Photography - production of visible images by using the action of light on a sensitized material.

Photography came from the Greek word

Photo – light

Graphy – to write

1839 – birth year of photography

Forensic photography - covers investigative photography, preparation of mug file and crime scene
photography.

Forensic was derived from the Latin word

Forum – marketplace

Technical photography - technical concepts and principles which includes characteristics of

photographic rays, the use of camera, lenses, filters, structure of film and photographic papers,
chemical processing and others.

Police photography - The science which deals with the study of the principles of photography and the
preparation of photographic evidence and its application to police work.

As a process, photography is the method of using light to produce identical image of an object that
can be preserved permanently by employing:

a. camera: camera use to regulate, absorb and filter light

b. film and any sensitized material to record light

Forensic Science – application of principles of various science to law. It is a courage or a group of

subjects which uses principles of various studies that would give light to certain legal issues.

Criminalistics – application of the principles of various science in solving problems in connection with
the administration of justice.

- It is sometimes referred to as Forensic Science or Police Science, although in a strict sense it

is merely a branch of forensic science that deals with physical evidence that has to collected,
preserved, examined and compared in order to serve the ends of justice.
Types of Photography

1. Forensic Photography- the process of photographing crime scene or any other objects for
court presentation.
2. Photo macrography- photographing of objects directly enlarged on the negative and magnified
from 1-9 times.
3. Photomicrography- the art of photographing minute objects when magnified by means of
a microscope and enlarged from t10 times and up.
4. Infra-red Photography- the art or process of photographing or recording unseen objects by
means of infra-red light.
5. Ultra-violet Photography- the art or process of photographing or recording unseen objects
by means of ultra-violet light or filters.
6. Microphotography- a very small photograph as encountered in microfilming or with use
of microfilm.
7. Spectrograph- a process used in determining the kind of metals submitted for examination.
8. X-ray Photography- the process of photographing or recording internal structure of the body.

Other types of Photography

1. Flash Photography- applied to the technique whereby exposures are made with illumination
from one or more photograph.
2. Mug shot Photography- it is usually used for personal identification which is the first use
of photography in police work.
3. Thermo Photography- a kind of photography wherein we use laser beam radiation using laser
beam film.
4. Aerial Photography- a kind of photography applied for photo mapping.
5. Underwater Photography- photographing things under water.

Objectives of Police photography

1. To produce a pictorial record of everything pertaining to the crime.

2. To help in keeping the police officer’s memory accurately as possible as to where he find things.
3. To help in securing and obtaining confession, disposition and information relating to the case.

Importance of forensic photography

1. Small objects but of great importance in a crime committed may escape in the first phase
of examination by the investigator but maybe seen and recorded on the photograph
2. A good photograph of the scene is a permanent record which is always available especially in
court presentation, in court proceedings, fiscals and defense lawyers have generally never visited
the scene of the crime.

As a general rule, take many photographs of the crime scene and select the best.

3. Used as an aid by the investigator to describe in court some of the details of the crime scene
they have investigated several months ago, the small details and exact locations of objects.
4. To assist the investigators in using photographic equipment and techniques in their effort to
solve crimes.
Uses of Photography in police work

1. Identification- this is the very first use of photography in police work. It is used to identify
criminals, missing persons, lost property, licenses, anonymous letters, bank checks, laundry marks,
and the civilian or personnel fingerprint identification.

2. Communication and Microfilm files- investigative report files, accident files, transmission of
photos (wire photos) photographic supplements to reports with modern day electro-photography
machines.

3. Evidence- crime scenes, traffic accidents, homicides, suicides, fires, objects of evidence, latent
fingerprints, evidential traces can frequently be improved by contrast control (lighting, film, and
paper filters), by magnification (photomicrography) or by invisible radiation (infra-red, ultraviolet,
x- rays)

4. Offender detection- surveillance, burglar traps, confessions, re-enactments of crime.

5. Court exhibits- demonstration enlargements, individual photos, projection slides, motion pictures.

6. Reproduction or copying- questionable checks and documents, evidential papers,

photographs, official records and notices.

7. Personnel Training- photographs and films relating to police tactics, investigation techniques,
mob control, and catastrophe situation.

8. Crime and Fire Prevention Hazard- lectures, security clearance detection devices, photos
of hazardous fire conditions made when prevention inspections are made.

9. Public relations- film pertaining to safety programs, juvenile delinquency, traffic education,
public cooperation and civil defense.

Principles of Photography

1. A photograph is the mechanical result of photography.

2. To produce a photograph, light is needed aside from sensitized materials.
3. Lights reflected or radiated by a subject must reach the sensitized materials while all other
lights must be excluded.
4. The exclusion of all unwanted and unnecessary lights is achieved by placing the sensitized
material inside the camera.
5. The amount of light on the sensitized material after exposure is not immediately visible to the eyes.
6. To make the formed image visible, it must undergo the development process.
7. The visual effect that results from the chemical processing is dependent on the quantity and
quality of the exposing light.
8. More light will yield an opaque or black shade on the sensitized material after development.
9. Too little light will produce a transparent or white shade.
10. The varying shade of gray will finally form the complete image.
History of Photography

Aristotle ( 347 – 322 BC ) – Greek philosopher invented the first pin hole camera
- Camera obscura / Italian word meaning darkroom chamber / Darkened box.
- Succeeded in recording the principle that light entering through a small hole produces an
inverted image or figure.
- Artists or painters in order to get accurate perspective of natural scene and scale of their
subjects used the camera obscura.

Alhazen ( 965 – 1039 ) - He was the one who invented the camera.
- An Arabian scholar who found out that light entering a small hole on the wall or shuttered
window of a darkened room cast an upside down picture of the scene outside onto the opposite
wall.
- He use this in observing the solar eclipse by entering a darkroom with a pinhole opening to
avoid harming the eye.

Jean Baptiste Forta - He was the first one who introduced the lens.
- An artist and scientist who in his Pseudo Science Magic had made use of the Camera Obscura
and replaced the hole with a lens which made the image brighter and sharper.

Johann Henrich Schulze - discovered the Silver Nitrate when he exposed it to light it turns purple.
- He got interesting in his finding and that fair later, he discovered that the evening action was
not due to the heat but light.

Thomas Wedgewood ( 1802 ) – discovered silcer chloride is more sensitive than silver nitrate and more
capable of recording and producing images.

Joseph Nicephore Niepce ( 1816 ) – “points de vue” / smart images made by the camera obscura with
more than eight hours exposure
- Took the world’s very first photograph called “Heliography”
Experimented by combining photosensitive materials with Lithography to facilitate his endeavor in
printmaking.

Louise Jacques Mande Daguerre ( 1838 – 1839 ) – invented the Daguerro type.
- invented the principle for Silver plate photograph and using the Daguerre type that produces one
of a kind picture on metal which was presented French Scientific Academy.

Matthew B. Brandy – when the American Civil War broke out, he was able to preserve the scene with
the use of a camera.

William Henry Fox Talbot ( 1839 ) – Father of Modern Photography

- Invented the Calotype, produce a negative on paper, the lights on the image were recorded
as darks.
- He presented it before the royal family of England.

John W. Herschel – coined the word Photography

- Pointed out images with a solution of Hyposulfite of Soda which he discovered in 1819.
Frederick Scott Archer – he pioneered wet collodion process which took place of the collotype known as
collodion type process.
Daniel Barbaro – introduced the use of the lens in camera

Sir Isaac Newton ( 1666 ) – discovered that the strongest light is white light.

Maxill ( 1863 ) – He discovered that the different effects with this application, when colored
photography was discovered

Maddaox ( 1884 ) – successfully introduced the plate with gelatin.

Andre Adulphe Eugene Disperi – popularized the small cheap portrait.

Nadar – He took the first aerial photographs from Paris from a free balloon in 1858

Sir William Abney – discovered Hydroquinone as developing agent in 1880, England.

George Eastman ( 1889 ) – Founder of Budha Co.

Peongent ( 1895 ) – He discovered X-ray photography

D.O Hill and Robert Adamson – both used photographic portraits in painting.

Important Dates

16th Century
- Italian scholars used the camera asa drawing apparatus
- Instead of using darkroom, they used a box with lens and place a mirror4rfcv

17th Century
- Camera Obscura was built in with a convex lens.

1800
- Thomas Wedgewood and Humphrey Davy produced photograms.

1839
- The birth year of modern photography, the year when the science of photography became a
public knowledge.

1848
- Abel Niepce de saint Victor introduced a process of negatives on glass using albumen as
binding medium.

