film.
 ISO rating (International Standards Organization) – combination of ASA and DIN rating. The higher the
ISO number, the more sensitive the film to light and the pictures can be taken indoors or in dim light
condition.
 ISO 100-200 – film for general purpose

One film maybe rated ISO – 100, and another film ISO- 200. This means that the 200 films are twice as fast ( twice
more sensitive to light ) than the ISO-100 film. Hence, it would only require half the amount of light to produce a satisfactory
negative. Each time the film speed is doubled, it is equal to one f / stop higher. For instance, in the example given, if ISO-1 is
exposed at f / 8, then ISO-200 should be exposed at f / 11 to produce the same negative image quality. Any film above ISO-
200 can be considered grain. The suggested uses of the following film exposure under varying conditions are:

1. ISO – 25 – slowest speed that natural condition will permit, for best color and sharpness.
2. ISO – 100 to ISO – 200 – for general purpose
3. ISO – 100 – slow speed film; needs sufficient light and low shutter speed; has fine grains of silver halides; produce
sharp image.
4. ISO – 200 – twice as fast and as sensitive as ISO – 100; has large grains; produce large sharp image.
5. ISO – 400 – for dim light or with moving subject
6. ISO – 1000 and up – for extremely low light conditions or for fast moving objects

 When DX is attached to the film speed, it means that the film automatically sets the film speed dial (ASA
dial).
E. FILM SIZE

1. 110 – for cartridge loading pocket cameras

2. 126 – for older and larger cartridge loading type
3. 120 – variation of the 2.25 inch-wide roll film that was first introduced for box cameras a decade ago and now used
in professional medium format cameras like the Hasselbald or Mamiya.
4. 135 – commonly known as the mm. so named because the film is 35 mm wide
5. 220 – the same with 120 but twice as many exposure

FILM AND LIGHT

An alteration in the spectral response of a photographic material brought about by a change in the spectral
distribution of energy in the light source used for exposure is a difference in a relative brightness in which different colors are
reproduced by the photographic material.

A comparison of the relative brightness in which the different colors of the original are produced by two light sources
shows that the employment of tungsten illumination with its greater abundance of long wave radiation, has resulted in yellow,
orange and red being produced relatively lighter, and violet and blue darker, than with sunlight. The relative brightness in
which different colors are reproduced depends on the distribution of spectral sensitivity with the particular light source used
for the exposure. The greater the effective sensitivity in any particular part of the spectrum, the greater the density of the
negative and the lighter the tone of gray in which the corresponding color sensation is represented in the print.

EXPOSURE

Photographic exposure is defined as the product of illumination and time. The unit of exposure is usually in meter
candle second which is equivalent to exposure produced by a light source of one candlepower, in the second at a distance of
one meter from the surface of the sensitive material.

When light is brought in its focus by the camera lens and strikes the front surface of the film emulsion, a number of
tiny crystals of light sensitive silver halide rendered developable forming later the image is known as the latent photographic
image. This image becomes visible by chemical development. This image conforms to the shape of the object points in the
subject according to the capability of the lens and film.
While at this point the light had done all that it has to do, however it continue to penetrate the emulsion layers
throughout whose depth lie suspended millions of other light sensitive halide crystals. As the ray moves deeper and deeper
into the emulsion, it moves farther and farther away from its original point of entry into the emulsion, and parts are scattered
off in every direction. During this travel it has struck and therefore made developable, many more light sensitive crystals than
it originally affected to form the latent image at the surface of the emulsion. Finally, it bumps into the anti- halation backing
and is absorbed.

