INTRODUCTION TO HISTORY

Meaning and Relevance of History

Meaning of History

The term history has become a universal word conceptualized differently by various scholars.
For instance, the Traditional conception of history epitomized by historians like Herodotus
(Father of History), his great successor Thucydides, Livy and Tacitus, the greatest of the Roman
historians, viewed history as any written narrative of events (Osokoya, 1996). This definition is
however inadequate and unacceptable in view of contemporary realities. First, the definition did
not acknowledge the development of history overtime. Second, it did not recognize the division
of the discipline into such fields as political, social, economic, military intellectual,
constitutional and educational history. Third, the conception of history as mere narration of
events is now archaic because history has metamorphosed from mere description of events into
critical and analytical interpretation of events (Osokoya, 1996).

Arthur Marwick on his own part, provided a tripartite definition of history. First, he defined
history as “the entire human past as it actually happened”, second, as “man’s attempt to
describe and interpret the past” and third, as “a systematic study of the past” (Marwick 1970).
However, it must be noted that in contemporary times, history as a field of knowledge
encompasses not only past events but also their consequences. In addition, not all events of the
past capture the interest of the historian, rather important historical events with consequences
are usually preferred. It is in this light that Walsh defines history as “a reconstruction of the past
which is both intelligent and intelligible” (Walsh, 1967). In a similar vein, Geoffrey Barraclough
defines history as “the attempt to discover on the basis of fragmentary evidence the significant
things about the past”, noting that “the history we read, though based on facts, is strictly
speaking not factual at all, but a series of accepted judgements” (Barraclough, 1955).

For Edward Carr, history is “a continuous process of interaction between the present and the
past”, affirming that, interpretation is the lifeblood of history (Carr, 1961). The point in all these
is that there is yet to be unanimity regarding the exact meaning of history. However, it is
possible and desirable to identify certain features which may be described as defining
characteristics of history. This is important because history, is the product of historical research,
and therefore the nature of history and of historical research are symbiotic. One of the basic
characteristics of history is in its humanistic nature (Ajetunmobi, 2005). History concerns
human actions in the past. It involves other actions that emanate from human society which can
be perceived by ordinary human senses and powers. Hence, actions or events attributed to the
gods or spirits are not to be regarded as history. Since history relies on evidence and the
evidences from believers in spirits, gods and goddesses are mythical, speculative, extraordinary,
unscientific and illogical, they are considered outside the action of man. History is fragmentary
by nature. It focuses on aspects or parts of an event, but not the whole event. No matter the
efforts of an historian, it is impossible for him to capture everything about his choice of study.
Availability of evidence, its reliability and consistency, available time and the objectives of the
study shape his selection and utilization of sources and evidence.

As Akinjogbin notes, History is an organized critical study of such past activities of human
beings as had produced significant effects on subsequent course of events (Adeniran, 2002).
History terminates in the present. As Hegel posits, History cannot talk of the future because
nothing has happened in the future in question. Thus, the future to the historian is not an object
of knowledge but of hopes, aspirations and fears, elements which are not history. History is
dynamic, in a sense. History is always in a state of flux because it deals with a state of
continuous change (Barraclough, 1975). Human society which is the primary focus of history
involves the cyclical manifestations of existence. Evidence is the pillar of historical research.
This is because without evidence there will be no historical interpretation. The submission of
the historian is not a product of speculation or imagination. History is not fabricated and thus
cannot be manufactured. Instead, evidence is the rubric upon which history stands. Finally,
history is an outcome of diligent research. History is critical in the selection, interpretation and
analysis of available data. It is these features of history that have made it look science
(Ajetunmobi, 2005). These aspects of history imply that what is presented as history is a
product of honest inquiry and not that of the historian’s sensibilities or imagination.