1850
- The year when photography was already well developed.
- It was used an art concerned with landscape, portraiture and architectural presentation.
- Louis Desirie Blanquart-Evard introduced printing paper coated with albumen to achieve a
glossy surface.
1935
- The year when colored films. Sensitized materials and different brands of cameras came in
different types and model sold in the market,

1859
- In the United States, one of the earliest applied Forensic Science was photography. It was used
to demonstrate evidence in a California case. Enlarged photographs of signatures were
presented in court case involving forgery.

1861
- James Clark Maxwell research on colors

1864
- Odelbercht first advocated the use of photography for the identification of criminals and
the documentation of evidence and crime scenes.
- Early photographs of accused and arrested persons were beautifully posed as example of
the Victorian photographers at 20-30 years.
- Later, every major police force in England and the United States has “Rogues Gallery”.
- In Europe and United States had “Rogues Gallery”(photographs of criminals) became an integral
part of almost all police department.

1882
- Alphonse Bertillobn who initiated anthropometric measurements for personal identification was
also involved in various means documentation by photography which developed into a fine
science for Criminalistics when he photographed crime scenes and formulated a technique of
contact photography to demonstrate erasures on documents.

1885
- Gelatine emulsion printing paper was commercially introduced based films in 1889

1890
- Full corrected lenses were introduced.

1902
- Dr. R.A. Reis, a German Scientist contributed heavily to the use of photography in forensic science
and established the world’s earliest crime laboratory that serviced the academic community and
the Swiss police.

1906
- A plate was placed in the market that could reproduce all colors in equivalent shades of gray.

1907
- Lumiere color process was introduced, a panchromatic film was used but with blue, green and
red filter.
1910
- Victor Baltazard developed a method of photographic comparison of bullets and cartridge
cases which acts as an early foundation of the field of ballistics.
1935
- Color process came out together with electronic flash.

1947
- Edwin H. Land introduced “Polaroid”, the one-step photography.

1960
- LASER was invented making possible Holograms (three-dimensional pictures)

1970
- Colored photography has matured as an artistic medium especially in the work of Helen Levit
and William Eggleston.

1988
- Arrival of true digital cameras.

Light – It excites the retina of the eye.

- Makes things visible
- Form of electromagnetic radiation
- travels in the form of waves

Infra-red – a wavelength emitted by the sun which cannot be seen, though we can feel it in our bodies
as warmth or heat.
Ultraviolet – another form of light we cannot see, but we know about it because it tans our skin in
summer.
Speed of light - 299, 792.5 km/sec (approximately 186,281 miles/sec / 186,000).
Aloh Roemer (Denmark) – he measured the speed of light in 1676.
Interference – any phenomenon having a periodic disturbance of some sort and travels outward from a
source is called a wave.
Crest – high points
Trough – low points
Wavelength – the distance between two successive crest and troughs is called a wavelength.
Annulment of waves – the crest of one wave meets the trough of another wave.
Diffraction - light in space and not within the gravitational field of any object travels in a straight line.
- bending of light around an object
Transparent - Materials, which allow light to pass through so that objects on the other side can be
distinguished.
Translucent - Those that allow light to pass through but diffuse the flow of light so that objects on the
other side cannot be distinctly
Opaque - Materials, which allow no light to pass through,
The Law of Reflection – refers to the rebounding or deflection of light. The angle of reflection depends
upon the angle of the light striking the material, which is referred to as the angle of incidence.
The Law of Refraction – when the material in the path of the light is transparent a change in the
direction of the light occurs.
Phenomenon of refraction - The change in the direction of light when passing from one medium to
another.
Prism – made of glass or plastic.
- possible to see the colors that made up the sunlight.
Spectrum – colors separated.
Visible Spectrum – a small part of the electromagnetic spectrum where the visible light is found, the
portion of the electromagnetic spectrum that affect the human sense of sight.
- Visible light includes all those radiations having a wavelength ranging from 400 – 700 mu.

Primary Colors Approximate Wavelength

Red 700 mu
Blue 450 mu
Green 550 mu

Complementary Colors Approximate Wavelength

Magenta 400
Cyan 500
Yellow 590

Neutral Colors
Gray -
White -
Black -

Color Addition
R+B+G White
R+B Magenta
R+G Yellow
B+G Cyan
M+Y White
M+C White
Y+C White

Color Subtraction
W-R Cyan
W-B Yellow
W-G Magenta
W-C Red
W-Y Blue
W-M Green
C-G Blue
Y-R Green
Y-G Red
Addition – process of making colors by mixing primary colors of light.

Secondary colors – colors made by combining two primary colors.

Optics – study of light.

Hue – attributes of chromatic colors.

Brightness – attributes of colors, allows the relation of colors

Saturation – attribute of achromatic color.

Absorption – refers to the taking in of light by the material.

Transparent Objects - mediums that merely slow down the speed of light but allow to pass freely in
other respects, transmit 90% or more of the incident light.

Translucent Objects - mediums that allow light to pass through it in such a way that the outline of the
source of light is not clearly visible, transmit 50% or less of the incident light.

Opaque Objects - A medium that divert or absorb light, but does not allow lights to pass though, they
absorb most of the light while reflecting some of it.

Wavelength Theory

- The wavelength of the light is the most pertinent, particularly in the design of lenses.
- It is best illustrated by the dropping of stone in a pond of still water.
- The series of wave which travels outward from the center point are just like waves that travels in
all direction from a source with equal velocity.
- This theory maybe used to illustrate reflection, interference, refraction, diffraction and polarization.

Quantum Theory

- Max Plank theorized in 1900 that light might be made up of little bundles of energy named quanta
- A quantum of light is called photon, when photon strikes a light sensitive surface, it gives energy
of electrons within the metal explain the photoelectric current.
- It is used to explain X-radiation and photo-electricity.

Four Photographic Rays of Modern Photography

X-rays 01 - 30 nn
Ultraviolet rays 3 - 400 nn
Visible light 400 – 700 nn
Infra-red rays 700 – 1000 nn
General Types of Light

1. Visible light – lights with a wavelength of 400 – 700 nn.

2. Invisible light – lights with a shorter or longer wavelength

White - the sum of all the colors of the rainbow

Black – absence of all colors.

Properties of Light

1. Reflection - It is the deflection or bouncing back of light when it hits a surface.

Regular Reflection - happens when light hits a flat, smooth and shiny surface.
Irregular or Diffused reflection - occurs when light hits a rough or uneven but glossy object.

2. Refraction – the bending of light when passing from one medium to another.

3. Diffraction – the bending of light when it hits a sharp edge of an opaque object.

4. Interference - Color can be produced by interference of light waves in thin film like soap bubbles
or a film of oil floating in water.

5. Rectilinear - The nature of light that normally travels in straight line.

6. Absorption – The nature of light to be absorbed in the process of dark surfaces.

7. Filtration – the character of light to be altered from its colorless into visible state.

8. Polarization – the process by which the vibration of light is confined to definite plane, the speed
of light can be measured.

9. Fluorescence – this happens when molecules of the fluorescent material absorb energy at
one wavelength and radiate it at another wavelength.

Qualities of Light

1. Intensity – it refers to the strength of light. This varies according to the output of light source
and the distance from the source.

2. Direction – where there is a single source, the direction is clearly defined. Where there are
multiple sources or the light is diffused as on a cloudy day, the direction is less evident or totally
absent.

3. Color - light varies in color depending upon its source and the substance through which it passes.
Natural sunlight has a different color mixture from incandescent lighting or electronic flash, and
the color of sunlight itself varies depending upon the atmospheric conditions and time of the day.
The following are the characteristics of color: hue, saturation and brightness.

Sources of Light
1. Natural Light – coming from nature like the sun, moon, stars other heavenly bodies, lighting,
fire etc.
Bright sunlight - lighting condition where objects in open space cast a deep and uniform or distinct
shadow.
Hazy sunlight - objects in open space cast a transparent shadow.
Dull sunlight - open objects in space cast no shadow.
Cloudy bright - objects in an open space cast no shadow but objects are far distances are clearly
visible.
Cloudy dull - objects in open space cast no shadow and visibility of distant objects are already
limited.

2. Artificial Light - Light sources of this category are man-made and are divided into the
continuous radiation and the short duration.
Continuous Radiation – give illumination continuously
Short duration - It gives a brief flash of light produced by a burning metallic wire (flash bulb) or an
electrical discharge through a gas-filled tube (electronic flash)

Forensic Light Sources

1. Ultraviolet lamp – comes in variety of shapes, sizes and power.

- Some units are portable battery operated and are easily carried and can meet the rugged
and rigorous demand for field work.