FILTERS

Filters made of gelatin or glass; filters are used in front of a camera lens to alter the color balance of light, to
change contrast or brightness, to minimize haze, or to create special effects. In black-and-white photography, color filters
are used with panchromatic film to transmit light of the matching color while blocking light of a contrasting color. In a
landscape photograph taken with a red filter, for example, some of the blue light of the sky is blocked, causing the sky to
appear darker and thereby emphasizing clouds. Under a blue sky, a yellow filter produces a less extreme effect because
more blue light is transmitted to the film. The No. 8 yellow filter is often used for outdoor black-and-white photography
because it renders the tone of a blue sky in much the same way that the human eye perceives it.
Conversion filters, light-balancing filters, and color-compensating filters are all widely used in color photography.
Conversion filters change the color balance of light for a given film. Tungsten films, for example, are designed and
balanced for the color temperature of amber tungsten light. Exposed in daylight, they will produce pictures with a bluish
cast. A series 85-conversion filter can correct this. Daylight film, on the other hand, balanced for sunlight at noon, which
has a greater concentration of blue wavelengths than tungsten light, will have a yellow-amber cast when exposed under
tungsten light. A series 80-conversion filter corrects this problem.
Light-balancing filters are generally used to make small adjustments in color. These pale-toned filters eliminate
undesirable colorcasts or add a general warming hue. Color-compensating (CC) magenta filters can balance greenish
fluorescent light for daylight or tungsten film. Another type of filter, the polarizer, is used primarily to reduce reflection from
the surface of shiny subjects. Polarizing filters are also used in color photography to increase color saturation.
Photographic filters maybe divided into four classes: a) color filters b) viewing filters c) neutral density filters and d)
polarizing filters

COLOR FILTERS – Are used to control the relative tone values in which colors are rendered by the photographic
process, to lighten or darkened particular colors or to obtain color separation records for color photography works.

A color filter maybe defined as an optically homogenous filter in which the absorption of light and transmission of
light varies with the wavelength.

 Blue Filters – A blue filter can be used effectively when photographing blood in black and white. When used
outdoors as blue filters will make the sky, or any blue object appears white in photograph.
 Green Filters – Are now used in place of blue filters for photographing blood.
 Yellow Filters – Yellow filters cut through haze to certain extent and can be used with good results to photograph an
accident on a hazy day.

VIEWING FILTER – Are designed to show by direct observation the relative values in which colors will be
reproduced by a particular type of sensitized without or with a given filter.

NEUTRAL DENSITY FILTER – Are used to reduce the light intensity to prevent over exposure.

POLARIZING FILTER – Are used primarily to control light reflected from highly polished surfaces, metallic objects
and others.

The Principle of Color Filters

Objects are distinguished from their surroundings by the contrast, which may be the result of a difference in
brightness or color. At times parts of a subject may differ slightly in brightness yet the contrast due to difference in color is
very marked to the eye. For example red and green colors show a striking difference to the eye yet when photograph on a
panchromatic film the brightness difference is very slight to be notice by the eye. To show the difference the use of a green
filter will render the green color lighter and the red color darker (in the print or positive).
To render a color lighter in effect than it would appear, a filter, which selectively transmits light of the same color,
should be used. To render a color darker a filter, which absorbs the color, should be used. To transmit means to allow or to
pass through while to absorb means to stop partially or wholly.

Filter Factor

A photographic material exposed to such filtered radiation will receive a small amount of light than one without any
filter. To compensate for the loss of radiation because of the absorption of the filter, the shutter speed should be increased or
a longer time in opening and closing or wider lens aperture, or an increase in the intensity of the light source is necessary.
Filter factors depend upon:
1. Absorption characteristics of the filter.
2. The subject
3. The spectral sensitivity of the emulsion
4. The processing conditions.

The general effects of filter may be given as below:

Color of Subject Rendered Lighter Rendered Darker

Red Filters F, A or G Filter B or C-5

Green G, X-1, X-2 Filter A or C-5
Blue Filter A A, F, G, or B
Magenta Filter F or A Filter B
Yellow Filter F or G Filter C-5
Orange Filter G or A Filter C-5

Filter Guide

G---- Deep Yellow

B---- Green
X-1, X-2 - - - Lighter Green
A or F - - - - Shades of Red

SENSITIZED PAPER (PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPER)

The result of photography in its final form is the photograph. The materials necessary to produce a photograph
(POSITIVE PRINT) are a sensitized paper. It has emulsion that is coated with opaque material like paper.

