Introduction

A. General
The Latin word 'museum' is derived from the Greek word 'museion' in which it
means a temple dedicated to the Muses, or the Greek goddesses of the arts and sciences.
These goddesses are nine in number' and are recognised as the maiden daughters of Zeus,
king of the gods, and Mnemosyne (Memory). They were born at Pieria at the foot of
Mt. Olympus. Each one of them presided anciently over a particular branch of the arts,.
literature or the sciences. Thus Calliope was held as the goddess or Muse of poetry,
Clio of history, Euterpe of lyric poetry, Thalia of comedy and pastoral poetry,
Melpomene of tragedy, Terpsichore of choral song and dance, Erato of erotic or love
poetry and mime, Polyhymnia of sacred song and Urania of astronomy.
Museum' is thus the most apt word for the modern storehouses of the works of
nature and man in all their diverse ramifications though they do not any longer
connote the sense of a temple for worship as the original word did, and has thus
come to stay. Nevertheless, these storehouses are temples of a sort, for it is here that.
man is able to seek shelter from the humdrum of life and gaze at his will at the enormity.
of his legacy, contemplate and learn and derive inspiration for a chastened and nobler
life. Though the ancient Greeks may not have thought of all the different branches of
arts
and sciences,
they had laid the foundations upon which the successive
indeed
tions have merely added the frills.
genera-
In Greece, however, 'Museion' did not mean a storehouse of collections of arts and
sciences. There is, nevertheless, a reference to a hall called Pinakotheke containing a
collection of paintings in a building adjacent to the Prophylaca on the Acropolis at Athens,
. They appear to have been three to begin with but the number grew to nine from the period of
Hesiod onwards.
2. Each one of the Muses was associated with a symbol or emblem or a mood. Thus Calliope was
associated with a tablet and stylus, Clio with an open scroll, or a chest of scrolls, Euterpe with a
ute, Thalia with a comic mask, shepherd's stafl or an ivy wreath, Melpomene with a
tragic mask,
staff of Heracles or a sword, Terpsichore with a lyre and
plectrum, and Erato with a lyre. Poly-
hymnia had no symbol but was shown in a pensive mood. Urania was cquipped with a staft
pointing aptly to a globe. Sce Eneyclopaedia Brittanica and Everyman's Encyclopaedia.
Museums and Heritage in India
the
It was open to
according to the Greek writer Pausanius, of the second century.
the Pinakothek.
public. The principal museum in West Germany is hence called
Greece and removed
After the Hellenistic period, the Roman generals plundered
or
innumerable works of art to their respective cities and placed them on public grounds
in private houses. Thus began a habit of collecting works of art and curios.
It is these
and
collections and the urge to preserve them against damage and decay, plunder
pilferage that gave rise to the idea of a Museum to house them in safety.
B.C. and
oldest museum in the world, however, goes back to the third century
it wasThe
founded during the enlightened rule of Ptolemy I (Soter) of Egypt (325-285 B.C.),
city. Its richest treasure
who succeeded Alexander the Great who had earlier founded the
was more than 400,000 manuscripts in the form of cuneiform tablets of baked clay.
advanced
Many of the greatest scholars of the ancient world flocked to Alexandria and
their knowledge at this great museum of old. It was, however, primarily a library as a
storehouse of knowledge. It is a tragedy of history that the museum was destroyed
during the Arab occupation of Egypt in the seventh century. As an institution of educa-
tion and research this library-cum-museum had fulfilled one of the primary functions of
a museum in its most modern implication, if not by name, the forerunner of all the
museums of the world.*
According to the UNESCO definition of 'Museum', it is to include or comprise
any permanent set-up for the purpose of preserving, studying and enhancing by various
means and, in particular, of exhibiting to the public for its delectation and instruction
artistic, historic, scientific and technological collections) This deinition would thus
encompass (a) botanical gardens with live specimens, and (b) public libraries and archival
institutions maintaining permanent exhibition rooms.
The city of Alexandria in Egypt was founded by Alexander. Upon his death the Egyptian terri-
tories fell to his half brother Ptolemy (1) called Soter (Saviour) (323-285 B.C.) who founded the
dynasty of the Ptolemies. He also founded the first university of the world. This was also called
the Museum or home of the Muses. The great masterpieces of Greek thought, philosophy and
poetry were stored here in the form of terracotta tablets in a cuneiform script. These were copied
by slaves and studied and annotated by scholars. The great Greck scholars were invited to study
and teach at this great museum. Every writer was expected to present a copy of his writing to the
museum. The museum copied the text as a publishing house and sold them to the public. The
scholars were paid a salary.
Such great scholars as the geometrician, Euclid and the mathematician, Archimedes were associa-
ted with this institution. Here was translated the Old Testament of the Jews from Hebrew into
Greek. Eratosthenes, who had calculated the diameter of the earth to within 50 miles (80 km.) of
what it actually is, was one of the teachers here along with Hero, the discoverer of the first steam-
engine.
Thus the first great museum was a storehouse of ancient learning, an archive, a library, a research
centre and a university at once. From the very beginning of the conception of the museum, it was
both a collection and a research and teaching centre, which is equivalent to the modern concept of
a museum.
Introduction

B. Museunm and Society

lan Finlay) who was Director of the Royal Scottish Muscum at Edinburgh, retired
from thatposition in 1971, alter nearly thirty years of distinguishcd service in the museum
profession. Not long after his retirement, in 1977, he brought out an excellent book
servinga the quintessence of his life-long experience of the profession named as The
Priceless teritage: The Future of Museums. His basic approach and outlook, which
have universal validity, are indicated by the telltale captions of some of the chapters in
the book, such as 'Collections of Ideas, 'A Museum is not a Building', Taking Museums
Seriously', 'The Case for a Comprehensive Museum', Museums as a Profession',
Museums and the Universities' and 'Who should run our Museums', etc.
There are some obvious answers to the questioning or suggestive nature of these
captions in the captions themselves. He has raised some questions that we have often
asked ourselves. He has also given some very valid suggestions for the proper running
and utilization of the museums.
In the chapter on "A Museum is not a Building', Finlay says, "The most positive
purpose of a museum, where the man in the street is concerned, is to stimulate curiosity,
pleasure and even awe by confrontation with the works of nature and man, through
this to rouse a hunger for knowledge and give guidance". If, therefore, the museums
have to serve this role as a systematized collection of the works of man and nature
and use them for the enlightenment and education of the people in a more positive
manner than is possible through class room lectures in this age of speed and of audio
visuals, they must also be made to serve as a source of delight and as a means of the full
development of a man's personality. In today's world museums must also help to create a
spirit of educated and responsible democracy among their vistitors. For all these purposes
museums would need far more attention from the society than they have received so far,
particularly in India.
This need, however, has been recognized by the Government of India, and the
Department of Culture, under the Ministry of Human Resource Development, have
planned for a coordinated development of museums at regional, state, district and village
levels for the promotion of the awareness of the basic values of Indian culture. This is
to be achieved through the dissemination of education in general and inculcation of the
knowledge of science and technology. For this purpose they have planned to help the
museums in general to develop and augment the documentation of their collections not
merely for the purpose of dissemination of knowledge, but also for providing the basic
prerequisite for the promotion of research in all these areas. But concerted action in all
these fields is yet to be seen.
In the chapter on 'Taking Museums Seriously, Finlay laments, "..
.museums
count for much less than they should. Their functions and
potentialities are
understood at all by politicians, administrators, economists and those professionals and
hardly
businessmen who determine our scale of values in public affairs. Museum continues to be
a derisory word in public
speeches for anything that is out of date. The very word
Muscums and Heritage in Indiaa