2. LASER – Light Amplification through Simulated Emission of Radiation

- By illuminating certain items with LASER, they would fluoresce or could be made to stand out
in sharp contrast from their background.
- This was especially significant in locating dried biological items.
- It provided a way for the criminalist to finally see, locate, and visually record evidence that
they know that they had been missing
- They are quite expensive.

3. Alternative Light Source

- Far more expensive alternative to forensic LASER.
- It uses a variety of band pass filters to provide a high intensity beam of non-coherent light.

4. Forensic Light Sources

- Applied to a wide variety of relatively inexpensive light sources which use filtered white light.
Camera – a light proof box with a means of forming an image, holding a sensitized material, and
regulating the amount of light that enters the camera at a given time.
- A light proof box into which a light is admitted through a lens.

Early forms of Camera

1. Pin hole Camera - a camera of single design and construction, usually homemade consisting of a
box having a small aperture functioning as a lens at one end, the image being projected on the film
at the other end.

2. Box Camera - a simple camera and is little more than a pin hole camera. It has a lens and
shutter. The pinhole is replaced by the lens to enable the photographer to gather more light to
be recorded.|

3. Camera Obscura - a box used for sketching large objects. It literally means dark chamber. The box
contains a mirror set at 45 degrees angle. A double convex lens like in a photographic camera is
placed in the front end. The image of the object is transmitted through the lens and appears on
the mirror. The mirror reflects it upward to a ground glass screen on the top of the box. There it
can be sketched easily.

Main Kinds of a Camera

1. Box Camera

2. View Camera - the biggest and the most sophisticated among the different types of camera. This is a
version of press cameras; they have removable lenses and can be focused by moving either the
front or the rear of the camera and are equipped with long bellows. The back can be moved or
swing both vertical and horizontal axes and its lens board raised lowered or tipped. The flexibility
enables the photographer to control the image formed by the lens. Practically useless for candid or
action photography. Useful or effective in the reproduction of small objects.

3. Reflex Camera
Single Lens Reflex Camera - The term “single lens” means that only one is lens is used for both
viewing the scene and taking photograph of it thereby preventing parallax.
Twin Lens Reflex Camera - Employs two separate lenses- one for viewing and one for focusing and
the second usually mounted under the first, transmit the light to the focal plane for recording. The
camera has permanently fixed lenses and an automatic parallax adjustment. Its two lenses focus in
unison so that the top screen shows the image sharpness and framing as recorded on the film in the
lower section.

4. Polaroid Still - This camera is restricted in its uses but is ideal in instant photograph when there is
no requirement for enlargement.
Other Types of Camera

1. Press Camera - a camera loaded with sheet film. They are traditional of folding bellows designed
with a lens standard in an extendable baseboard. It can also be loaded with a roll film and 70
mm film magazines and often coupled with range finders.
2. Underwater Camera – designed for underwater photography.
3. Wide View Angle Camera - a camera with a very wide-angle lens which produces a
rectangular image that is designed for landscape photography and architectural photography.
4. Panoramic Camera - used for landscaping photography. It is easy to use by encompassing a
120°, 180° or 360° view of one exposure.
5. Still Video Camera – images can be stored on video tapes equipment with a floppy disc, a disc
that can hold 50 images or more.

Main Parts of a Camera

1. Lens - A disc of transparent glass generally bounded by two special surfaces capable of forming
an image.

2. Shutter - An adjustable mechanism that regulates the amount of light reaching the film by
varying the length of time.
- Light is allowed to be recorded on the film
- This is a control by which you can determine how long in time the lens will remain open for light
to be recorded on the film.

Types of Shutter

1. Blade or between the lens shutter

- It is made up of overlapping blades powered by a spring
- Located between the aperture and the lens or in between the lens.
- They will give speed up to 1/500th of a second

2. Focal Plane Shutter

- It consists of two metal blinds that open progressively or made of a black cloth and generally
located very near the focal plane.
- These shutters are preset; it has to be cocked before release.
- It can be set and synchronize at all speed.
Four Important Controls in the Camera

1. Focusing Control - the most important control in the camera.

Focus - the means by which the object distance is estimated or calculated to form sharp or clear
images.
Focusing - the adjusting or changing the distance between the focal plane and the length.

2. Focusing Ring - A large knurled ring around the barrel of this lens, when turned the lens will either
move away or toward the camera body, depending upon the direction of rotation until ring
cannot be turned further.
- At this stopping point, all distant objects are in focus regarding of difference in their distance,
is termed infinity focus or simply infinity.
- When the lens is set in infinity, the lens-to-film distance is at the shortest distance to bring the
most distant object into focus.
- Stamped on the surface around the focusing ring are series of number called distance scales.
It indicates distances that the camera is focused.

Types of Focus

1. Scale bed type or Focusing Scale

- These distances correspond to the distance from the camera to the subject.
- To focus with this method, one has to use measuring device and actually measure the distance
from the lens of the camera to the subject. Whatever distance was measured will be the setting of
the marker or pointer of focus.

2. Micro Prism or Range Finder Type

- These are finely etched prism which break up the image, they are brought together as you focus
Split image – two prism which splits your image in half as you focus both halves rejoins to form
a clear image.
Co-incident image- usually used on compact cameras with a fixed lens.

3. Ground glass type – matt glass. The whole of the image on this screen will progressively become
sharp.
- It is found at the back of the camera or in the case of modern, also coupled with the view finder.
- The point of focus is where the image is sharpest.
- It may also be a combination of three.
1. Shutter Speed control
- It controls the length of time reduced by the light ray to reach and affect the film inside the camera.
- The common shutter speed exhibited on the shutter speed dial are B2, 1, ½, ¼, 1/8, 1/15, 1/30,
1/60, 1/125, 1/250, 1/500, 1/1000, 1/2000, 1/4000, 1/8000 (T/B)
- “T” stands for time. Pressure on the shutter release button causes the shutter to open. It will
remain open until the shutter releases button is pressed a second time it close it.
- “B” stands for bulb. When you press the shutter release button with the setting “B”, the shutter
remains open as long as the shutter is pressed down. For long exposure, this is usually required
in dim places to permit enough light to accommodate to make satisfactory pictures.

2. Aperture or Diaphragm Control

- An adjustable mechanism device in the lens assembly which control the amount of light
passing through the lens to the film.
- The diaphragm works like the pupil of the eye. It may be enlarged or contracted.
- If it is enlarged, it allows more light to enter.
- The adjustment is done by moving the ring of the diaphragm towards the desired size of
the opening.
- It is generally represented by number known as f/stops.

Parts of a Camera

1. Lens - a specially shaped glass which reflects light from outside into the back of the camera
and creates a reversed, upside down image on the film at the back of camera.
2. Focusing Ring - moves the lens back and forth which allows the photographer to create a
sharp image of the subject.
3. Diaphragm or Aperture - a small opening in a camera usually circular in shape and usually
variables in the form iris diaphragm that regulates the intensity of light which passes through the
lens.
4. Film Advance Lever - a part of the camera that is twisted to advance the film inside and to check
the number of exposures.
5. Shutter Speed dial - it will control the length of time when light is allowed to strike the
sensitized material.
6. Shutter – an adjustable mechanism that regulates the amount of light reaching the film by
varying the length of time light is allowed to pass through the lens.
7. Shutter Release Button - part of the camera which when pressed will keep the shutter in
open position.
8. View finder - a viewing instrument attached to a camera, used to obtain proper composition.
9. Self-timer - the time setting of a camera- this is automatically operated to allow the photographer
to participate in photo-taking.
10. Film Holder / Chamber – it holds the film firmly inside the camera. It is always located at
the opposite side of the lens.
11. Accessory Light Shoe / Hot Shoe – it is where the flash bulb is inserted for indoor photography.
12. Flash Terminal - it is where flash bulb chord is plugged for synchronization to the camera.
13. ISO / ASA / DIN Dial - a camera device in which when adjusted it will conform with the sensitivity
of the film to light.
14. Exposure Counter or Frame counter - a device indicating the number of exposures made.
15. Depth of field Scale - it will estimate the distance between the nearest and the farthest objects
in apparent sharp focus when lens focus at a given point.
16. Distance scale - a device that shows approximate distance from the optical center of the lens to
the point of focus on the object.
17. Film Rewind Crank - a device that shows approximate distance from the optical center of the lens
to the point of focus on the object.
18. Film Rewind Lock - a device that secure the film for any accidental rewinding.
19. Back Cover Release knob - a device used in opening the back cover for film reloading.
20. Lens lock release lever – a device used to secure the lens

Depth of Field - the distance between the nearest object and farthest object that appears to be focus
when the lens is focus on infinity.