A. STRUCTURE OF THE PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPER

After the process of producing the negative image is produced from the negative, which is a true presentation of the
relative brightness of all parts of the object and is now called a print. A print is ordinarily made on paper that is coated with
light sensitive emulsion. This emulsion is similar to the. Basic layers of printing paper are:
1. Emulsion Layer – the layer containing minute silver suspended in gelatin; the layer of chemical needed to
reproduce the opposite tone of the negative print.
2. Baryta Layer – a gelatin layer containing Baryta crystals (barium oxide particles) to increase the reflectivity of the
paper.
3. Base – made of hardened white paper, which must be chemically pure to ensure that it will not interfere with the
chemical processes to which the emulsion is subjected. Available either in single or double weight paper.

In the preparation of photographic papers, there are three important factors to be considered, the:
1. Type of emulsion
2. Contrasting light rays and
3. Physical characteristics

Each type of emulsion has its own substance and use in the preparation of photographs. The types of emulsion use
in photo papers are:
1. Silver Chloride emulsion
2. Silver Bromide emulsion
3. Silver Chlorobromide emulsion

B. TYPES OF PHOTOGRAPHIC PAPERS

BASED ON EMULSION USED

1. SILVER CHLORIDE PAPER – contains silver chloride emulsion; grained and produce deep black images; used for
contact printing. Its sensitivity to light is low. Generally, the size of the positive print is the same as the size of the
negative used and usually it will give blue-black tone if properly developed.
2. SILVER BROMIDE PAPER – contains silver bromide emulsion. Light sensitivity of this type is faster than the silver
chloride paper. This photographic paper is used for projection printing or enlarging process wherein the negative
image is projected or enlarged. If properly developed, the silver bromide paper will give a black tone.
3. SILVER CHLOROBROMIDE PAPER – contains a combination of silver chloride emulsion; its emulsion speed lies
between that of chloride and bromide papers; used both for contact and projection printing. The sensitivity of this
paper is either slow or fast. The slow emulsion is used for contract printing while the fast emulsion is used for
projection printing.
4. VARIABLE CONTRAST PAPER – combines the contrast ranges in one paper, it uses a special Chlorobromide
emulsion that produces varying contrast responses upon exposure to different colored light.

The manufacturer of the films according to their own ideas classifies the contrast range of photographic paper. They
produce different photographic papers intended for the specific contrast of the negatives to be printed. Generally, this contrast
range is classified into four: They are the following:
1. Low Contrast
2. Normal and Medium Contrast
3. Hard Contrast
4. Very Hard or Extra Hard Contrast

The low contrast paper is usually suitable to a very contrast negative to produce a normal print or photograph. On
the other hand, the high or hard contrast is suitable to a very low contrast paper is suitable to a very low contrast negative to
compensate for lack of brilliance and produce a normal print or photographs.

Photographic papers are made with different characteristics. They are the combination of thickness and finish. The
texture maybe smooth, rough or linen, its finest maybe glossy with a very smooth surface texture. Other type of textures may
produce a mate or semi-glossy finish in rough or linen texture.

The paper base of the photographic paper maybe either white or tinted. Its weight or thickness maybe either
lightweight or single-weight or double-weight.

The choice of photographic paper for printing will depend upon the purpose of the photographs to be made. Black
and White object are usually printed in a white base photographic paper. Reproduction of photographs would give satisfactory
results if printed on glossy white photographic paper. For portrait photograph, a cream paper base photographic paper is
recommended and for law enforcement photography, the smooth photographic paper is necessary so that the detail of the
image appear and appreciated by the viewers.

c
No. 1 ---- No. 2 ---- No. 3 ---- No. 4

Photographic papers are supplied in different grades. Numbers and or descriptive names, # 4 or hard, # 3 or
medium, # 2 or normal, # 1 or soft contrast designates them. The type of paper to be used is frequently the opposite in the
name to the type of negative. For instance, hard paper is used for thin, and normal paper is used for the so-called normal
negative.

ACCORDING TO PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS

Photographic paper is made with different characteristics. They are the combination of thickness and finish.
Photographic papers are supplied according to weight or thickness of the base, surface, color and contrast.