Ambeth Ocampo (2014) says “in my history classes, I always propose the working definition of
kasaysayan or History as a narrative (which can be written, visual, oral or a combination of
all three) about past events that have meaning to a certain group of people in a given time
and place. These two components of kasaysayan salaysay and saysay are inseparable
without both, you cannot have true history”

Scholars abovementioned have more or less given you an overview of what History is, and how
does it characterizes. The discipline can be rooted in the Greek work historia which means “to
know” or “to inquire”. History is associated with the discipline that studies the past through
excavating, analyzing and implicating from evidences and stories. In the wider sense, History is
all that has happened, not merely all the phenomena of human life, but those of the natural
world as well. It is everything that undergoes change; and as modern science has shown that
there is nothing absolutely static, therefore, the whole universe, and every part of it, has its
history (New World Encyclopedia, 2018).

History is then formulated from varied kinds of sources like written documents, printed
records, artifacts, paintings, photographs, and even oral stories. In the next lessons, you will be
introduced by these kinds of sources and how do historians treat these sources. Through
Historiography (the study and analysis of history through a philosophy or school of thought),
readers have a better understanding of History. Alporha and Candelaria (2018) asserted that
while History seeks to study the past, Historiography studies the History, answering questions
such as: (1) How was a certain historical text written? (2) Who wrote it? (3) What historical
method was used? (4) What were the sources used? Historiography lets the readers understand
the context of the History and be able to measure its consistency and accuracy. It makes people
be more critical and analytic to the Histories presented to them.

When a group of historians interpret historical events or eras through the same lens, those
combined interpretations form what’s called a Historical School (literally a school of thought
about history). There are many different schools that all focuses on different elements of
history, such as politics, economics, and world cultures.

Schools of Thought in History/ Historiography

Annales School

A school of history born in France that challenged the canons of history. This school of thought
did away to the conduct of states and monarchs. Annales scholars like Lucien Febvre, Marc
Bloch, Fernand Braudel and Jacques Le Goff studied other subjects in a historian manner. They
were concerned with social history and studied longer historical periods. For example, annals
scholars studied the history of peasantry, the history of medicine or even the history of
environment. The history fro, below was pioneered by the same scholars. They advocated that
the people and classes who were not reflected in the history of the society in the grand manner
be provided with space in the records of mankind. Annales thinkers married history with other
disciplines like geography, anthropology, archaeology and linguistics. For example, if a
historian chooses to use an oral account as his data in studying the ethnic history of ifugaos in
the Cordilleras during the American Occupation, he needs to validate in the claims of his
informant through comparing and corroborating it with written sources. Therefore, while bias is
inevitable, the historian can balance this out by relying to evidences that back up his claim. In
this scene, the historian need not let his bias blind his judgement and such bias is only
acceptable if he maintains his rigor as a researcher.

Positivism

It emerged between 18th to 19th century, requires empirical and observable evidence before one
can claim that a particular knowledge is true. Also it entails an objectives mean of arriving at a
conclusion.

Historicists

A school of historiography developed in the late 19th century. It was pioneered by Von Ranke
who introduced a scientific approach in the use of primary sources in the reconstruction of the
past. Rank believes that with the objective study of the primary sources, history can be
constructed as actually it happened.

This school of historiography views that people can be learn lessons from past. This is because
of their Free will aided them to be in control of their own destinies. The historicist, as a school
of historiography is complemented by Positivism as a method of creating history. The positivists
rely on the use of sources for accurate and complete visualization of the past. They view the
significant role of sources in the reconstruction of history.

Accidentalist

The accidentalists as a school of historiography subscribes to the idea that behind every
historical event are accidents which served as the driving force. The focus is more on why the
event happened.

Intentionalist

The intentionalist recognizes the roles played by key individuals in history as they were
influenced by their intentions and personalities thus, they acted on a particular circumstance
which led to the unfolding of history. The intentions and personalities are viewed as a factor
that results to historical change.

Hegelian

Hegel viewed history as a relentless advancement towards freedom. The Hegelian school of
historiography recognizes that behind every historical change are intellectual movements and
advancement of ideas.