Depth of Focus / Focal Range - the maximum permissible within which the film may be without
exceeding the circle of confusion in order to produce the image sharp.

Film Speed Control - this control is utilized by manipulating the ASA/ISO or DIN dial of the camera.
Basically, the shutter and the f/numbers are both controlling the system of the rays of light that enters.
However, the effects in making photographs are different. In an automatic setting camera, the camera
has a sensor that reads or determines the ASA number of the film loaded.

Circle of Confusing - overlapping circle patches of light representing each patch of light on the subject.
This circle of confusion represents unsharp images, but the human eyes see them as acceptably sharp.

Hyperfocal Distance - this is the nearest distance at which a lens is focused with a given particular
diaphragm opening which will give the maximum depth of field.

Relative Aperture - the speed or light gathering power of lens equal to the duration of the focal length
to the diameter of its lens pupil or the relative brightness of the image produced by the lens as
compared with the brightness of the object.

Angle of View - the view of the subject subtended by two lines emerging the corners of the film
extending to the center of the lens.

Lens - A system of one or more pieces of glass bounded by spherical surfaces, the center of which is at a
common axis, termed the lens axis.
- A mechanism or system which converges or diverges light passing thru it to form images.

Two main Types of Lenses According to Shape

1. Convergent or Positive or Convex Lens

- It is always thicker at the center and thinner at the sides.
- Light passing thru it are bended toward each other on the other side of the lens meeting at a point.
- It produces a real image on the opposite side of the lens or where light is coming from.

2. Negative or Concave or Biconcave

- It is always thinner at the center and thicker at the sides.
- Light passing through it are bended away from each other as if coming from a point.
- It produces a virtual image on the same side of the lens or where light is coming from.
Three Basic Categories of Lenses

1. Normal Lenses ( 35 mm to 70 mm )
- One with a focal length equal to the diagonal measure of the image area.
- The normal lens is usually standard equipment on a camera, and is intermediate between
wide angle and telephoto lenses.
- The picture angle of a normal lens is 45° up to 75° which corresponds to the viewing angle of
the human eye.

2. Wide Angle Lenses

- It has a shorter focal length than the normal lens and as a result, it covers a picture angle wider
than a normal lens that is wider than 60°.
- It enables photographing a widely extended scene from a close proximity or within a confined area.
- In police work, the wide-angle lens should be used under restricted conditions when
the photographer is able to cover the desired picture area with a longer focal length.

3. Telephoto Lens
- A telephoto or long focus lens has a longer focal length and provides a close-up image of a
distant subject.
- In contrast to the wide-angle lens, the telephoto covers a smaller field of view and a shallower
depth of field.
- Production of a flat composition, far objects appear enlarged while near object do not
appear proportionally large.

Main Group of Camera Lens

1. Simple Miniscus Lens

- This is usually found in a simple or box camera comprises a single piece of glass with one side
convex and the other side concave.
- It is uncorrected lens and therefore suffers from inherent defects of lenses.

2. Rapid Rectilinear Lens

- It is a combination of two achromatic lenses with almost the same focal length.
- This is corrected from lens defect but not an astigmatism defect.

3. Anastigmatic Lens
- A lens is free from astigmatic and other types of lens defect.
- It has the ability to focus vertical and horizontal lines at the same time.

4. Achromatic Lens
- A lens which is partly corrected for achromatic aberration.

5. Process Lens
- A saucer-corrected lens for astigmatism.
- It has a better color correction and has the ability to produce the best definition of image in
the photographs.
6. Fixed Focus Lens
- A lens used in all fixed focus camera.
- Basically, it has a short focal length and greater depth of field.

Special Type of Lenses

1. Macro Lenses - The word macro is derived from a Greek word which means “to enlarge”.
- In photographic terms, a macro lens is designed with extended focusing capabilities to shoot
few inches from a subject.

2. Zoom Lenses
- Allows quick adjustment to give a wide or narrow field of vision.
- It can be moved back and forth while other elements stay in place, which give the same effects as
if the camera itself was moving towards or away from the subject.

Two main types of macro lenses:

a. One is meant to be used on a hand-held tripod mounted camera and ranges from 40 mm to
about 90 mm with the average about 25 mm.

b. Wide angle or a lens with a focal length of 100 mm or more and is designed with a close-up
bellows attachment on the camera. The longer lenses give a longer image and are most suitable for
static subjects and painstaking photography.

Forms of Optical Aberration

1. Spherical Aberration
- The focusing at different points of rays passing through different parts of spherical lens.
- It occurs because light hitting the outer part of the lens is bent more sharply and comes to a
focus sooner than passing through the middle.
- The image is blurred.

2. Chromatic Aberration
- The failure of different colored light rays to focus after passing through a lens, focusing of light
of different colors at different points resulting in a blurred image.
- In chromatic aberration, the image is surrounded by colored fringes because light of different
colors is brought to different focal points by a lens.

3. Astigmatism
- The ability of the lens to bring horizontal and vertical lines in the subject to the same plane of
focus in the image.
- It occurs at the edge of the image, the image appears elliptical or cone shaped because of
an irregularity in the curvature of the lens.
4. Coma
- It occurs when light falling obliquely on the lens and passing through different circular zones
is brought to a focus at different distances from the film plane.
- A spot of light appears to have a tail rather like a comet.

5. Curvature of Field
- A curved, concave or saucer shaped image of an object which has flat surface.
- The image distance is different for different points of the object due to their different distance
from the axis.

6. Distortion
- Inability to produce the same enlargement in the imaged formed by the edges of the lens as in
that part formed by the center of the lens.

Other Lens Defects

1. Flare or Optical Flare

- A result of double reflection from inner lens surfaces.
- It exhibits self as a misty hazy or cloudy semi-circular path of light.

2. Mechanical Flare
- Bright spot on the film caused by stray light from worn shiny parts of the lens such as the
stops, shutter, lens mount or from inside the camera itself.

3. Light loss
- Most corrected lenses is coated with a substance which will reduce one type of flare (optical)
and which will also increase the optic’s ability to transmit light, thus reducing light to loss.

4. Stray Light

5. It can be reduced or eliminated by using the proper lens, shade places on the front of the lens
or shield.

Qualities of Light in Wave Motion

1. The Velocity of travel

2. The Wavelength
3. The frequency

Inverse Square Law - Illumination is sharply reduced as distance increases.

- As applied to light, the principle that the illumination of a surface by a point of light is
proportional to the square of the distance from the source to the surface.

Factors Affecting the Color of the Day

1. Atmospheric vapor
2. Atmospheric dust
3. Reflected light reached the object and not directly coming from the scene.
Dodging
- The process use in printing by covering some light that strikes the printing paper in order to give
the same amount of light available.

Bracket
- Using three exposures with the use of the manual control if in doubt of the amount of
light appropriate for one shoot.

Fogging
- It is the accidental exposure of film to light.

Filters
- These are disc of glass or negative which when placed in front of the camera lens, stop one
or another color of light from passing through in striking the film.
- Usually they are used only for black and white photography and even then should not be used
for most police photography.
- Usually made of glass of gelatin materials placed in front or before the lens.
- These are used to change the composition of available light before allowing it to strike the film.
- A transparent colored medium employed to regulate either the color or the intensity of the
light used to expose the film.

Blue Filters
- This can be used effectively when photographing blood in black and white.
- When used outdoors, a blue filter will make the sky or any blue object, appear white in
the photograph.

Green Filters
- Used in place of the blue filter for photographing blood often they work better than blue filter.

Yellow Filters
- It can be used to photograph white cars; the details of the car will stand out.
- Yellow filters also cut through haze to certain extent and can be used with good results
to photograph an accident on a hazy day.

Ultraviolet Filters
- It is not a filter for ultraviolet photography rather it is a filter which screen out the violet end of
the spectrum
- When placed in front of a lens and left these, it will not only improve most of the
police photographers’ work but it will also prevent his lens from being scratched.

Special 18A Deep Purple Filters

- It is the correct filter for ultraviolet photography
- These are often used in photography; its short wavelength gives a better definition of the
fine details.

Polarizing Filter and Neutral Density Filters

- Use to cut down light transmission.
- They do not otherwise affect the color or tonal quality of the scene.
Light balancing filter
- A filter used to change the color quantity of the exposing light in order to secure proper
color balance for artificial light films.

Color compensating filter

- This is used to change the over-all color balance of photographic result obtained with color films
and to compensate for deficiencies in the quality of exposing energy.