1. WEIGHT

A. Light Weight – are used when the thickness of the paper is not a consideration and high
degree of flexibility is necessary. Intended for purposes, which involve folding.
B. Single Weight – are paper used for small print or print which need to be mounted on solid
and fine details are necessary in the production. Used only for ordinary photographic purposes.
C. Double Weight – generally used for large prints because they stand up better under rough
treatment.

2. SURFACE TEXTURE

A. Glossy Papers – are preferred where fine detail and brilliant images are required.
B. Semi – mate Papers – are with decided textures which obscure fine details
C. Rough Papers – used for large prints or where breadth rather than detail is necessary.

3. COLOR

A. White – are preferred for cold effect

B. Cream – are preferred for pictorial effect, portraits, landscapes or when warmth effect is desired.
C. Buff Papers – are preferred for tone prints.

The choice of photographic paper for printing will depend upon the purpose of the photographs to be made. Black
and White object are usually printed in a white-based photographic paper. Reproduction of photographs would give
satisfactory results if printed in glossy white-based photographic paper. For portrait photograph, a cream based photographic
paper is recommended. For law enforcement photography, the smooth photographic paper is necessary so that the details of
the image appear and appreciated by the viewer.

GRADE OF PRINTING PAPERS

Because of the fact that all negative do not print best on one kind of paper, and in order to permit printing for special
effects, photographic papers is made in several different grades of contrast and surface texture. Velox paper made by Kodak
offers six degrees of contrast and glossy surface.

VELOX No. 0 – used for printing from extremely contrast negatives, the low contrast in the paper sensitizing
counteracts the high contrast in the negative to give a new print.
VELOX No. 1 – used for high contrast negative
VELOX No. 2 – a paper for normal contrast used with normal negatives
VELOX No. 3 – used for negatives that have weak contrast
VELOX No. 4 – provides for sufficient contrast to compensate for very thin or weak negatives. It is useful in printing
pictures which high contrast is desired
VELOX No. 5 – for flat negative that is unprintable
Forensic Photography
Forensic photography sometimes referred to as forensic imaging or crime scene photography, is the art of
producing an accurate reproduction of a crime scene or an accident scene using photography for the benefit of a court or to
aid investigation. It is part of process of evidence collecting. It provides investigator with photos of victim place and item
involved in the crime scene. Picture of accidents show broken machinery, or a car crash, and so on. Photography of this kind
involves choosing correct lighting, accurate angling of lenses, and a collection of different viewpoints. Scale, like items of
length measurement or object of known size, are often used in the picture so that dimensions of items are recorded on the
image.

The propose of crime scene photography is to provide a visual record of the crime scene and related areas; to
record the initial appearance of the crime and physical evidence; to provide investigators and others with the permanent
record subsequent analysis of the scene; and to provide the permanent record to the court. Crime scene photography is one
most important steps I the entire investigation process. As one of the primary documentation component, systematic,
organized visual record of an undisturbed crime scene must be achieved.

Forensic Photographer

Commonly referred to as a crime scene photographer or an evidence photographer is a professional photographer

who skilled in the art of producing only the most exact, detailed photographs that record the crime scene ant the physical
evidence within the crime scene as objectively and accurately as possible.

Task of scene of the crime operation`s ( SOCO) Forensic photographer

1. Photograph entire area before it is entered.

2. photograph victim, crowd and vehicles.
3. Photograph entire scene with general, medium, close-up coverage and extreme close-up view using
measurement scale when appropriate.
4. Photograph major evidence items before they are moved. Coordinate this effort with Sketcher, Evidence
Custodian and Evidence recovery personnel.
5. Photograph all latent fingerprint, and other impression evidence before lifting and casting is accomplished.
6. Photograph blueprints, map and previous photographs of the scene as required.
7. Take final photographs to show final condition as released.