Museology°.. . although current in the profession for a generation or more has not
yet found its way into some of the way more widely used dictionaries"
There is no doubt that Finlay was influenced by the prevalent conditions of the
United Kingdom. But his observations are perhaps true for all parts of the world, and
more so for India.
The late C. Sivaramamurti, who, besides being a profound scholar, was a doyen of
the museum profession, had long ago expressed his views that are reflected in Finlay's
Writings. As far back as 1953 (a good 24 years before Finlay) Sivaramamurti wrote, 7The
Curator is a living force in a museum, but nowhere else is a Curator more neglected
Than in India though prodigious knowledge and enormous achievements are expected of
him. .. . If a scholar should sacrifice ambition, the curator alone should not be singled
out for this".9 He made tlhe position clearer still in his views on the museum curator
expressed in the Directory of Museums, published in 1959.
Museums in general began, as pointed out earlier, as collections of curios, either
the handiwork of man or of nature, or of both, but mostly as a result of the efforts of
ndividuals and, sometimes, of societies or associations of curious intellectuals of diverse
disciplines. In course of time the collections grew in numbers and could no longer be
contained in their original storehouses. They also presented problems of preservation
against natural decay. They had, therefore, to be housed properly and they needed a
caretaker. The objects had to be handled, classified, listed, displayed or neatly stored.
They had also to be studied if their meaning and message were to be understood, appre-
ciated, admired and enjoyed. These had also to be transmitted to others. Thus was the
museum born.)
In modern times the concept of a museum has widened beyond recognition. It is
no longer a storehouse of the artefacts of man andnatureoran ajdvab-ghar, as of old,)
where objects were collected, stored or stocked, preserved and occasionallybut not
obligatorily published, but a centre of education, research and entertainment to boot.
in fact, it has now, become a cultural centre where activities of all kinds that serve to
widen the mind's horizon and ennoble the spirit centred around diverse artefacts of man
and nature take place. Much or most of the development owes itself to the twin pillars
of financial resources and the width of vision, energy and competence of the Curator.
The qualityand standard ofall theactiwisiesafa museum depend upon how informed,
enlightened, enthused and active the Curator.is, and how able he is to transmit his spirit
t o the community he serves. Not a little, however, depends upon the trust and support
of the authorities who own, control or manage the museum, be they a Government, a
board of trustees, a University body, a Municipality, or an individual owner.
A museum today can be broadly divided into six categories, namely, of art,
archaeology, ethnography, natural history, science and technology, respectively with
many possibly minor sub-divisions These again lend themselves to division into twwo
main categories, namely, art, archaeology and ethnography on the one hand, and natural
history, science and technology on the other.
Museums.
C. Sivaramamurtí, Directory of
Introduction

Of course, for 5
consideration of financial constraints or
respective collections, commonness of ownership or comparative paucity of the
can be of several convenience of management museums
multiple disciplines together.
In such cases either
large and cannot, in course of they grow to be too
time, work successfully under a unified
the inherent control owing to
divergences of
Cannot be fully
the disciplines
involved, or they remain so
small that they
representative of allor even most of the facets of the various
they encompass. Their growth can also be disciplines
the curators and the disbalanced according to the predilection of
authorities.
Nevertheless, it is not unusual to see combinations
of natural history, art, archaeo-
logy and ethnography, especialy at the
broadly termed as multi-purpose regional
can be State levels in India. Such museums
or

the same discipline

or
multi-disciplinary museums. Even within
again there can be basic differences of-
the nature of the
objects such as folk arts, tribal arts, categorization
or crafts,
according to
bronze, terracotta or ivory, paintings on sculpture in stone,
much more broadly as palm leaf, paper, cloth, or on walls (murals) or
ancient medieval or modern
Science museums too difYerent arts, as the case may be. Among
Science, of mining, and
categories exist such as museums of pure science or
metallurgy, and technologies of a wide variety such as applied
technology, printing technology, etc. The museums have
textile
to the authorities
which own control and
may nomenclatures according
the State manage them such as the Central
Government, the Universities, Colleges, Municipality, Government,
trusts or
individuals, as the case may be. Depending upon their size private and public
and location they
can be
very small village or town museums
called local museums;
regional museums at the State capitals or any other moderately large
large national museums. In addition to these there large city or
township, and very
are many
housing the excavated archaeological remains at ancient sites archaeological site museums
Sarnath, Vaisali, Lothal, Nalanda, etc., under the such as those at
Sanchi,
Zonal Archaeological
anthropological museums under the Anthropological Survey of India. Survey of India or
many departmental museums under There are
various Government
Museum of the Forest Research
Institute at Dehradun. departments such as the
mention may be made of the Among the national museums
National Museum, the National Museum of
the National Natural History,
Gallery of Modern Art, the Handicrafts and Handlooms Museum
Rail Transport Museum at New and the
Delhi. There are several other museums
status but not under the of comparable
Government of India. The Central Government is
National Museum of Man at
Bhopal. The large Science and building a
the National Council of Science
Museums at Calcutta,
Technology Museums under
the last being the smallest of the Bangalore, Bombay and
group, bid fare to possessing national status. The Patna,
Museum at Calcutta and the Indian
Salarjung
Central Government but are autonomous
Museum at Hyderabad are
fully financed
institutions under the control of their by the
boards. They are also museums of
national status. The Prince of respective
Western India at Bombay, which is a Wales Museum of
multi-purpose museum combining the disciplines of
art, archacology and natural sciences, is one of the
most
country. Yet it is not of national status, nor under the outstanding museums in this
control of the Central or State
India
Museums and Heritage in
6
regional or State
Governnments, but under a board of trustees. Among the important
Government Museum, Madras,
museums in this country mention may be made of the
Museum and Picture Gallery at
Patna Museum, Patna, State Museum, Lucknow and the
the
Baroda. The Museum and Picture Gallery atChandigarh, though not fulfilling as yet
Government
requisites of a State Museum, as it is still under the Union territory, and the
Museum at Mathura are outstanding museums of art and archaeology, but do not possess

national status.
of the Asutosh
Amongthe University museums in India mention may be made
Museum of Folk Arts, Calcutta, the Bharat Kala Bhavan, Varanasi, the growing
and the
Archaeological Museum of the Deccan College, University of Poona (Pune)
Kausambi Museunm at Allahabad.
Among the municipal museums the best was, of course, the Allahabad Museum. lt
has since been taken over by the Government of India. The small but tidy and impres
sive Zoological Museum, as an adjunct of the Zoological Gardens, at Ahmedabad
remarkable for the quality of its presentation.
Among the outstanding museums built up by private effort are the Arthropoda
Museum and Raja Kelkar Museums at Pune, and the Calico Museum (of textiles) at
Ahmedabad.
A word now about the pivotal person in the set-up of a museum, namely, the
Curator. The word is derived from Latinin_svhich it means the guardianof a_person, a
bay or a girl, or caretaker of property. Byimplication the term came to be applied to
the caretaker or guardian of a museum, or public gallery of art, library or the like.
Its earliest use goes back to A.D. 1661, In modern times It has often been replaeed-
by the word 'keeper, especiaiIy in Great Britain, This nomenclature has now been
generally adopted by the National Museum and other Museums under the influence of
theCeniral Government. In the United States the word 'Curator' holds the field instead.
In_Erance he is called Conservatoir (conservator), which is quite a meaningful and
satisfactory designation. It points to the principal function of the museum man, namely,
conservatoro The obiectS underhischarge. However,sometimes for thesake of parity
in service and uniformity of service rights of the personnel of comparable or relatable
status in a museum in regard to seniority or promotion, the term has also been employed
absurdly in respect of persons in
charge of presentation or display, modelling
(preparation of replicas) and publication, respectively as at the Nattonal Museumn
New Delhi.
C. The Curator
Going back to history, itmay recalled that it was under Lord
Lytton, who was
Governor CGeneral of India in 1879 that the
scheme
for the appointment of a
ef Ancient Monuments" was first formulated. Major H.H. Cole was the firstCurator
Derson
10 be appointed to the post in T880, when it was created during the
Governor General-
ship of Lord Ripon.
Ru whatever name he is called, the curator is
the most erucial
person in a
JInroduction