Sensitized Material - refers to films and papers that are composed of emulsion containing SILVER
HALIDE crystals suspended in gelatin and coated on a transparent or reflective support.

Film - consist basically, of a random scattering of light sensitive silver halides suspended in a layer of
animal gelatin which is coated onto acetate support or base.

Structure of White and Black Film

1. Top Coating / Top Layer - scratch resistant coating also called gelatin coating, an over coating
composed of a thin transparent layer of a hard gelatin which help protect the silver halide
emulsion from scratches and abrasions. The hard gelatin, which is derived from cows, contains
Sulfur. The Sulfur is very much compatible with silver halides.

2. Emulsion Layer – Silver Salt + Gelatin – a layer composed of silver compounds which are light
sensitive and halogens (such as bromide, chloride and iodide bromide in fast film emulsion). A
silver compound when combined with a halogen becomes Silver Halide. Silver Halides are rare
compound that are responsible in forming the so called the Latent Image in the photographic film.

3. Film Base - commonly made of cellulose or other material such as paper, plastic, or glass,
which supports the emulsion layer and is coated with a non-curling antihalation backing.

4. Antihalation Backing - a black dye applied on the rare surface of the film. Its function is to absorb
light that may penetrate the emulsion thus making the image sharper since it suppresses double
image. It prevents halo formation in the photograph. The black dye is removed during processing by
one of the chemicals in the developer. Its second function is to control the film from curling
inwards. (Towards the emulsion surface).
Structure of Color Film

1. Top Layer - sensitive to blue light only, green and red light passes through it without exposing
the color halide.

2. Emulsion Layer
- Blue filter
- Yellow filter – Carey Lea silver suspended in gelatin, it is coated between the top and second layer
to absorb any penetrating blue light but allowing green and red light to pass through.
- Green filter – a layer that is orthochromatic, the layer sensitive to blue light (which cannot reach
it) and green, but not to red light pass on to the bottom of the emulsion layer.
- Red filter – a panchromatic layer, sensitive to blue (which can’t reach it) and red. It is also
sensitive to green light but to a slight degree that is insignificant.

3. Antihalation Backing / Coating

4. Film Base – plastic film base

Film Classification according to Use

1. Black and White Film – for B and W Photography

2. Color Film – films that have names ending in COLOR
- Color negatives for prints

The negative in this type of film is divided into blocks and is color positive. It is composed of hue dyes. In
between the blue and green hues, yellow gelatin is placed so that the blue rays of light would not affect
the green hue and in between the green and the red dye, magenta gelatin is placed so that the green
rays of light would not affect the red hue dye of the emulsion.

3. Chrome Films – films with names ending in CHROME

- For color transparency (slides); films that are exposed by slides, mounted in a cardboard for
slide projectors: reversal type.
4. X-ray Films – films that are sensitive to X- radiations

Types based on Film Speed ( according to light sensitivity )

1. Fast Film – contains numerous number of large grains of silver halides that usually develop in
groups; film that are very sensitive to light. When the available is dim, this type of film is the best
choice because of the low reflection power of the subject against a background. It is low in
contrast but high in brightness. However, the use of fast speed film is not advisable due to its
graininess result.

2. Slow Film – film that require longer period of time to completely expose their emulsion to light;
film with fine grains of silver halides.
Types based on Spectral Sensitivity / color sensitivity

Spectral sensitivity – responsiveness of the film emulsion to the different wavelength of light source.

1. Monochromatic Film – film that is sensitive to a single color of light ( for white and black )
a. Blue Sensitive Film – a film specially treated that makes it more sensitive to blue rays of light
b. Ultra-violet sensitive Film – sensitive to UV rays only

2. Panchromatic Film – sensitive to ultra-violet rays, and all light found in the visible spectrum,
especially to blue and violet light. It is suitable for general use in the preparation of black and
white photography because it produces the most natural recording of colors.

Panchromatic films are further sub classified according to their degree of sensitivity to each primary
colors or light. There are three classes of panchromatic film. They are the following:

Process Panchromatic Film – permit short exposures under average lighting condition and has the
advantage of fine grain structure.
Grain Panchromatic Film
High Speed Panchromatic Film – designed originally for photographing objects under adverse lighting
condition.

3. Orthochromatic Film – film that is sensitive to UV rays, blue and green colors, but not to red. Red
portions are recorded as dark tones, while green and blue parts appear as light tones when
printed. This type of film is popular in the market as the Kodalith Film

4. Infrared Film – a special type of film that is sensitive to infrared and ultra-violet radiation ( radiation
beyond the human eye’s sensitive ). It is also sensitive to all the colors found in the visible
spectrum. Although the infrared film is sensitive to blue color, a red filter can exclude the blue
color. The red filter transmits only long red and infrared radiation. IR film is useful in penetrating
haze because of its longer wavelength. In Investigative Photography, it is useful in laboratory
analysis of questioned documents, in discovering old ( or faded ) tattoos under the skin, and in the
construction of camera types.

Emulsion Speed - the sensitivity of the film to light; the extent to which emulsion is sensitive to light.

Film Speed - The light sensitivity of the film.

1. ASA (American Standard Association ) rating - This is expressed in arithmetical value system. The
speed in numbers is directly proportional to the sensitivity of the material. A film with an
arithmetical value of 400 is four times as fast as one with a speed of 100.
2. DIN ( Deutche Industrie Norman ) rating – This is expressed in logarithmic value system. In
this system, an increase of 3 degree doubles the sensitivity of the film.
ISO 25 slowest speed that natural condition will permit, for best color and sharpness.
ISO 100 – 200 for general purpose
ISO 100 slow speed film; needs sufficient light and low shutter speed; has fine grains of
silver halides; produce sharp image.
ISO 200 twice as fast and as sensitive as ISO – 100; has large grains; produce large sharp
image.
ISO 400 for dim light or with moving subject
ISO 1000 for extremely low light conditions or for fast moving objects

Film Size
110 for cartridge loading pocket cameras
126 for older and larger cartridge loading type
120 variation of the 2.25 inch-wide roll film that was first introduced for box cameras a
decade ago and now used in professional medium format cameras like the
Hasselbald or Mamiya.
135 commonly known as the mm. so named because the film is 35 mm wide
220 the same with 120 but twice as many exposure

After the process of producing the negative image is produced from the negative, which is a true
presentation of the relative brightness of all parts of the object and is now called a print. A print is
ordinarily made on paper that is coated with light sensitive emulsion. This emulsion is similar to the
Basic layers of printing paper are:

1. Emulsion Layer – the layer containing minute silver suspended in gelatin; the layer of
chemical needed to reproduce the opposite tone of the negative print.
2. Baryta Layer – a gelatin layer containing Baryta crystals (barium oxide particles) to increase
the reflectivity of the paper.
3. Base – made of hardened white paper, which must be chemically pure to ensure that it will not
interfere with the chemical processes to which the emulsion is subjected. Available either in
single or double weight paper.

In the preparation of photographic papers, there are three important factors to be considered, the:

1. Type of emulsion
2. Contrasting light rays and
3. Physical characteristics

Each type of emulsion has its own substance and use in the preparation of photographs. The types of
emulsion use in photo papers are:

1. Silver Chloride emulsion

2. Silver Bromide emulsion
3. Silver Chlorobromide emulsion
Types of Photographic Papers

Based on Emulsion used

1. Silver Chloride paper – contains silver chloride emulsion; grained and produce deep black images;
used for contact printing. Its sensitivity to light is low. Generally, the size of the positive print is
the same as the size of the negative used and usually it will give blue-black tone if properly
developed.

2. Silver Bromide paper – contains silver bromide emulsion. Light sensitivity of this type is faster than
the silver chloride paper. This photographic paper is used for projection printing or enlarging
process wherein the negative image is projected or enlarged. If properly developed, the silver
bromide paper will give a black tone.

3. Silver Chlorobromide paper – contains a combination of silver chloride emulsion; its emulsion
speed lies between that of chloride and bromide papers; used both for contact and projection
printing. The sensitivity of this paper is either slow or fast. The slow emulsion is used for contract
printing while the fast emulsion is used for projection printing.

4. Variable Contrast paper – combines the contrast ranges in one paper, it uses a special
Chlorobromide emulsion that produces varying contrast responses upon exposure to
different colored light.

Based on EMULSION used:

The manufacturer of the films according to their own ideas classifies the contrast range of photographic
paper. They produce different photographic papers intended for the specific contrast of the negatives
to be printed. Generally, this contrast range is classified into four: They are the following:

1. Low Contrast
2. Normal and Medium Contrast
3. Hard Contrast
4. Very Hard or Extra Hard Contrast

The low contrast paper is usually suitable to a very contrast negative to produce a normal print or
photograph. On the other hand, the high or hard contrast is suitable to a very low contrast paper is
suitable to a very low contrast negative to compensate for lack of brilliance and produce a normal print
or photographs.