Marxist Historiography

Karl Marx on the other hand made used of statistical data to emphasize that history is
influenced by exploitation and conflict among social classes. The Marxist as a school of
historiography adheres to the idea that every historical change happened due to economic
forces.

Marxist historiography has made contributions to the history of the working class, oppressed
nationalities, and the methodology of history from below. The chief problematic aspect of
Marxist historiography has been an argument on the nature of history as determined or
dialectical; this can also be stated as the relative importance of subjective and objective factors
in creating outcomes.

Post Colonialism

Examine how societies, governments and peoples in the formerly colonised regions of the world
experience international relations. The use of post by colonial scholars by no means suggest
that the effects or impacts of colonial rule are now long gone. Rather it highlights the impact
that colonial and imperial histories still have in shaping colonial way of thinking about the
world and how western form a knowledge and power marginalise the non-western. Post
colonialism does not only in understand the world as it is but also as ought to be. It concerned
with the disparities in global power and wealth accumulation and why some states and groups
exercise so much power over others.

Importance of Studying History

History as a discipline has able to sustain itself from the Greek times up to date not only as a
measure of intelligence or educational capability but was used by different societies for varied
purposes. History has help us understand the behavior of the people and societies. (Stearns,
1998) Some sociological theories developed by renowned social scientists was a result of
analyzing past events to understand human and social behaviors. History serves as a guide from
the past in an attempt to put order and clarity in the present and in the future. In anything that
happened in the contemporary world, we have to examine the factors from the past that led to
that effect. Stearns (1998) in an article from American Historical Association (AHA) had laid
down the importance of taking History as a discipline:

History Contributes to Moral Understanding

History also provides a terrain for moral contemplation. Studying the stories of individuals and
situations in the past allows a student of history to test his or her own moral sense, to hone it
against some of the real complexities individuals have faced in difficult settings. People who
have weathered adversity not just in some work of fiction, but in real, historical circumstances
can provide inspiration. "History teaching by example" is one phrase that describes this use of a
study of the past—a study not only of certifiable heroes, the great men and women of history
who successfully worked through moral dilemmas, but also of more ordinary people who
provide lessons in courage, diligence, or constructive protest.

History Provides Identity

History also helps provide identity, and this is unquestionably one of the reasons all modern
nations encourage its teaching in some form. Historical data include evidence about how
families, groups, institutions and whole countries were formed and about how they have
evolved while retaining cohesion. For many Americans, studying the history of one's own family
is the most obvious use of history, for it provides facts about genealogy and (at a slightly more
complex level) a basis for understanding how the family has interacted with larger historical
change. Family identity is established and confirmed. Many institutions, businesses,
communities, and social units, such as ethnic groups in the United States, use history for similar
identity purposes. Merely defining the group in the present pales against the possibility of
forming an identity based on a rich past. And of course nations use identity history as well—and
sometimes abuse it. Histories that tell the national story, emphasizing distinctive features of the
national experience, are meant to drive home an understanding of national values and a
commitment to national loyalty.

Studying History Is Essential for Good Citizenship

A study of history is essential for good citizenship. This is the most common justification for the
place of history in school curricula. Sometimes advocates of citizenship history hope merely to
promote national identity and loyalty through a history spiced by vivid stories and lessons in
individual success and morality. But the importance of history for citizenship goes beyond this
narrow goal and can even challenge it at some points.

History that lays the foundation for genuine citizenship returns, in one sense, to the essential
uses of the study of the past. History provides data about the emergence of national institutions,
problems, and values—it's the only significant storehouse of such data available. It offers
evidence also about how nations have interacted with other societies, providing international
and comparative perspectives essential for responsible citizenship. Further, studying history
helps us understand how recent, current, and prospective changes that affect the lives of citizens
are emerging or may emerge and what causes are involved. More important, studying history
encourages habits of mind that are vital for responsible public behavior, whether as a national
or community leader, an informed voter, a petitioner, or a simple observer.