museological institution. The success or failure of the institution depends upon his
academic background, powerS of imagination, capacity for hard work, dedication to hts
duties ahigh sense of responsibility, tact and capacity for man management, and, of
course, his museological knowledge.
The yarious duties which a curator is expected to perform comprise (i) acquisition
of museun objccts, (i) their registration,
i.., documentation, (i) storage,(iv) display o
presentation, (v) conservatign, (vi) study and research with a view to interpretation,
(vin) publication of the results of research as well as a miscellany of literature such as
guidebooks, posters and picture postcards for the general visitors, and catalogues and
dissertations in regard to the holdings of the museum for the benefit of scholars,
(viin)ensuring the safety and security of the museum materials under his charge against
damage and degeneration, vandalism,pilferage or burglary and accidents, (ix) offering
guide service to the visitors in general, and, in the modern concept of a museum's func-
tions, fulil the duties of a teacher of students at all levels of education, and, above all,
(x) run the administration of the museum. In addition the Curator/Keeper is_expectedT
to organize temporary exhibitions often by obtainingloans of selected obiects from other
museims, Thistask is as delicate as it is full of tension. He has to use his persuasivèe
powers to make the lenders ready to lend on mutually acceptable terms. Thereafter he
has to arrange for and supervise the safetransportation of the borrowed obiects to his
ownmuseum and ensure theirsafety and security during the period when the obiects are
under his custody, He has alsoto arrange for their insurance according to an agreed
valuation. The process of installation in the exhibition is_quite complicated and
strenuous. The entire process isreneated in reverse gear on the return of the borrowed
objects to their lenders or owners
In a smallmuseum where the staffis small the demand upon the knowledge,tact
Tesources and energy of the Curator is enormous, He is alsoexpected to knowsomething
of every line of disciplinerepresented in his museum. It is the smaller museum which at
once posesachallenge to the talent ofthe Curatarand provide him WIth opportunities
toprove his mettle The late Dr. V.S. Agrawal, who was a giant among scholarsS of
Indology in India, began his career as the Curator of the Government Museumat
Mathura, which was then much smaller in his time than it is now.
In larger museums where thereis a comparativelylargestaf, theresponsibilities are
divided. Even so there is no tetupin theresponsibilities of the Curator cVen in_respect
of his restricted Curatoral duties.jGIven the talent and inclination he can concentrate on
his allotted or chosen field in keeping with his academic and professional background,
and specialize in selected areas of scholarship. The job ina museumis full of challenges
andopportunitiesand to a person who is prepared to take pains it can be extremely
rewarding. The work in a museum is of a creative nature, but for all his labours a
Curator is not paid adequately for all the heavy responsibilities he has to shoulder.
D. Museums and their Functions in the Indian Context
Enough has been said earlier to point to the multifarious functions of a museum as
Museums and Heritage in India

ageneral
storehouse, a cultural centre, a centre of educationand research, and as a centre ot
education of masses, particularly the children and illiterate masses.
This role ofthemuseum has now generally cometobe recognized by the society.
The museum's primary duty ofcollection of material remains in allconceivable areas ot
our heritage and of documenting them faithfully, preserving them against decay and
arresting the decay of those that have decayed or have started decaying has only to be
emphasized fes, without material objects in a sound condition of preservation, a museum
canbe no more than an empty building. All these activities involve considerable expense
and,therefore, need ample financial support.)
It is not possible for the slender resources of private individuals or teaching institu-
tions like colleges or universities to find all the finances that museological works demand.
It is possible only for the Government to sustain museums with some measure of finances
needed for collection, documentation, and preservation of objects and dissemination of
Knowledge in general based on them. Even so there is some limit to Government's
resources as they have to be used judiciously on their myriads of activities on the basis
of an order of priorities carefully laid down by them. While recognising Government's
potentialities and limitations, it must also be stated that the private enterprise too has
some scope as well as obligation in this direction as much as they have the rights to
enjoy the benefits accruing from the maintenance of museums.
In this context it would be pertinent to
quote from the message_of Pandit
Iawaharlal Nehru on the occasion of the formal inauguration of the National Museum
on the 18th December 1960 in its new building: Museums are not just places to see
odd things or Ajáyabghars, as they used to be called. They are or should be an essential
part of the educationalsystem and culturalactivities of a country. What is more,
are places of public
they
education. Private houses may have works of art and beauty, but
theyare not open to the public. It is important that every city possesses a
Lwould add, even_ villages havetheir small museums wherever possible. museum and,
-

Some of the
great
museums of the world are not only collections of the works of art, but are more
especially fascinating in showing the development of man, Indeed perhaps no
museum howsoever big, can contain all these many aspects, and single
have several museums to exhibit these it may be desirable to
varied cultural and other activities.)
Professor Humayun Kabir, exclaimed on this occasion:
"No modern state,
and least of all, a democratic
republic like India, can do without these essential instru-
ments of education, recreation and culture.
in Government and unless the
Democracy means every man's participation
participation is based on
knowledge and
it may do more harm than
good. Provision of education for all citizensunderstanding,
is thus one of
the inescapable duties of the modern State. It has been
recognized
methods of imparting education in schools and colleges cannot cater that the traditional
for all
classes of
Deople and for all age groups. The curricula in the schools do not and
the subjects which the modern citizen must know, The cannot cover all

the written word of the book has, therefore, to be

spoken word of the teacher and
supplemented by audio-visual aids.
Introduction 9

A well organized museum is an audio-visual instrument that can cater to all classes and
age groups and cover all fields of knowledge."
Humayun Kabir rightly enunciated that the agro-industrial civilization of today
had given rise to intense curiosity in the common man about the basic facts of science
as well, and that it was the duty of the State to create facilities for the satisfaction of
such curiosities. Museums are the proper institutions for the realization otf this purpose.
The different parts of the world today, howsoever far-fung, have come much more
closer than ever before, thanks to the rapid development of modern means ofcom
munication and transportation. The increased use of the wireless, the T.V, and video
programmes, the supersonic jets fleeting across the skies at hitherto undreamt of speed,
greater intercourse between nations through the various organizations of the United
Nations in the post-war period, the achievement of independence by many hitherto
subject nations, and various global conferences have all led to a tremendous growth of
intercourse among divergent peoples. In fact, notwithstanding glaring differences in
standards of living, philosophies and life concepts and ways of living, and, of course,
political ideologies, we are all approaching Wendell Wilkie's concept of One World.
Though in their heart of hearts sober people all over the 'world may realize the
essentiality of oneness of the human will, political will and egotistic intransigence stand
in the way of a life-pattern of mutual co-existence. The spectre of any nuclear holocaust
overhangs the human 'Schicksal", while millions are still striving for a morsel of food to
keep body and soul together, in spite of man's tremendous achievements in space research
and in all spheres of science. It is, therefore, necessary, even for the sake of sheer
existence to promote rapidly a proper understanding of the different peoples of the
world in all their ramifications of history, society, religion, way of life, advances in
science and technology and political ideologies, etc. Science and technology know no
bars of territory, more so now than ever before. Art and culture of the different parts
of the world are interrelated, being the result of the cravings of the human soul. There
is no institution which can bring the comprehensive ethos of any one people to the very
doorsteps ot another more etfectively than museums through their attractive and
effective presentation in permanent displays and temporary exhibitions. These help also
to bring the people's souls together.
With a view to realizing these objectives it is necessary, nay essential, that some
of our museums today should have representative specimens of original objects
reflecting
upon the history, arts and crafts, cultural life, scientific and technological achievements
of the different parts of the world, so that their holdings are not confined
those of the geographical boundaries of the nation. This principle would
parochially to
to the museums of all other countries as well. As
apply equally
though in anticipation of this concep-
tion most of the affiuent nations of the world have been
collecting extra-territorial
materials of all kinds and filling up their museums with such relics of the world.
It was the late Sir Asutosh Mukherjee, then Vice-Chancellor of the
Calcutta
University, who, among Indians, was the first to define in unambiguously clear terms
the functions of a museum.
Speaking on the occasion of the
centenary of the Indian
Museums and Heritage in In dia
10
on the
1913 he said, "I have no desire
Museum in Calcutta on the 28th November,
functions of a
exhaustive discussion of the true
present Occasion to enter upon an
museum in relation to the community at large..
It is now generally recognised that a
.