Photographic papers are made with different characteristics. They are the combination of thickness and
finish. The texture maybe smooth, rough or linen, its finest maybe glossy with a very smooth surface
texture. Other type of textures may produce a mate or semi-glossy finish in rough or linen texture.

The choice of photographic paper for printing will depend upon the purpose of the photographs to be
made. Black and White object are usually printed in a white base photographic paper. Reproduction of
photographs would give satisfactory results if printed on glossy white photographic paper. For portrait
photograph, a cream paper base photographic paper is recommended and for law enforcement
photography, the smooth photographic paper is necessary so that the detail of the image appear and
appreciated by the viewers.
According to Contrast

No. 1
No. 2
No. 3
No. 4

Photographic papers are supplied in different grades. Numbers and or descriptive names, # 4 or hard, #
3 or medium, # 2 or normal, # 1 or soft contrast designates them. The type of paper to be used is
frequently the opposite in the name to the type of negative. For instance, hard paper is used for thin,
and normal paper is used for the so-called normal negative.

According to physical characteristics

Weight

1. Light Weight – are used when the thickness of the paper is not a consideration and high degree
of flexibility is necessary. Intended for purposes, which involve folding.

2. Single Weight – are paper used for small print or print which need to be mounted on solid and
fine details are necessary in the production. Used only for ordinary photographic purposes.

3. Double Weight – generally used for large prints because they stand up better under
rough treatment.

Surface Texture

1. Glossy Papers – are preferred where fine detail and brilliant images are required.
2. Semi – mate Papers – are with decided textures which obscure fine details
3. Rough Papers – used for large prints or where breadth rather than detail is necessary.

Color

1. White – are preferred for cold effect

2. Cream – are preferred for pictorial effect, portraits, landscapes or when warmth effect is desired.
3. Buff Papers – are preferred for tone prints.

The choice of photographic paper for printing will depend upon the purpose of the photographs to be
made. Black and White object are usually printed in a white-based photographic paper. Reproduction of
photographs would give satisfactory results if printed in glossy white-based photographic paper. For
portrait photograph, a cream based photographic paper is recommended. For law enforcement
photography, the smooth photographic paper is necessary so that the detail of the image appear and
appreciated by the viewer.

Grade of Printing papers

Because of the fact that all negative do not print best on one kind of paper, and in order to permit
printing for special effects, photographic papers is made in several different grades of contrast
and surface texture. Velox paper made by Kodak offers six degrees of contrast and glossy surface.
VELOX No. 0 – used for printing from extremely contrast negatives, the low contrast in the paper
sensitizing counteracts the high contrast in the negative to give a new print.

VELOX No. 1 – used for high contrast negative

VELOX No. 2 – a paper for normal contrast used with normal negatives

VELOX No. 3 – used for negatives that have weak contrast

VELOX No. 4 – provides for sufficient contrast to compensate for very thin or weak negatives. It is useful
in printing pictures which high contrast is desired

VELOX No. 5 – for flat negative that are unprintable

Darkroom Processes

There are four (4) basic steps to producing a black and white negative from exposed film, namely

a. development
b. stop bath
c. fixing
d. washing and drying

Development

The idea behind development is to convert the latent image in the exposed film to a real image.
Development converts the crystals (halide) to black silver, eventually bringing the dormant image to life.
The way in which the image develops, depends on the fine balance between the intensity of
development (developer strength and temperature) and the film.
During the development process is the synthesized materials, the silver halides where the latent
image is recorded will be developed and tuned into metallic silver that forms the images on the
negative. The details of the image developed will determine whether the sensitized materials are
accurately processed or not.

The factors that affect the chemical development of the sensitized materials are:
- Concentration or strength of the working solution
- Temperatures of solutions used in the development process.
- Time of development
- Agitation of sensitized material during the development process.

Concentration or strength of the chemical

There are various chemicals or solutions needed in the development process of sensitized materials.
These chemicals are mixed in accordance with the specification given by manufacturers. Such
requirement must be properly observed, otherwise the solution produced after mixing will not conform
to the specified strength needed in the development process of the image.
Temperature of the solution

Although the chemicals involved in the development process are fresh and concentrated, the solution
temperature (especially the developing solution) affects the metallic silver on the sensitized materials.

The reaction of the various chemical involved in the development of sensitized materials is slow when
the temperature of the solution is low. The reaction is fast when the temperature of the solution is high.
If the maker of the sensitized materials recommended the required temperature of the working
solutions in the development process in their products, the processor of the sensitized materials must
adhere to such recommendation to achieve the best results. The specific temperature of the working
solutions must remain constant throughout the developing process.

Time of development

Among the factors that affect the development process of sensitized materials, time of development is
the most critical factor. Too long or too short duration of the development time produces very dark or
very light image. The manufacturer of the sensitized materials usually gives instructions on how to
control the time of development to produce the best density of the image.

Basically, the time of development controls the density and contrast of the image developed
based on the construction of the sensitized material emulsion. When the chemicals react on the surface
the emulsion, extras time is needed to affect the entire grain along the emulsion of the sensitized
materials during the first ten seconds of the development, the reaction of the chemicals is too slow and
becomes fast after when the image starts to appear.

Agitation

Uniform/balanced development of the images recorded on the sensitized materials can be

obtained through regular agitation during the development. In agitating the film or paper in the
developing solution, the fresh developer is brought in contact with the emulsion of these materials and
the used solution is carried away.

After the surface water is removed, the film should be attached to a line with a film clip and
dried with natural air. it should hang by one corner or end in circulating air and allowed drying without
being disturbed. If the position of the film is changed during drying or if the air circulation is changed
considerably streaks of uneven density forms in the film. Heating the air that is circulating around the
film may further show the drying process. The temperature of the air that is circulating around the film.
The temperature of the air should never exceed 100F.

To obtain a visible image, the exposed emulsion is treated in a solution known as developer. This
solution converts the light affected halides to metallic silver, which form the visible image. Almost all
modern developer contain the following ingredients:
Ingredients of Developer

a. Reducer - The basic and most important ingredients in the developing solution;
Metholhydroguinone (M-Q) is the most versatile and popular
reducers. Amidol, Glycin, Paraphenlene, Diamenes, and Pyro are also
used.

The Reducer reacts with the exposed silver halides and develops it into metallic silver which
forms the visible image. If used alone, the reducing agent will have a very little effect or no effect on the
silver halides since it has a low rate of oxidation. Therefore, it becomes necessary that an accelerator
must be added to the developer.

b. Accelerator – borax, sodium carbonate, sodium hydroxides are some of the alkaline chemicals used
in as follows: increase the rate of oxidation of the reducing agent;
Softens the gelatin of the film emulsion; and speed up solution penetration.

c. Restrainer – The chemical most commonly used as restrainer is POTASSIUM BROMIDE. Without
the restrainer, the developing solution will rapidly react and abnormally develop unexposed silver
halides near the surface of the emulsion thus causing too streaks, and image lacking in contrast.

d. Preservative – All organic developing agents in alkaline state have strong chemical attraction to
oxygen. Preservatives such as sodium sulfite or sodium bisulfate is added to prevent excessive oxidation
thus prolonging the useful life of the developing solution and prevent the formation of colored
oxidation products that appears as stains in the photograph.

Types of Developer

1. Universal – The most economic type of developer This can be used to develop both films and papers
2. Fine Grain Developers – Fine Grain developer offer a good contrast range without speed loss.
These developers are especially suitable for enhancing textures in the subject. On the whole, fine
grain developers can be used with any speed of film, and most general-purpose film developers are
now termed fine grain.
3. High Energy Developers – These are designed for use with fast film, they allow an increase in film
speed without increasing contrast, therefore they are suitable for low-light, high contrast
subjects.
4. High Definition Developers – For use with slow or medium speed films, high definition
developers increase the apparent sharpness of the negative. Sometimes known as the acutance
types, these developers create hard edges between areas of high and low density in the negative.
5. General-purpose developer – used for general purpose and in photographic laboratories
where continuous development is being done.
6. Tropical developer - In general, at temperature below 75F, no special precaution are necessary
on the developing of film. At temperature above 75F a pre-hardener has to be used prior to
development to prevent;undue swelling of the gelatin which causes frilling separation of the
emulsion from the base;stains resulting from rapid oxidation of development agent; and
excessive fogging
7. Contrast Developer – a special developer for thin-emulsion film, which affords the greatest
possible resolution and makes negative of the greatest acutance.
8. Compensating developer - Used to produce contrast in process film. Not to be used at
temperature below 50F nor above 70F because stains and fog will result.
Stop Bath
For complete control over development time, many photographers use a stop bath after
development to cut short the process abruptly. The stop bath neutralizes the developer and also helps
prevent the contamination of the third bath, the fixer, helping to prolong its active life.
When a negative is removed from the developer, small amount of solution remains in the emulsion
and on the surface of the film. Such traces of develop must be removed to neutralized or stop its
action to prevent stains. To remove traces of developer from the negative should be immersed in a
rinse bath. There are 3 types of rinse bath, each has its specific purposes and should used accordingly.