Importance of crime scene Photography

1. Permanent Record
A permanent record of the crime scene is considered indispensable to a successful presentation of the
casa in court. A crime scene that is altered thought carelessness and hasted can never be restored ti its
exact original condition.
2. Significance of Certain Aspects of the Crime Scene
Also, in the initial stages of investigation, the significance of certain aspects of the scene may not be
evident, although later they may vitally affect the issues in the case. The first step in the investigation of
any crime is to photograph all aspect of the crime scene completely and accurately before any of the
object of evidence are removed or otherwise disturbed. Photographs should also be taken after a body or
bodies have been removed. It is always better to take to many photographs than to few.
3. Reconstruction of Crime scene
A study of photographs can be also assist the trained investigator or crime scene specialist
Procedure In Photographing Crime Scene

1. Start taking photography of the crime scene as soon as passible with case identifier.
Case Identifier is a printed paper attached in plate bearing of provincial/city/or satellite office code, case
number, photographer`s initial and date of the crime scene processing. This is designed in order to
establish an additional facts reference of the crime scene that must appeared on the photographs
2. Observe the progression of genera, medium and close view of the scene
3. Take the photographs of the evidence in situ first without case identifier, evidence number, scale if necessary prior
to collection
Photo Evidence Number Are used in crime scene photographs to indicate where each piece of evidence
is found. Usually two photographs are taken of each scene: one with photo evidence number and one
without
Forensic Photography Scales this provide a geometrical reference in the photographic documentation of
evidence. The presence of such scales in an image allow investigators to reconstruct the dimensional
context of the scene and provides a means to reproduce one-to one photographs of physical evidence. In
some cases, Information extracted from the reconstruction of the scene provided evidence in court.
4. Take Photographs from eye level, when feasible, to present scene as would be observe by normal view
5. Apply overlapping photographs.
6. Record every Photograph taken

Sequential Photographs of the crime Scene

Each Crime has an individuality features that should be photographed. Keep in mind the nature on the offense and
try to show those features that establish the element of the offence. Photographs should be taken of;

1. View of exterior of the building/ vehicle, with relation to other building/ vehicles, roads, streets etc.
2. Points of entry, outside and inside
3. Points of exit, inside and outside.
4. Condition(s) of the crime scene
5. Area from which valuable articles were removed
6. Articles left at the scene.
7. Tool mark and impression of shoes or tire tracks
8. Fingerprint and footprints, as well as articles on which these print may found.

Three types of range photographs

1. General View or Long-range
General view or long -range photographs of the overall scene fundamentally are taken to
portray the areas as if a person viewing the scene is seeing it from the standing position.
To obtain this result, the photographer takes the photograph with the camera at eye level. The purpose of
general view is to focus and establish the location of the crime scene to fixed point of referenced serving
as its permanent citation. Fixed point of referenced means those unmovable object in the crime scene like
tree, building, electric post etc.
2. Medium View or Mid-range
Medium View or Mid-range are taken in a manner which portray the scene from approximately
ten (10) to twenty (20) feet of distance from the subject matter. In order that the view be permitted to
associate the crime scene with separate areas of the scene photographed, these areas should contain
sufficient detail to permit the viewer this association. This is designed in order to concentrate on the
features of the offense, which includes the full body shot of the victim or the groups of evidence.
3. Close-up view or Close-up Range
Close-up view or Close-up range photographs are normally taken approximately five (5) feet or
less from the subject matter. The attention of close-up photography is directed to objects which
could not effectively be seen in general view or medium view photographs. This angel center on
the result of the crime thru taking the half body shot of the victim having of wound or damage.
Making in The Field of View
Measuring devices such as rulers, yardstick, and tape measure should be used to show the relative size of, and
distance between objects, or the degree of magnification of the enlargement. The marker should be placed beside the object
in a manner that will not obscure any important piece of the evidence. In documentation and small-object photographs a six
inch ruler placed at the bottom or just below the item of the evidence will enable the photographer to determine the degree of
enlargement quickly and also show the relative size of the object in the photographic exhibit. Many times, courts object to the
use of ruler and making devices that appear in photographs of the crime scene. Therefore, photographs should be taken in
two ways first without the maker and the with them

Photographic log
Documentation of the process of the crime scene photography which record the overall medium, and close-up
views of the scene; a log is procedure representing the technical and descriptive information concerning the photographic
task

Macrophotography
Known as photomicrography or macrography, is extreme close-up photography, usually of very small subject, in
which the size of the subject in the photograph is greater than life size, though macrophotography technically refers to the art
of making large photographs.