those
of which best illustrate the
objects
museum is an institution for the preservation
the utilization of these in the increase
phenomena of Nature and the works of Man, for
of the people."*
of knowledge and for the culture and enlightentment
the Indian Museum conceived of
(Though Sir Asutosh said this in the context of
by him as a National or Imperial Museum, a museum,
according to him must "be
first for the
equipped adequately for the fulfilment of three principal functions, viz.,
accumulation and preservation of specimens such as form the material basis of
of
knowledge in the Arts and Sciences; secondly, for the elucidation and investigation
the specimens so collected; and thirdly, to make suitable arrangements calculated to
arouse the interestof the public and to promote their instruction.")In regard to the role
of the museum as an educational institution he added that "the museum should be an
adjunct to the class room and the lecture room; secondly, as a bureau of information,
and, thirdly, as an institution for the culture of the people.
Ananda Kentish Coomaraswamy, who was a mineralogist and had even entered
the technical profession in his homeland, was soon fired by a sense of appreciation of
the pastachievements of his paternal ancestors. He, therefore, gave up his technical
calling before long and devoted himself to the study of the traditional arts and crafts of
his land and of the original homeland of his ancestors. In the course of his study he
could lay his hands upon many a specimen of the ancient arts and crafts. Gradually he
built up an interesting and varied collection of Ceylonese (Sri Lankan) pottery, brass-
work and bronzes. He also made purchase, on the basis of the insight he developed, of
art objects for the Colombo Museum. He noted, however, with regret that modern
civilization has created an attitude of apathy, if not antipathy, to our tradition. He,
therefore, urged that ""the forniation of a museum" to house the ""relics of the past" will
help us to give up our habit of regarding old relics such as I collect as curiosities".** He
felt, therefore, that the setting up and development of museums and storage and
presentation therein of the relics of the past as well as significant gifts of nature would
help to generate and revitalise our interest in our own heritage of man and nature and
would promote a sense of national pride and stimulate all the forces of
Yet paradoxically Coomaraswamy went on to lament "certain fine
integration.
to be available in every market-place in the world are now
things that used
only to be seen in museums,
Because they are to be seen in museums we imagine that we are cultured...
by their work that men of old were cultured." Already in his
. We know
younger days, nearly
eighty years ago, bric-a-brac and disjecta membra detached from their
and without any visible remains of their perspective had pristine moorings
begun to find their way into
The History of the Indian Museum, printed by the order of the Trustees
of the Indian
Calcutta, 1914. Muscum,
*A.K. Coomaraswamy, Domestic Handicrafis and Culture, 1910, pp. 14-15.
Introdation

on the museums. It was the loss of perspective and

ns of a
background that had distressed Coomara
sw.amy. But there was no alternative to collecting and recording such orphancd finds in
that a the hope of piecing them together
t e the
again in the future, and storing, preserving and
studying them in their new museum home. The situation reminds onc of the nursery
ncrease rhyme on Humpty-Dumpty.
Rabindra Nath Tagorc, the poet and Nobel-Laureatc, also devoted his
ved of to the nmeaning and
thoughts
purpose of muscums.* He emphasizcd the nced of their growth in
ISt "be India as well the flowering of their functions, especially in the field of education on
the
the
or analogy of the Soviet example which he had personally observed shortly after thec
SIS ot Russian Revolution of 1917. The Sovicts had felt the need of quickly educating the
1on of masses on the meaning and value in their daily lives of the October Revolution.
ted to employed various methods for this purpose and found that the museums were the best
They
roie and quickest means of spreading the message
be an
audio-visually. In order to realize this
objective the authorities introduced a network of museums in villages and towns, and
nation. devised carefully worked and graded guiding
programmes suitable for even the un-
lettered. The programmes were made very crisp and short and did run for more than
ten
ntered minutes at a time. They were so contrived on the proven
premise that the unlettered
adult mind or juvenile audiences cannot concentrate with
anical
comprehension on any topic
for a longer period. The success of this experiment was instantly realized.
fts of Tagore also observed that the museums in Soviet Russia were linked with the
he Regional Study Centres, the purpose of which was to delve into the local history of the
region including the economic conditions of the people in the past and present. These
brass- centres also made enquiries into the mineral resources of the
region as well as into their
. sources of energy. The museums attached to these centres
played a major role in
odern dissemination of education among the masses. The new age of Soviet Russia foundthe
a
He special and effective role for museums in the task of bringing education to the
door-step
will of the masses.
He Tagore waxed eloquent in this context on his rich experience of the Tretyakov
and Gallery of Moscow. At the time of his visit, in 1930, about 3,00,000 people had visited
ould the museum in a span of two years between 1927 and
1929, and that it was difficult in
and the prevailing circumstances of the times to accommodate
any larger number. In fact in
order to avoid disappointment and inconvenience to
used
prospective visitors a system of
prior reservation had to be introduced.
ums. The success of the Russian experiment and new
now
system was rellected in the
increasing popularity of the museums in general. Before the Revolution it was the
early bourgeoisie which had the monopoly of museums as it were. But the revolution had
ings put an end to the bourgeoisie, and had thrown open the
into of privilcge to the proletariate who
llood-gates of the old bastions
grasped their new-lound freedom, right and
opportunity with avidity.
m, In this connection the case of the
Hermitage in Leningrad may be cited. The
R.N. Tagore, Russiar Chithi (1eller from Russin-in
Bengali).
in India
Muscums and Heritage

12 specialises in arts. It is a

m u s e u m s of
the world and to the
of the largest pre-historic times
Hermitage is
one
West and East from the Winter
of the which, the
m u s e u m of the
"material culture
buildings, the oldest of
The m u s e u m comprises
five
museum
containing the palace
present day*". The Winter Palace e x c l u s i v e preserve
the 18th century. w a s the
Palace, was built in was founded
in 1764. First it to "select
of foreign paintings tsarina. Later it w a s opened
acquisitions tsar or thrown open to
often only of the that it w a s
of the royal family, Revolution of 1917
after the October
guests. It was only the
for art among
the public. to create a feeling
consciously difficult to convey a
Tagore felt that it
was necessary
our lives, but
it is extremely in
ennobles and heightens tend to r o a m aimlessly
people, for it uninstructed, therefore,
the uninitiated. The This phenomenon
feeling for art to lose interest as well as their way.
With a view,
m u s e u m and soon
the galleries of a
been appreciated
in Soviet Russia.
has of the visitors
of human o r visitor psychology and fruitful the progress
the m u s e u m visits purposive who are
therefore, to making free of charge by well trained guides
channelized
museum is properly education.
through a
communication and
transmission of
in the art of paintings, displayed
adept
of the exposition of the works of art, especially colour-
In the process about the composition,
tell the visitors and listeners the
in the galleries the guides illumination of the objects
portrayed and
distribution of space,
scheme, perspective, artist or period.
the painting of any one
technique and style of should insist that the guide lectures
should not
Tagore felt that our
m u s e u m s
The guides,
at a time over a
selected group of pictures.
minutes
spend more than twenty home the message of the painting
as well as
to him, should aim at bringing Sometimes the differences
according
between the subject-matter and the spirit. also
the interrelationship effectively. Care should
and another drives home the point very
between one piece are not tired out.
the guides to make sure that the visitors
be taken by museums in a very practical
the educational aspects of
Tagore thus emphasized India in mind. The suggested approach
and
manner bearing
the prevalent conditions of of every
to objects of every description and museums
procedure would apply museum
in India where the pressing
and, more so to the museums
discipline and in every country
the masses, in all
need of the day is the rapidspread of literacy and education among
Education would, therefore, occupy
the pride of place in the scheme of
age groups.
museum activities
in India for a long time to come.

Lev Tikhonov, 7he Museunns of Leningrad, Moscow, 1982, pp. 92-93.

4 Victor Mushtiukov and
Winter

2
Growth of Museums in India

A. General
It has become customary to refer to the growth of museums in this country as the
museum movement. The nomenclature is clearly a misnomer, for it connotes a popular
movement for the setting up and development of museums, like the Swadeshi Movement
or Freedom Movement. For several reasons such has not been the case in India.
Freedon
The long-standing tradition of Chitrasáls or Chitrakathis prevalent in this country
splayad
oiur did not give rise to the idea of museums in the region. Some of the movements which
nd the have come down to us from the past can at best serve as components of museums, but did
not constitute museums by themselves. For instance, the numerous inscriptions of Asoka
recorded on natural rocks or on deliberately and exquisitely carved pillars and in one
case on a copper plate (Sohagaura) are a rich storehouse of information and excellent
archival documents but not museums by themselves. The caves of Ajanta with their rich
repertoire of rock-cut architecture, sculptural embellishments, and mural paintings
i lso representing both religious and secular or semi-religious themes, creating as it were a
living atmosphere, and an inscriptional record documenting the execution of some of the
caves may be constituted as small local museums today, but were not museums per se at
cà and any time in their history. The early 11th century temple of Brihadisvara at Thanjavur
every is not merely one of the best preserved monuments in India with a rich assemblage of
sculptures installed in an architectural setting, and enclosed by a cloister povided with
in all lofty gateways and richly documented with inscriptional record, but one that comes
ame of nearest to a concept of museums. The paintings executed on the walls of the circumam-
bulatory around the sanctum sanctorum not merely provide us with a rich fare of painted
scenes executed with great skill and technical excellence, but also records from mythology
and history of the exploits of the lord of the temple, Siva, and its builder, the king, Rajaraja
Chola, his preceptor, Karuvur Devar, and suggestions of the service of Devadásts to the
enshrined divinity through programmes of dance and music etc. The inscriptions engraved
on the plinth and walls of the temple record not merely the details of the construction of
the temple, but contains a list of the bronzes and ornaments and other loose objects
bestowed upon the temple. The documentation provided is meticulously correct and
anticipates the documentation methods in vogue in today's museums. The temple
premises witnessed religious festivals and discourses, social functions, musical, dramatic
in India
Museums and Heritage