Types of Rinse Bath

Water Rinse Bath – helps retard the action of the developing agent and remove the excess developer
from the film, thus preventing contamination of the fixing bath. A water rinse is suitable and sufficient
for most negative, however, it dilutes the fixer. So, when it is used, it should be followed by an acid bath.
The same procedure applies when processing prints.

Acid Rinse Bath – sometimes referred to as STOP BATH and is more effective than water rinse as it
instantly neutralized the action of the developer and stop further development. It also neutralizes the
alkalinity of the developer and prolongs the life acetic acid in 32 oz. of water.

Hardening Rinse Bath – used only when it is impossible to control the temperature of the solutions,
particularly the wash water, or when development is done in the high temperature or under tropical
conditions. A typical hardening rinse bath contains the following: 32-oz. water; 1 oz. potassium chrome
alum; and 1 oz. sodium bisulfate. A solution containing potassium chrome alum is very unsuitable and
becomes exhausted quickly with or without use

Fixing

Even after development, the image is not actually visible. This is because the unexposed silver halides
are still present in the emulsion, which now has an opaque milky appearance. The fixing bath loosens
these unexposed halides and makes them soluble in water so that they can be washed away to leave the
visible silver image.
The fixing bath is employed to fix or to make the developed image by removing all the unaffected
silver salts from the emulsion. These silver salts are still sensitive and if they are obscure the image, thus,
making the negative useless.
Ingredients of Fixing Bath

a. Fixer – the commonly used fixer is sodium thiosulfate, popularly called HYPO, which is taken from
its chemical name hypo-sulfate. Its function is to convert the silver slats remaining in the emulsion
after development into compounds that is soluble in water.

b. Acid or Neutralizer – after development, the pores of the swollen emulsion retains a
considerable amount of developer and if allowed to remain. It will continue its action causing
uneven stains in the gelatin of the emulsion thus rendering the negative useless. Acetic acid is
added to the fixing bath to prevent decomposition of the solution and to prevent discoloration of
the solution, and aids in the elimination of stains.

c. Preservatives – sodium sulfite is added to the fixer as a preservative to prevent oxidation of the
developing agent that is carried over into the fixing bath; prevents discoloration of the solution; aids
in the elimination of stains.

d. Hardener – during development the emulsion becomes soft and swollen, frizzling and scratching
may occur if processing is continued without hardening the solution. Potassium alum is the hardening
agent used to stop the swelling and toughen the gelatin, leaving the emulsions expanded but firm for
washing process.

In practice, the fixing solution should dissolve the unaffected silver halides and remove the
dissolved silver compound from the emulsion. Therefore, after the cloudy or milky portions of the
emulsion have become clear, the solution should be allowed several more minutes to completely
remove the dissolved silver salts.

The time usually allowed for the fixation of twice the time for the negative material to clear. For
example, if the parts of the emulsion, which are not affected by the developer, appear transparent in
two minutes, the negative is completely fixed in four minutes.

As the fixing bath is used, it becomes slower in action, and requires more time to completely
remove the dissolved salts from an emulsion. Thus, the clearing time becomes longer and the solution
has more difficult in removing all the silver salts, which are necessary for a thorough fixation. The fixing
bath should be replaced when the fixing time becomes excessive. If it sulfured or if it becomes
discolored, it may produce stains.

Washing and Drying

The final washing of the film removes any traces of unwanted halides and residual chemicals.
Films are usually hung up to dry in a dust free place, sometimes using warm air to speed up the
process, a weighted clip on the bottom end of the film keeps it straight.

Fresh water that washes the negative is the last solution to be used. The purpose of washing is to
remove the soluble chemicals or solutions in the fixing bath. Thorough washing is necessary to remove
solutions of fixing agent which, if allowed to remain, produces brownish-yellow stains of silver and
causes the image to fade. Water containing iron should not be used for any photographic purpose.
However, impurities such as rust, dirt, or slit can be removed by placing a filter in the water supply.
All solutions in photographic processing should be maintained at 68F, which is the recommended
working temperature. Wash water should be within that range of temperature. It should not exceed 75F
because the gelatin will swell and may cause the emulsion to frill and reticulates. Therefore, it is better
to keep the temperature of the wash water the same as that of the processing solutions.

Washing Procedure

There are two methods of washing:

Place the negative in a tray of water and then change the water about every 3 minutes for a
minimum of 10 changes, or attach a devise to the edge of the tray that siphons the water from the
bottom of the tray while the fresh water runs at the top.

Suspend the negative in a tank with a film hanger, fresh water flows into the bottom of the tank
under pressure and runs out around the side near the top of that tank. Make sure the negative is
separated so that fresh water reaches all areas of the negatives.

Rate and Time of Washing

The rate of washing depends largely upon the diffusion of the hypo from the emulsion of the
material. The rate of diffusion is dependent upon the amount of fresh water coming in contact with the
emulsion. An idea of the actual rate of washing may be obtained if it is realized that the hypo remaining
in the emulsion is continually have equal periods of time as washing proceeds. For example, the average
negative gives up about 0.5 minutes, and so on, until eventually the amount of hypo remaining becomes
negligible. The minimum washing time for negative in running water is 20 minutes.

Washing Accelerator

To save almost 2/3 of water wash consumption and greatly reduced wash time, immediately
after removing and draining the films from the fixer solution, rinse them in running water for 2 minutes
and immerse in a 2% solution of sodium sulfate for 2 minutes, then drain the film and wash in water for
5 minutes. At the end of the wash period the films are free of hypo and residual silver than if washed
three times as long as in water alone.

Sodium sulfite solution is made up of 2% solution (2.5 ounces of sodium sulfate to 1 gallon of
water or 20 grams to one liter of water). A gallon treats about 200.8 x 10 films, or equivalent.

Drying

The final step in processing film is to dry the wet negative, which is done in two phases. First is
removal of the excess water from the surface. Second is drying, either by evaporating or forced air.

Removing surface water

Upon completion of washing, the film should be sponged gently on both sides with a wet viscous
sponge or wet absorbent cotton. This will remove dirt or sludge which may have settled on the film
during the washing. The emulsion should not show any traces of water drops or streaks. Backlight might
show slight streak but no drops.
Other techniques of removing the excess water are by use of chamois, a squeegee or by
replacing the surface water with ethyl alcohol. The chamois should be wet with excess water squeezed
out. Gently rub or blot the water off from the film in a careful manner that no small particles of the
sponge or chamois come loose and deposit themselves on the film.

Ethyl alcohol is sometimes used to shorten the drying time. After the film is thoroughly dry
drained off the surface water and immersed it in ethyl alcohol for 3 to 5 minutes. This allows the alcohol
to replace the water in the emulsion. Drain the surface alcohol. If rubbing alcohol is used, a particles
deposit may appear on the film, this alcohol can be removed by rubbing the surface of the film with a
soft cloth. If negative may shows a white opalescent appearance when placed in alcohol bath if it has
not been properly fixed. If this occurs, the negative should be washed and place to the fixing bath for
complete fixation.

Wetting agent such as aerosol may be added to final rinse water to break down the surface of
the water. When treated this way, it penetrates faster and drains more evenly from the surface of the
film. This reduces the drying time and helps prevent drying spots. The wetting agent rinse bath is
prepared by mixing 1 part of a 1% stocked solution of Aerosol with 9 parts water. The film should be
soaked in this solution for 2 minutes. The wetting agent drains off the film evenly leaving no water drops
and speed up the drying time.

When the developing is by inspection, care should be taken not to expose the negative to the
safelight more than is actually necessary. Unless the negative is excessively over exposed, the first half
of the recommended developing time should be carried out in total darkness. After this the safelight
may be returned on for a short period of time and film inspected. Care should be taken that the film is
not held closer than 3 feet to the safelight.