Photomicrography
It is the practice of photographing microscopic object or creature, usually for scientific purposes. Photomicrography
is widely used in forensic laboratory and medical research, as well other fields that require study of microscopic details. This
became an important tool for examining trace evidence, tiny details than can connect a suspect to a crime scene. Camera
zoom lenses, and sometimes mirrors, to enlarge a point while retaining clear focus. Early photomicrography involved complex
arrangement of the cameras and microscope. In some cases, the camera`s lens was actually removed, making the
microscope effectively serve as its lens. Digital technology has eliminated the need for such painstaking device alignment;
microscopic image is processed as digital data. This data can be saved on a computer, store as a still image or video, and
enlarge on the screen, all while the object is still under the microscope. Photomicrography may be best known in modern
times for its use in processing trace evidence from the crime scenes. Trace evidence result from the microscopic particles
procedure when two substance make contact.

Microphotography
It is reproduction of an exceedingly small photography. Two important application of microphotography is the
creation of computer chips and was the creation of microdots to hide information.

In addition, with the above discussion, microphotography is also called microfilming, consists in the reproduction of
image to such a small size that they cannot be read without optical assistance. This amazing photography compression aften
result in a ninety-nine percent saving space. The microfilming service is one of the most extensively used and common
practice in modern reprographic science.

Mugshot
It is photographic portrait typically taken after a person is arrested. The Original purpose of the mugshot was to
allow law enforcement to have a photographic record of an arrested individual to allow for identification by the victim and
investigators. Photographing of criminal began in the 1840s only a few years after the invention of photography, but it was not
until 1888the `French Police officer Alphonse Bertillon standardized of the process.

Rogues Gallery
A Rogues gallery is a police collection of picture or photographs of criminal and suspect kept for identification
purpose. The term is also used figuratively for any group of shady characters or the line up of mugshot photographs that
might be displayed in the halls of a dormitory or workplace or on an online mugshot publishing website.

Photographing in court of justice

Photography maybe defined an any means for the chemical, thermal, electrical, or electronic recording of the
images of scenes or object formed by some type of radiant energy, including gamma rays, x-rays, ultra -violent rays visible
light and infrared rays. This definition is broad enough to include not only the conventional method of photography but almost
any new process that may be developed.

Basic requirement of photograph admitted as evidence in court.

No matter how extensive the photographic efforts are at crime scene, photographs must stand the test of legal
admissibility. The general standard used to review the credibility of the photographs are

 Accurate representations whatever the original appearance of the object being photographs in term of shape, color
etc. it must be same in the photograph. However sometimes the back and white photographs come in question due
to the colors that appeared which in not the same as what with the actual object. This is supported by the sketch an
must be uniformed in term of details photographs during printmaking process. And also the photographs it must be
free from alteration
 Free of distortion. Photography evidence to be presented in court must not be a production of lens having of
aberration especially barrel and pincushion distortion. Thus it must be clear and sharp in all the details of the object
that might appear there in order to make more informative
 Material and relevant. In every object that appear in the photographs it must be related to the crime just like the
cadaver of the victim and evidences which includes the general view, medium view, close-up view and extreme
close up view
 Unbiased. All the photographs taken from the crime scene must be presented in the court of justice not keep the
others for misleading reason of the case or to protect one of the party one of the party. Take note being a forensic
photographer is considered a man of science so whatever the truth be presented in court of law without hesitation.

The Best Evidence Rule and Photographs

Photographs is not a legal substitute for the object or article itself, as evidence, all physical evidence should be
photographed. A photograph of a revolver will not be accepted as evidence in court. The weapon itself be brought to court
this is an essence of the “best evidence rule”.

The court recognize that certain evidence cannot be brought to court. Building or road are examples. Other
evidences should change quickly. Skid mark on the highway will be quickly destroyed by vehicles using and passing on it.
Wounds and bruises as evidence of injury will heal and disappear before the case comes to trial. Such nature or kind of
evidence can be preserved by photography and introduced in court as evidence.