14
an
as a cultural centre,
the like. It, therefore, served fully
and dance progranmmes and for ennobling enter-
a centre
besides
cducational centre and a
social centre at once, of the
a gradation of employees for the upkeep
tainment. The king had to rely
on the
functions broadly indicated above, as well
establishment and conducting of all the for.
structure. Naturally also security was provided
maintenance and repairs of the as the earliest well
documented m u s e u m -
Thus the Brihadisvara temple can be regarded
tradition of this temple
in It must be stated in passing that the
like institution India) be they sttpas, rock-cut
establishments in the country
Was characteristic of all religious denominations. In this
structural dwellings irrespective of religious
monasteries, or
their labelled sculptures and records of
and Sanchi, with
sense, the stkpas at Bharhut B.C.
the earliest examples, going back to the second century
donations would constitute
records were much less eloquent.
Only the scale differed, and the written District Mathura in Uttar Pradesh
where a
We have also the evidence of Mat in
Kushana rulers
with labelled sculptures of the imperial
veritable museum-cum-temple
and can be dated to the early
centuries of the Christian era
Were displayed and preserved
(Ist-2nd centuries A.D.). effect
of what has been stated above, the oldest museums in India, in
Regardless in
not in probably had come into existence in the form of picture galleries
though name,
in Madhya
number has been found in recent times
pre-bistoric times, of which a large the Betwa near
Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh. Those around Bhimbetka in the valley of
While the paintings on the walls of natural
Bhopal in Madhya Pradesh are well known.*
purpose they al so
rock shelters of the pre-historic man may have served magico-religious
a

and experience of the people who

tell us about the life-style and thought processes
transmit their message and
created them. The purpose of these creations was also to
impact to The tradition continued throughout the later periods, and it is not
posterity.
necessary to elaborate upon them.
A passing mention may be made of the picture galleries of Bagh and Ajanta, the
rock-cut cavesof west and south India, such as those at Ellora or Mahabalipuram, the
architectural remains of stüpas, monasteries, temples, mosques, palaces and forts etc.
throughout India, besides the collections of manuscripts and miniature paintings,
textiles, furniture, utensils, ornaments and numerous other works of art and craft, etc.
These did serve the purpose of museums though they were not surely named nor men-
tioned as museums of any kind
Such magnificent works of art and architecture were no doubt created at great
expense, and it was considered a sacred duty for all concerned to preserve them for future
generations. In spite of the best efforts and ingenuity of man, it is indeed not possible
for him to preserve his heritage in perpetuity. The destructive forces of natural decay,
periodical warfare, pestilence, natural calamities like excessive rains, floods, earthquakes
or outbreaks of fire and numerous other factors are constantly working deleteriously
upon them.

*V.S. Wakankar was the first scholar to discover them and bring them to the notice of the public.
India
Growth of Muscums in lndia
15
e, an
These are, however, valuable sources of information on all aspects of our lives
These
nter throughout our history and an essential means of education as well. As works of art
f the they provide us with delight and entertainment. They are, therefore, in the nature of
I the museums'. There can be no doubt, however, that the various kings and dynasties that
for. flitted across the chess-board of the Indian sub-continent had their royal archives of
eum- documents of charters, grants, correspondence and record of events and libraries. Being
mple recorded on perishable materials like palm leaf or cotton or silk cloth or wooden plates,
k-cut all these have perished. The stone inscriptions and occasional records on copper plates
this
is of
are
the lone sentinels of the phenomenon. These were indeed 'museums' of a kind.
(While probably the oldest museum of the world was founded in the third century
B.C. B.C. at Alexandria, as already pointed out earlier, the earliest nuseum in the world,
called as such, is the Ashmolean Museum founded at Oxford in England in 1682. The
re a museum came to be set up with the nucleus of a collection of diverse art materials
ulers donated by one Mr. Ashmole. These had come to him as a bequest from a relation of
era his, a Dutchman, called Mr. Tradescant.)
The political situation in India, which was divided into a congeries of States, on
fect the decline of the Mughal empire, before the advent of the British upon the scene, had
s in stood in the way of any coordinated or interlinked effort in the direction of
setting up
Ihya any museum per se on the sub-continent. In fact, it was not until 1817 that the gradually
ear expanding British empire of India marked the culmination of all efforts at empire
ural building that had started with the victory of the English East India Company in the
also infamous battle of Plassey (1757) in West Bengal. The hundred years from 1757 to 1857
who was a period of
expansion and unrest for the English power in India. But with the quell-
and ing in 1858 of the first great revolt of the Indian people, called also the first War of
not Independence, often miscalled as the Sepoy Mutiny, that a status of some kind of
temporary equilibrium and stability was reached. The English rulers of India could then
the relax somewhat and consolidate their position in the land of
conquest. While transplant-
the ing their own traditions upon an alien soul they could not ignore the local traditions.
etc. They had, of necessity, to acquaint themselves quickly with the people whom destiny
had made their subjects. They had to learn their languages, the characteristics of the
gs,
etc. divergent races, castes and creeds, and their history, besides the geography, flora and
en- fauna, climate, resources of energy, trade and industry and nuances of agriculture, and
mining and the like, to be able to exploit and utilize all the resources to their advantage
eat as well as create conditions of comfortable living for themselves. Literature of all kinds
ure recorded in manuscripts and inscriptions, monuments of art and architecture, history of
ble economy and money management as recorded in the archives of old or in the coins of
ay, all kinds grew in volume. No doubt a good part of the inspiration came also from a
of enquiry and thirst for knowledge. This quest for a two-fold purpose has led in course
spirit
kes
sly of time to the setting up of various institutions of survey, such as the
Survey of India, the
Archaeological Survey of India, Botanical Survey of India, Zoological Survey of India,
and Geological Survey of India etc. for work of exploration and research in the
areas of specialization.
respective
Museums and Heritage in India
16
the
from the injunctions* issued for
In this context it would be interesting to quote
ministers (of Christian religion) stationed in
India contained in the Charter granted
William
to the East Indies" by King
to the English East India Company trading
IlIin 1698
their arrival the Portuguese language
.They shall be obliged to learn after of tlhe country where they shall
and shall apply themselves to learn the native language the
the Gentoos (i.e., Hindus) that shall be
reside, the better to enable them to instruct Protestant religion."
or of their agents, in the
servants or slaves of the same company
the basic objective of
The purpose behind this injunction is clear and only emphasizes
the foreign and distant ruler.
and law was also
The study anthropology, ethnography and customs, usages
of
of the East
"Servants
prompted to a great extent by the dictates of practical necessity.
were quick to notice the usages
of Indians which difered from their
India Company
matters are found in the early narratives.
The customs of
own, and many notes on such
when in their judicial capacity
the people assumed practical importance for administrators
rules of inheritance or when their official duties
they were faced with such matter as the administration."**
concerned problems of land revenue and
Other aspects of Indian life encompassing astronomy,
mathematics, economic
the British. This interest led
wealth and medical science also attracted the attention of
as well as materials for the advancement
to the collection of treatises on these subjects
of the Asiatic Society by Sir
of the studies. The spirit of enquiry had led to the founding
Governor General
William Jones in 1784 under the patronage of Warren Hastings,
of India.
in London
At thebeginning of the 19th century the East India Company founded
a library of books and manuscripts relating to and
an Oriental Repository", both as
who had served in India and
sent from India and, more particularly, received from
men