History Is Useful in the World of Work

History is useful for work. Its study helps create good businesspeople, professionals, and
political leaders. The number of explicit professional jobs for historians is considerable, but
most people who study history do not become professional historians. Professional historians
teach at various levels, work in museums and media centers, do historical research for
businesses or public agencies, or participate in the growing number of historical consultancies.
These categories are important—indeed vital—to keep the basic enterprise of history going, but
most people who study history use their training for broader professional purposes. Students of
history find their experience directly relevant to jobs in a variety of careers as well as to further
study in fields like law and public administration. Employers often deliberately seek students
with the kinds of capacities historical study promotes. The reasons are not hard to identify:
students of history acquire, by studying different phases of the past and different societies in the
past, a broad perspective that gives them the range and flexibility required in many work
situations. They develop research skills, the ability to find and evaluate sources of information,
and the means to identify and evaluate diverse interpretations. Work in history also improves
basic writing and speaking skills and is directly relevant to many of the analytical requirements
in the public and private sectors, where the capacity to identify, assess, and explain trends is
essential. Historical study is unquestionably an asset for a variety of work and professional
situations, even though it does not, for most students, lead as directly to a particular job slot, as
do some technical fields. But history particularly prepares students for the long haul in their
careers, its qualities helping adaptation and advancement beyond entry-level employment.
There is no denying that in our society many people who are drawn to historical study worry
about relevance. In our changing economy, there is concern about job futures in most fields.
Historical training is not, however, an indulgence; it applies directly to many careers and can
clearly help us in our working lives.

What does a well-trained student of history, schooled to work on past materials and on case
studies in social change, learn how to do? The list is manageable, but it contains several
overlapping categories.

The Ability to Assess Evidence. The study of history builds experience in dealing with and
assessing various kinds of evidence—the sorts of evidence historians use in shaping the most
accurate pictures of the past that they can. Learning how to interpret the statements of past
political leaders—one kind of evidence—helps form the capacity to distinguish between the
objective and the self-serving among statements made by present-day political leaders.
Learning how to combine different kinds of evidence—public statements, private records,
numerical data, visual materials—develops the ability to make coherent arguments based on a
variety of data. This skill can also be applied to information encountered in everyday life.

The Ability to Assess Conflicting Interpretations. Learning history means gaining some skill in
sorting through diverse, often conflicting interpretations. Understanding how societies work—
the central goal of historical study—is inherently imprecise, and the same certainly holds true
for understanding what is going on in the present day. Learning how to identify and evaluate
conflicting interpretations is an essential citizenship skill for which history, as an often-
contested laboratory of human experience, provides training. This is one area in which the full
benefits of historical study sometimes clash with the narrower uses of the past to construct
identity. Experience in examining past situations provides a constructively critical sense that
can be applied to partisan claims about the glories of national or group identity. The study of
history in no sense undermines loyalty or commitment, but it does teach the need for assessing
arguments, and it provides opportunities to engage in debate and achieve perspective.

Experience in Assessing Past Examples of Change. Experience in assessing past examples of

change is vital to understanding change in society today—it's an essential skill in what we are
regularly told is our "ever-changing world." Analysis of change means developing some capacity
for determining the magnitude and significance of change, for some changes are more
fundamental than others. Comparing particular changes to relevant examples from the past
helps students of history develop this capacity. The ability to identify the continuities that
always accompany even the most dramatic changes also comes from studying history, as does
the skill to determine probable causes of change. Learning history helps one figure out, for
example, if one main factor—such as a technological innovation or some deliberate new policy—
accounts for a change or whether, as is more commonly the case, a number of factors combine
to generate the actual change that occurs.

Historical study, in sum, is crucial to the promotion of that elusive creature, the well-informed
citizen. It provides basic factual information about the background of our political institutions
and about the values and problems that affect our social well-being. It also contributes to our
capacity to use evidence, assess interpretations, and analyze change and continuities. No one
can ever quite deal with the present as the historian deals with the past—we lack the perspective
for this feat; but we can move in this direction by applying historical habits of mind, and we will
function as better citizens in the process.