Time and Temperature method

The best method employed for film development. This method is based on the fact that a
normally exposed negative of a given negative material will develop into a certain density in a given
developer at a known temperature. The Time-Gama-Temperature Development charts are excellent
source of information when developing by this method. This chart gives information for the film
development combination that is most frequently used.

Outline in Processing Black-and-White Film

a. Begin development by preparing sufficient volume of developer at 20C (68f)

b. Pour the developer into the tank (loaded with film) and start the timer.
c. Keep the developer at constant temperature in a bath.
d. Empty the tank so that it is drained just as the development time finishes.
e. Pour made up solution of stop bath into the tank. Agitate.
f. After about 30 seconds, empty the stop bath, conserving it for future use.
g. Pour in fixer solution, set the recommended time, and agitate as before.
h. Empty the fixer when the time is complete, and briefly inspect the film.
i. With the top of the tank removed, wash the film on its reel, with a filtered hose. Place the
hose deep into the tank and keep the flow gentle.
j. After washing for the recommended time, add a few drops of wetting agent to the remaining
water, and agitate gently.
k. Remove the reel from the tank, gently attach a hanging clip to the free end, and withdraw the
film carefully from the reel.
l. Just before hanging to dry, draw the rubber squeegee tongs gently down the length of the film
to remove drops.

Common Faults

1. Overdevelopment – Give a dense negative which prints as a very contrasty image. It is caused
either by leaving the film in the solution for too long or too high a temperature for the developing
bath.
2. Underdevelopment – It is caused by low temperature, too short a development, or weak or
exhausted developer. This type of negative looks thin, although unlike underexposed negatives
they do have shadow detail.
3. Fogging in Camera – If light gets onto the film while it is in the camera, or just the film
cassette, opaque areas maybe visible at the edges of the film, though the middle should be
clear.
4. Scratching – Parallel scratches indicate grit either on the film cassette mouth or in the
squeegee used to dry the film.
5. Fogging – Opaque areas that should be clean and clear, almost certainly due to light reaching
the film while loading in the tank. All-over density through out the film could also be fogging of a
different sort. This could be the remains of silver halides in the emulsion, which has not been
cleared by fixing. A re-fix can cure the problem.
6. Underdeveloped strip – Down one side of film, caused by insufficient developer in the tank. All
the film must be immersed under the developer. If one film is developed in a two spiral tank, it is
possible for the single spiral to move upwards during agitation.

Five Legal Methods of Preserving the Crime Scene

1. Photography

2. Sketching

3. Notes taking or description

4. Manikin method- molding, casting

5. Preservation in the mind of the witness

Basic Importance of Crime Scene Photography

1. Refresh memory.

2. Preserve time and event.

3. Save money and effort.

Importance of Photography in Law Enforcement

1. The utmost use of it is a record purpose. Photography will record the scene of the
crime permanently.

2. Photography can preserve all perishable evidence like contusion in the cases.

Rules in the presentation of photographic evidence

Consistent
Clarity
Scale

3. Photography can be used not only in the identification of physical evidence.

4. Photography is necessary in the interrogation of suspects at the time he made a confession.

5. Photography can provide a system or technique in making visible things that cannot be seen by
the naked eye.

6. Photography can be useful in court in the determination of the truth respecting a matter of fact.
Evidence that cannot be brought inside the court room can be presented by means of
photographs.

Evidence Photography

1. A permanent record is made of the original appearance of the object.

2. The photographs can be used in place of physical evidence to supplement the case report.

3. Each article is preserved from unnecessary handling which might cause the evidence to
deteriorate or otherwise become altered.

Basic Requirements of a photograph admitted as evidence in court

No matter how extensive the photographic efforts are the crime scene, photographs must stand the test
of legal admissibility. The general standards used to review the credibility of the photographs are:

1. Accurate representations

2. Free of distortion

3. Material and relevant

4. Unbiased

Crime Scene - place where the crime was perpetrated and physical evidence found thereat.
Objectives of Crime Scene Photography

1. To produce a pictorial record of everything regarding the crime.

2. To help in keeping the police officers’ memory accurately as possible as where he finds things.

3. To help in securing or obtaining confession, description and information to the case.

Importance of Crime Scene Photography

1. For identification of persons, documents, fingerprints, shoe print and splashes of blood.

2. Preservation of evidence in court.

3. Described better than words.

4. Proves statements.

5. Records things you may fail to notice.

SOP’s in Crime Scene Photography

1. Obtain photographs of crime scene early in the investigation preferably before anything has
been moved.

2. Photograph from several angles so that so that proper dimensions may be shown.

3. When dimensions are important, use some sort of scale (ruler) in the photography so
that enlargement or reduction maybe measured.

4. Record in your note data concerning the photographs including directions and distances from
the principle objects in the crime. Sketches maybe helpful also.

5. For special equipment call on the laboratory.

Procedures at the Crime Scene

1. General View (Long- range)

taking an over-all view of the scene of the crime. Its shows direction and location of the crime scene.

2. Medium View (Medium – Range)

Is the taking of the photograph of the scene of the crime by dividing it into sections. This view will best
view the nature of the crime.

3. Close-up View (Short range/ Mug shot)

Is the taking of individual photograph of the evidence at the scene of the crime. It is designed to show
the details of the crime.

4. Extreme Close- up View

Commonly designed into laboratory photographing using some magnification such as
photomacrography and photomicrography.
Guidelines in Taking Photographs of a Crime Scene

1. Establish shot- this is an over-all view from extreme to the other, it shows where we are, a
busy intersection, a far, a residential area, an airport, a factory, or even at the middle of a
jungle.

2. The Building- the next photograph should show the building in which the crime was committed.
This shows whether it is a private home, a factory, a small shop, a hotel, or a garage, usually tow
photograph will be needed of the front and back of the building.

3. The Entrance- this is usually the door, but it may be a window in a house breaking robbery. If
there is a gate and a door, take photograph one for each entrance.

4. The Hallway- the camera now shows us what we would observe immediately after we enter the
building. It should show the location of the other doors or rooms through which we must pass to
get to the room in which the crime was committed.

5. The Room- this maybe a bedroom, an office or a bedroom. The most difficult problem is to include
the entire are sometimes like a building shots, two photographs from opposite corners will be
enough. A wide lens is used. However, the investigator’s note should also be carefully marked
with the information.

6. Close-up- the number and types of close-up photograph will of course depend upon the kind
of crime. In general, close ups should be made on.

a. Object attacked- this maybe a person, safe cash box or a display counter. The purpose
of these pictures is to show the amount and kind of damage the method of attack.

b. The weapon or tools used- the photographer must be careful here to show a reference
point in every picture, it shows which are right, left, up, down, north, south etc.

c. Significant clues- these maybe fingerprint, bloodstain, footprints, skid marks, tool
marks, broken glass, or any other physical evidence, fingerprint in particular should be
photographed after dusting but before lifting.

Items of Physical Evidence to be photographed

1. All materials which serve to establish the fact that the crime has been committed or the
corpus delicti.

2. Physical evidence which would connect the suspect to the crime. Any marks such as
fingerprint, shoe or footprint, splashes of blood, hair strands, etc.

3. Evidence relating to the manner in which the crime committed or the modus operandi of
the criminal.

4. Objects which might provide clue to the identity of the perpetrator.

5. Clues which would connect the suspect to the crime.

Functions and Capabilities of Forensic Photography Division

Photograph criminals, suspects and crime victims for personal identification.

Photograph evidence submitted to laboratory before examination.

Provide photography assistance during Scene of Crime Operation (SOCO) and Field Laboratory Work
(FLW).

Conduct seminar and lectures to police personnel, forensic examiners or criminalists and
civilians undergoing On-the-Job Training to this laboratory.

Sketch facial identification of suspects upon actual description of the victims or witness.

Conduct comparative examination and analysis of questioned photograph to known

photograph. Process color and monochrome films and prints and to reduce and enlarge

photographs.

Reproduce photographs and other printed

matters. Provides photographic intrusion detection

devices. Maintain Crime Laboratory “Rogues

Gallery”

Duties and Responsibilities of a Crime Scene Photographer

1. In responding to SOCO/FLW requests, he should be well-equipped with all the necessary

equipment and materials such as camera with wide angle and normal lens, tripod, flash unit,
measuring tools, data board, pencil and rolls of film (colored and monochrome)

2. Check and ensure the serviceability of his equipment.

3. Responsible in looking after his security as well as his equipment.

4. Record the detail of SOCO/FLW responded, including the type of camera and film used.

5. After an operation, he should immediately process the exposed film and print the negative for
filing and presentation in court.

6. He should strictly observe the procedures applicable in every crime scene to include
measurement and case identification