house objects of
had made large book collections of their own as well as a museum to
interest and study from the archaeological, artistic and scientific points of view."@ This
a museum of Indian materials in the West. It
was perhaps the first great effort to found
had indeed a bearing on India, howsoever indirectly, as it marks the first effort to draw
the attention of the Western world to the richness of Indian heritage in all its facets and
nuances. Its collections were enlarged from time to time by prudent purchases, gifts and
collections of their own. In
bequests of men who had served in India and had built up
fact an attractive scheme was made to found towards the middle of the 19th century an
Indian Muscum of Fine and Industrial Arts, but had to be given up for lack of funds.
In the seventies of the century the collection in the museum part were dispersed. The
obiects of industrial arts went to the Indian Section of the museum at South Kensington,
now called the Victoria and Albert Museum, and the archaeological, sculptural and
Atul Chatterjce and Richard Burn, British Contribution to Indian Sudies, 1943, Pp. 9-10.
Ibid., p. 41.
@Ibid., p, 46.
Growth of Museums in India
17
natural history collections were given to the British Museum, both in London.
(The young museum movement of India
began with the setting up by the Asiatic
Society of the Oriental Museun of the Asiatic Society in Calcutta in 1814. Its purpose was
objects to house the miscellaneous objects of art, archaeology and natural history that were
being accumulated by the exploratory activities of the Society. The
purpose of the Society
was to promote deep and wide knowledge of the country's history, culture,
religions,
geography and natural resources among the new rulers of the land with a view to equipp-
ing them properly for their new role. Incidentally it could not close its doors to the local
people nor shut out the benefits for them. The Oriental Museum later developed into the
Indian Museum, as it came to be so called in 1866. It shifted to its present building in
1875 and was thrown to the public on April 1, 1878. Thus was bora the first museumm
of the country, under the patronage and financial support of the Government of India.
Considering the fact that among the world's great museums, the British Museum
was founded in 1753, the Louvre in Paris in
1870, and the Metropolitan Museum of
Arts in New York in 1870, India had not done too
badly)
B. The Five Phases of the Development of Museums in India
The development of museums in India can be divided into five distinct phases of
growth as follows:
) The Early or Company Phase (1757-1858),
i) The Victorian Era (1858-1901),
i ) The Era of Curzon and John Marshall (1901-1928),
(iv) The Pre-Independence Era (1928-1947),
(v) The Modern Phase of the Post-Independence Era (1947-1987).

i) The Early Phase (1757-1858)

The Early Phase of the museums in India began with the endeavours of the Asiatic
Society of Bengal, which had devoted itself to the study of all aspects of Indian life. The
Society undertook the task, first, out of a natural curiosity to know all about tbe new
land where Europeans had come to work and live for a
while, and, secondly, for the
practical ends of ruling the land. The Society had gradually assembled some collections
of a miscellany of materials of its diverse interests,
bearing upon languages and litera-
ture, flora and fauna, minerals and geological specimens, and the
like, besides art and
archaeology. It had, therefore, to house the growing holdings properly for study and
reference, for they soon outgrew the limits of their spatial limitations. They had also to
be sorted out,
preserved, documented, studied, published and displayed.
The founding of the Asiatic Society was largely
possible because of the of
Warren Hastings, the then Governor General of the small territorial limits support
of the English
in India. Warren Hastings dominated the scene for 13
years from 1772 to 1786. He was
himself a man of an inquisitive bent of mind and fostered the
study of Indian
history.
languages and literature as much for acquisition of knowledge as for equipping the new
Muscums and Heritage in India
18

marble
Tulers with thorough
a background of the newly conquered land, and its peoples./A
statue of Warren Hastings of exquisite workmanship, now preserved and displayed in the
Victoria Memorial Hall at Calcutta, shows him stafiding on a pedestal and dressed in a
Roman oga with a maulvi and a Brahman pundit flanking him on either sideThe statue
was designed no doubt to glorify Warren Hasting's interest in Indology. It also symbo-
lises the attitude of the ruling power towards India and her resources. Fortunately,
William Jones, who laid the founda-
however, he enjoyed the academic support of Sir
tions of Indological studies in India.
While Warren Hastings was active in his support of Indological studies, his
successor, Lord Cornwallis (l786-1792) was haughty, and indifferent towards the
did not dis-
preservation and study of the Indian heritage and ethos. He, nevertheless,
courage it either, nor did he withdraw the moral support
to the undertakings of the
Asiatic Society.
Meanwhile the Oriental Museum continued to grow under the patronage of the
Society. But James Prinsep's appeal in 1837 to set up a National Museum did not meet
with a favourable response from the Government of the day. The Society made another
vain effort in 1856 to persuade the Government to set up an Imperial Museum at
Calcutta. It was, however, in 1866 that the Government relented some what and agreed
to rename the Society's museum as the Indian Museum, under the newly passed Indian
Museum Act of 1866, and left the management to a Board of Trustees. This Act legalized
its status as a private institution (autonomous body under the present system). It was, how-
ever, constantly plagued by shortage of funds. From the verybeginningthe museum was
conceived of as a multi-purpose museum from the variegated nature of its collections.
It has retained its character to this day, and has the followingisections: (1) Archaeology,
(2) Art, (3) Industry. (4) Zoology, (5) Geology and (6) Anthropology, respectively. In
1840 a Museum of Economic Geology was founded in Calcutta, and, it remained in the
premises of the Asiatic Society till 1876. It had been set up with the purpose of develop-
ing the country's economic resources, as a result of the encouraging outcome of the
opening up of the coal mines of Raniganj in West Bengal. The bias of the collection in
favour of acquisition of knowledge can be easily discerned, but the educational
pros-
pects or potentialities of the museum were hardly recognized .or explored.
It may be interesting to record the steps that were
being taken about this time for
the promotion of education in general. A Madrasa was founded in Calcutta in
1781 for
the study of science. A college for the study of Sanskrit was founded
by Lord Cornwallis
at Varanasi in 1791. The Fort William College was
opened in Calcutta in 1800 by Lord
Wellesley. The fostering of education among the Indians or the pursuit of education per
se as a responsibility of the Government was not
recognized until many years later. As a
result there was no chance for museums being conceived of in modern fashion at this
early stage of their evolution in India as an educational institution by itself or as an
adjunct of an educational institution.
Jt was only in 1813 that it was decided for the first time that
fostering of education
in India Growth of Museums in India 19

marble among the masses should be a responsibility of the Government. A sum of Rs. 10,000o
in the was also sanctioned for the purpose
in a It was 22 years later in 1835ät it was decided at the instance of Lord Macaulay,
statue Law Member of the Governor General's Council, to give Indians the benefits of the
mbo- English language by its introduction as a subject of study in the Indian colleges. But it
ately, was intended to serve the purpose of thé'ruling power and to make Indians help the
unda- substenance of governance by an alien power. Under such auspices it was scarcely to
be expected that the Government intended to make the museums actively serve the
his cause of education of the Indian people. There was no prospect, therefore, of the
the Government adopting a policy of establishing museums through the length and breadth
t dis- of the country. The idea itself had not yet taken root.
i the In retrospect, it would be interesting to recall the avowed purpose of these
educational institutions founded by the alien power as recorded in the minutes of Lord
i the Wellesley in regard to the Fort William College:
meet The civil servants of the English East India Company can no longer be considered
other as agents of a commercial company; they are, in fact, the ministers and servants of a
at powerful sovereign." The preamble of the Regulation by which the College was set up
greed stated that those who came out as youths, aged 16 to 18, without special preparation,
ndian should possess a competent knowledge as well as the laws, Government and Constitu-
alized tion of Great Britain, as of the several native languages of the Hindoostan and the:
how Deccan, and of the laws, usages and customs of the provinces which the said civil.
was servants respectively may be appointed to govern."
tions. The museum movement, therefore, progressed very slowly and not as a result of
ology. any deliberate educational policy to utilize them for the purpose until many years later.
y. In During the first phase, the growth of museums was rather slow, primarily because the
n the public were not much enthused owing to their mental reservations after the trauma of
elop- the then recent revolt of the Indian Army and their misgivings about the alien rulers.
the The motivation had, therefore, to be provided by the government of the day or the
on in learned societies, which were burdened with their collections of manuscripts, handicrafts
pros- and the like and felt morally responsible for housing and preserving them for posterity.
As museums were non-profit making, and, therefore, wasteful from the com
e for mercial point of view, they ocupied a low priority in the scheme of Government's
81 for development plans. As a result, not more than five museums came up during the
wallis period.
y Lord
on per ii) The Victorian Era (1858-1901)
. As a The Government then came forward to set up museums of a general character or
at this multi-purpose museums, as they are called, at the provincial capitals for very much the
as an same reasons which had led to the foundation of the Asiatic Society in 1784. The year
1861 witnessed the constitution of the Archaeological Survey of India, recognising the
Ication eed to put archaeological investigation on a firm footing. The tireless eflorts of th
20
Museums and Heritage in India
first Director General, Major General Sir Alexander Cunningham, led to the discovery
ot large
a
miscellany of archacological materials.These found their way into the nearest
CXtant provincial museums or to the Indian Museum at Calcutta which was of course
the eapital
of India then.
Cunningham succeeded in salvaging a major part of the
standing remains of the 2nd century B.C. Sunga stüpa at Bharhut in Madhya Pradesh
and presented
them to the Indian Museum. The labelled
the stapa
sculptures on the railings of
of the richest treasures of the Indian Museum. Of
are one
course if the stapa
could have been maintained
intact in situ it would have served excellently as a model
site museum in the
open air.
About half a dozen museums
grew up during the first two decades (1858-1878) of
the second phase and
among them the most remarkable is the Government Museunm at
Mathura (1874) built around the nucleus
of a large collection of Mathura
made by a private sculptures
individual, thanks to the enthusiasm of a British Collector,
F.S. Growse. These sculptures had been
recovered from the mounds of Mathura as a
result of random diggings by all and
not much impressed
sundry for various purposes. But Government
was
by Growse's solicitude for the museum movement and
he was
unceremoniously transferred from Mathura to obscure
obsession. Bijnor for the fault of his
The Golden and Diamond Jubilee
years of Queen Victoria in 1887 and
respectively, led to the founding of several museums, 1897,
often associated with her name.
Among them features the Victoria Technical Institute
at Madras as a museum of
The idea of the Victoria Memorial crafts.
Hall, which eventually came into existence in
had been conceived of
by Lord Curzon as early as 1899, with a 1921,
merely as a Personalia Museum devoted great foresight, not
rule in India, but largely as a memento to exclusively to the Queen, as a
symbol of British
the British Raj and the British
with India. One wonders if he had a connection
after nearly 50 years, in 1947, for he premonition of the eventual
snapping of the ties,
had
freedom movement in India by his infamousinadvertently triggered and intensified the
partition of Bengal in 1905.
(iii) The Era of Curzon and John Marshall
(1901-1928)
It not, however, until the
was
General of India that the museum appointment of Lord Curzon as the Governor
while stimulus. He felt
movement, during the third phase, received a worth-
very strongly that the British Government
precious little for the preservation of the cultural in India were
heritage of the
doing
fore, lent full support to all activities towards
the discovery and
country, and he, there-
cultural heritage of this ancient land. The preservation of the rich
Director General of the appointment of Sir John Marshall as the
event in this direction. He not Archaeological
Survey of India in 1902 was a
merely followed the precedent established phenomenal
of enriching the existing by
museums, but Cunningham
site museums at or near the adopted policy of setting up a chain of
a
archacological excavated sites with a view to
displaying the excavated remains on the site itself so that the housing and
by being torn away 1rom their habitat and objects were not orphaned
they could be better
appreciated in the
Growth of Muscums in lndia
21
context of their occurrence. The archacological site museum at Sarnath (on the
out-
skirts of Varanasi) was the first such museum to be set up in
1910, as the earliest
example of the new trend in the territorial limits of present-day India. This
still being pursued by the Archaeological Survey and it has more than
policy is
twenty-five
museums under its control and many more are in the offing.
Marshall, therefore, may
be credited with the idea of setting up site museums with a view to
presenting the
excavated finds of small antiquities in juxtaposition to the structural remains of the
site,
so that their role while in use could be understood in proper perspective.

iv) The Pre-Independence Phase (1928-1947)

Markham and Hargreaves have succinctly expressed their views in regard to the
rationale and justification of site museums in the following words:
I t has been the policy of the Government of India to keep the small and movable
antiquities, recovered from ancient sites, in close association with the remains to which
they belong, so that they may be studied amid their natural surroundings and not lose
focus by being transported..."
Although the population of most of these excavated sites is scanty, the mainte-
nance of these museums is entirely justified for the objects preserved in them are all
important to the student if he is to visualize aright the conditions of life in Ancient
India and to infuse life and colour into his picture. But these local museums are
justified
only if the antiquities housed in them are sufficiently numerous and valuable and if the
site is reasonably accessible."
Sir Leonard Woolley, the renowned excavator of Ur in Iraq, was invited by the
Government of India in 1939, on the eve of World War II, to makea thorough
survey
of the activities of the Archaeological Survey of India, and in this connection he had
an
opportunity to review the work of the archaeological site museums. He was very un-
charitable in his views towards the site museums and broadly recommended their
closure, mainly on grounds of poor maintenance-a recommendation that was fortunate-
ly not accepted by the Government of India.
Even though Woolley had recommended the closure of the site museums his
cynical criticism was also suggestive of the remedies of the obvious deficiencies. In his
day many of these museums were in inaccessible interiors, but the situation has totally
changed to day. All these places have been put on the tourist map and have been
rendered accessible, with the lone exception of the island museum of
Nagarjunakonda.
Though it is much more accessible now as a result of the introduction of a ferry service,
which does not ply round the clock, and the staff posted at the museum are, therefore,
completely isolated from the rest of the world, Though the curatorial and clerical staf
have a chance of earning promotions and a shift, the watch and ward staff are rather
helpless and as a result may be rendered listless and apathetic unless their service
conditions are rendered otherwise attractive, so that may continue to be servieable and
useful to the visiting public.
ind
and Heritepr t

uorum
or inadequecies
regard to the wtitabulety of the bidings,
The valid criticise o iew buildings on e l -
n c e bee met
the coaTUCtaon
by
of displays and labeis has the curatoral t a f
architectural plans. 2nd umproved
duspilays. Tbe trainng of
designcd be more belpéui i general tothe vsiting
has also been imuprooed t h a t they may
scholars the proper
in the folowing ords.
Thc strong criticisof Wooley facts of uratiicatio 2nd
him (the icholar) are the
peTapectiewich appeal to
and
2 s o c i a t i o n recor ded in
tbe reports o eta ziaon,
2 d a1 so0o 2 1 c objects have e e n
whether the
on a m C u shc it docs not matier
oved from the carh a d put
a s so
e n is hondred yards or two bundred s from the cczvated site s tha
of the eL.CEvated reports
the ied of 2rly puilacation
alidity 2nd cmphasizes sitc m s e n This alas s
Dot ihe
e put on daplay at the comcermed
the objcts mght shows The
whcTE the ctcav2taons had odod in 1969.
casc, as the case of Kalitangan, ot
the v e u that the antiqaes
unforuunatciy s now bere in the horizom Bot
epot, » i t h T2ch
o r e proit in, sa. Ner D:lhi,
Harappa could be stadied ith ininitciy oated shed a Harzppa, s 2 ic
than i 2
of librarie and coagarztivE material, cldormed
some oi wom 2rc
overdraT arid st ay unizit to the gemera Pulac, thE z m n
to s t the zacent site. But
and no e s inqusivE and would ipare no pz tDc ogmal e s
thc wiicmes to t
thathc scholar who is foTsed to zo out i1o The
wihout his due aipmet bods god
works at a dzdvantage in that he works
coleciion of books inciadng eicavation reporLs
remedy should lie in the proviion of a
f2cilitie for cosultation. 2s w a e 2r2-
The latuer nend o t , b o E , be L respOsioity i the
scholars nezr t h m
There is no case, however, for the dispersal or distnbetho of nporant
2s in the czse of Nalandz oronzEs or he Indus k , thnug uch dirbution tz
airezdy taken placz in the pa In facT frher dispersal of the Nalandz bronzes irc
the tite museun at Nalandz on the asis
of a deision o the Csal Advisor Board
fMuseuns had to e hal by a succsil appeal the Emment ior the "c*
of the decision at the author's instarce. TS w2i dore i e o he f2ct tha
Nalandz bronzes are ciacly alike, cach having bors ade earzt b
o . 2and the dispetal Ould have deprrv ed the scholarr 2nd ewer
he opportunity of looking at the tocality od the cole:tio a : : . te dr
e n out of ther peripecive and vurronding
Woles uggtion, endorses Marchan-Hargraets
2dequacy o the uaining of the curanots Coidra r
1emove or reduc the deicienicy, and onc w depers 1h2

nerely ound cholars thernvelves bur ar2 at 222ie

geeral pubic and have done their e t to mziz the
t:

centres.
The sitemuve.as have tade conaderabic pr
Growth of Museums in India
23
in number on the lines of the reorganisation planned and implemented by Wheeler with
suitable readjustments of jurisdiction of the supervisory staff and improvement of scales
of pay and augmentation of man power, though there is further scope for improvement
in all these matters.
In 1965 Government appointed a Committee headed by Sir Mortimer Wheeler to
review the activities of the Archaeological Survey of India. Its recommendations in
regard to the site museums are worthy of consideration in this context.
Site Museums are an important addition to sites which are themselves of instruc
tional interest, sites such as Delhi Fort, Sarnath, Nalanda or Sanchi. But a Site Museum
difficult of access and situated half a mile from a site of which nothing can be seen
above ground is almost valueless. The site in question is Kondapur in Andhra Pradesh,
where a Curator of the Survey has been at some pains to arrange a Site Museum which
very few people are ever likely to visit. It is essential that a site be worthy of its site
museum."

It is true that the basic criteria for justifyinga site museum comprise (1) adequate
ly numerous small finds, (2) impressive archaeological or structural remains at the
adjacent site, and (3) accessibility of the site and museum to the visitors. From these
points of view the site museum already set up near the site may not have instant justifi-
cation. It may be recalled that the ancient mound stands to a height of about 8-10
metres above ground level indicating considerable potential and that it was only
partially excavated in 1941. Even the partially excavated finds speak of an impressive
cultural history of the Satavahana period ranging from the 2nd century B.C. to 2nd
century A.D. It were these finds which had prompted the Hyderabad Archaeological
Department to set up the museum. The remedy lies not in closing the museum as the
Review Committee had suggested by inuendo, but in excavating the site carefully and
completely and, if the finds were to justify the continuance of the museum, to take steps
for making the site more accessible to visitors. It is these arguments of the author, in his
capacity as Director (Explorations) in the Archaeological Survey of India, which won
the case for a new lease of life for the museum which had otherwise been doomed to
death. Luckily for all, the museum is still alive, and the excavations are awaited.
One of the important museums set up by the Archaeological Survey of India under
the auspices of Marshall was the Central Asian Antiquities Museum in 1929 at New
Delhi to house the excavated remains gathered by Sir Aurel Stein, a Hungarian Oficer
of the Archaeological Survey, in the course of three campaigns in the beginning of the
century. It is now part and pareel of the National Museum, but constitutes one of the
world's six great collections of Central Asian Antiquities.
By 1912, when the museum situation in India was reviewed by J.Ph. Vogel, then
Acting Director General of the Archaeological Survey, the total number of museums
was thirty-nine. The upward trend gained further momentum during the next twenty-five
years between 1912 and 1936. When Markham, Secretary of the British Museums
Association, and Hargreaves, then Director General of the Archaeological Survey of
Museums and Heritage in In dia
24
1936, the number of
India, made a of the museum movement in India in
survey
hundred and five.
including those now in Pakistan, had gone up
to one
museums,
Though the museum movement phenomenally upward swing between 1912
had taken a
maintenance o the
and 1936, the Markham-Hargreaves Report lamented the poor
of the Indian curators, and
Indian museums, blaming it on the lack of training
inadequate finances.)
marked a set-back to the museum move-
The years, between 1939 and 1945,
war

ment as to every other activity in general as a global

phenomenon. Meanwhile,
of
Mortimer Wheeler was appointed as Director General of the Archaeological Survey
a period of four years. He found that
India in even before the war had ended, for
1944,
the museums under the Survey were till then being looked after by the Superinte nding
in consequence in
Archaeologists of the circle offices and suffered considerable neglect
the midst of their other pressing duties, particularly in regard to
the conservation of
monuments which rightly claimed their primary attention. He reorganised the site
museums under an independent Museums' Branch and placed it under the exclusivee
that the site could receive better attention
charge of its own Superintendent so museums

and supervision.
Wheeler (1944-48) and the subsequent Directors General of Archaeology, pre-
dominantly A. Ghosh (1953-1968), continued the time-honoured liberal policy of
enriching the other museums of the country, including those of the Universities, with gifts
of archaeological finds. The site museums have, therefore, served as a major source of
authentic and stratified archaeological materials to the museums of India in general.

(v) The Modern Phase (1947-1987)

India entered into the latest phase of her museum movement with the attainment
of Independence in 1947. Under the new Constitution that was adopted on the 26th
January, 1950, museums as a subject were placed in the State list implying that it was
for the primary responsibility of the States' to set up museums and maintain them. This
did not, however, deprive the Central Government of their right either to finance and
run the existing museums under their charge or even to set up new museums, or finance
State, private, university or institutional museums.
Just as the regime of Sir John Marshall (1902-1928) witnessed the birth of
archaeological site museums and their efflorescence, the post-Independence period
marked a phenomenal growth of museums in general covering many different disciplines
and ushering in an era as well of national museums.
Markham and Hargreaves in their classic report of 1936 had recommended the
seiling up of an Imperial Museum and the appointment of an Inspector General of
Museums. It was, in fact, a revival of the idea of James Prinsep for a national museum.
But Markham-Hargreaves' idea was too simplistic and did not consider the ditliculties
ofmanagement of thematically and academically divergent disciplines. For this purpose
one of the basic prerequisites would have been the bringing of all museums, envisaged
under the scheme, under a unified administrative and financial control. That this was
Growth of Museunns in India
25

not done was for the obvious dilliculties that the scheme implied as well as on account
apparently of the financial constraints imposed by the war.
The All India Oriental Conference in 1937 had formally recommended the setting
up of a National Museum. And the idea was taken up by Woolley in his Report of 1939,
in which he suggested the foundation of a Central Museum in Delhi with a bias on
archaeology. He had also strangely recommended the construction of the new museum
building inside the walls of Firoze Shah Kotla on the grounds of availability of space,
also for gardens and playing fields, proximity to old Delhi, (comparative) freedom from
dust and noise (he had not anticipated the partition of the country or the advent of
refugees and the phenomenal growth of population and traffic) and isolation, privacy
and safeguard and security.
As pointed out earlier the lean years of the Second World War (1939-45) have had
their impact on the development of museums in India and Woolley's idea of 1939
remained in cold storage for years.
Wheeler, in his capacity as Director General of the Archaeological Survey ofIndia
(1944-1948). took up the idea afresh and formulated a scheme for a Central National
Museum. The proposals were finally approved by a Committee headed by Sir Maurice
Gwyer, former Chief Justice of India, and then Vice-Chancellor of the Delhi University,
in 1946. It had envisaged an autonomous organization under a Governing Body consist
ing of 55 members. It was to have five Departments, namely, (1) Art, (2) Pre-historic
Archaeology. 3) Historical Archaeology (Buddhist, Jaina, Brahmanical), (4) Numis-
matics and Epigraphy, and (5) Anthropology. t was to be equipped with a Library, a
Circulating Department, and a Chemical Laboratory. It also stipulated that "the
Director must be a scholar with special knowledge of one or more branches of the
Museum's work, and with approved experience of museum administration."
The National Museum ultimately came into existence in 1949, to begin with i
the Durbar Hall of the Rashtrapati Bhavan. It later shifted to its own building in 1955,
then still under construction, and was thrown open to the public in December 1960..
This was indeed an event of great significance in the history of the museums in India.
A. Ghosh, in his capacity as the Director General of the Archaeological Survey of
India (1953-1968) was primarily responsible for the setting up of the National Museum
in its incipient stages, and looked after the young institution from its inception in 1949
to 1957 as a wing of the Archaeological Survey of India, contributing its nuclear
archaeological and sculptural collection, and building it up with men, materials, equip-
ments and objects, besides academic and technical expertise and dedication. He saw
through its initial entrance into its own building and laid the foundation of its
administration.
Meanwhile, certain other developments had strengthened the museum movement:
The Museums Association of India was founded in 1944. It provided the museum
profession in general with a forum for the exchange of views, news and ideas, and its
annual discussions on specific topics enabled it to highlight the nagging problems and
offer as well as invite suggestions for their solution. The annual Journat of tlhe Museums