ENGLISH REPORT

CELL STRUCTURE

GROUP MEMBERS
ANGIE C ÓRD OVA
AND R EA MOROC HO
NÁTHA LY S ÁNC HEZ
ED UA R D O U LLAURI

TEACHER
LC D A. MARIB EL B A R R E T O

7TH "A"
What is a cell?
The cell (from Latin cella, meaning "small room") is the basic structural,
functional, and biological unit of all known organisms. A cell is the smallest unit
of life. Cells are often called the "building blocks of life". The study of cells is
called cell biology, cellular biology, or cytology.
Cells consist of cytoplasm enclosed within a membrane, which contains
many biomolecules such as proteins and nucleic acids. Most plant and animal
cells are only visible under a microscope, with dimensions between 1 and
100 micrometres.
Historic facts
 In a 1665 publication called Micrographia, experimental scientist Robert
Hooke coined the term “cell” for the box-like structures he observed when
viewing cork tissue through a lens and began the scientific study of cells,
known as cell biology.
 In the 1670s, van Leeuwenhoek discovered bacteria and protozoa. Later
advances in lenses, microscope construction, and staining techniques
enabled other scientists to see some components inside cells
 Cell theory was eventually formulated in 1839. This is usually credited
to Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann. However, many other
scientists like Rudolf Virchow contributed to the theory. It was an important
step in the movement away from spontaneous generation.

Cell theory
Is the historic scientific theory, now universally accepted, that living organisms
are made up of cells, that they are the basic structural/organizational unit of all
organisms, and that all cells come from pre-existing cells. Cells are the basic unit
of structure in all organisms and also the basic unit of reproduction.
The three tenets to the cell theory are as described below:
1. All living organisms are composed of one or more cells.
2. The cell is the basic unit of structure and organization in organisms.
3. Cells arise from pre-existing cells.

The expanded version of the cell theory can also include:

1. Cells carry genetic material passed to daughter cells during cellular

division
2. All cells are essentially the same in chemical composition
3. Energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) occurs within cells
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells

Prokaryotic cells comprise bacteria and archaea. According to the

morphological point of view are the most primitive cells. They typically have
a diameter of 0.1–5 μm, and their DNA is not contained within a nucleus.
Instead, their DNA is circular and can be found in a region called
the nucleoid, which floats in the cytoplasm. Prokaryotes are organisms
that consist of a single prokaryotic cell.

Prokaryotic cell features

Here is a breakdown of what you might find in a prokaryotic bacterial cell.

 Nucleoid: A central region of the cell that contains its DNA.

 Ribosome: Ribosomes are responsible for protein synthesis.
 Cell wall: The cell wall provides structure and protection from the outside
environment. Most bacteria have a rigid cell wall made from
carbohydrates and proteins called peptidoglycans.
 Cell membrane: Every prokaryote has a cell membrane, also known as
the plasma membrane, that separates the cell from the outside
environment.
 Capsule: Some bacteria have a layer of carbohydrates that surrounds
the cell wall called the capsule. The capsule helps the bacterium attach
to surfaces.
 Fimbriae: Fimbriae are thin, hair-like structures that help with cellular
attachment.
 Pili: Pili are rod-shaped structures involved in multiple roles, including
attachment and DNA transfer.
 Flagella: Flagella are thin, tail-like structures that assist in movement.

Eukaryotic cells are found in plants, animals, fungi, and protists. They
range from 10–100 μm in diameter, and their DNA is contained within a
membrane-bound nucleus. Eukaryotes are organisms containing
eukaryotic cells. It is believed that eukaryotes have been evolved from the
prokaryotes.

Eukaryotic cell features

Within a eukaryotic cell, each membrane-bound structure carries out specific
cellular functions. Here is an overview of many of the primary components of
eukaryotic cells.

 Nucleus: The nucleus stores the genetic information in chromatin form.

 Nucleolus: Found inside of the nucleus, the nucleolus is the part of
eukaryotic cells where ribosomal RNA is produced.
 Plasma membrane: The plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer
that surrounds the entire cell and encompasses the organelles within.
 Cytoskeleton or cell wall: The cytoskeleton or cell wall provides
structure, allows for cell movement, and plays a role in cell division.
 Ribosomes: Ribosomes are responsible for protein synthesis.
 Mitochondria: Mitochondria, also known as the powerhouses of the cell,
are responsible for energy production.
 Cytoplasm: The cytoplasm is the region of the cell between the nuclear
envelope and plasma membrane.
 Cytosol: Cytosol is a gel-like substance within the cell that contains the
organelles.
 Endoplasmic reticulum: The endoplasmic reticulum is an organelle
dedicated to protein maturation and transportation.
 Vesicles and vacuoles: Vesicles and vacuoles are membrane-bound
sacs involved in transportation and storage.

All cells, whether prokaryotic or eukaryotic, share these features:

 Plasma membrane
 Cytoplasm
 Ribosomes

Differences Prokaryotic Eukaryotic

Nucleus No Yes

DNA Circular Linear

Unicellular Always Sometimes

Multicellular Never Usually

Sexual reproduction No Yes

Pili and Fimbriae It may have Absent

Membrane bond organelles Absent Present

Cell number, size and shape

Number
Organisms can be classified as unicellular (consisting of a single cell such
as bacteria) or multicellular (including plants and animals).
Most unicellular organisms are classed as microorganisms.
Shape
A unicellular organism differs in shape from another unicellular organism. Within
a multicellular organism, there are a variety of cells. Some are long while others
are short; some are circular while some are oval. Shape and size vary from cell
to cell according to their functions and composition.
Plant cells are much more rigid and rectangular in shape.
Size
The size of a cell can be as small as 0.0001 mm (mycoplasma) and as large as
six to twelve inches (Caulerpa taxifolia). Generally, the unicellular organisms are
microscopic, like bacteria. But a single cell like an egg is large enough to touch.
Whether regular or irregular in shape, they all consist of the same organelles and
help us to perform the daily activities efficiently.

STRUCTURE CELL
Cell has non living outer layer called cell wall found only in plant cells below cell
wall is cell membrane. Cell membrane encloses protoplasm.
Protoplasm has semi fluid matrix called cytoplasm and large membrane bound
structure called nucleus.
Cytoplasm has many membrane bound organelles like endoplasmic reticulum,
golgi bodies, mitochondria, plastids and vacuoles.
They also have non membrane bound structures called ribosomes and
centrosomes
Cytoplasm without cell organelles are called cytosol.
How do plant and animal cells differ?
Both plant and animal cells are
eukaryotic, so they contain
membrane-bound organelles like
the nucleus and mitochondria.
However, plant cells and animal
cells do not look exactly the same
or have all of the same organelles,
since they each have different
needs. For example, plant cells
contain chloroplasts since they
need to perform photosynthesis,
but animal cells do not.
We have animal cell and plant cell
Animal cell: Are smaller measuring 10-30 micrometers in length, are typically
round or irregular in shape, they have no cell wall, have the nucleus in center,
many vacuoles, cannot synthesis nutrients and has no plasmodesmata.
Plant cell: Are larger measuring 10 – 100 micrometers in length, are typically
rectangular or cubic in shape, they have cell wall, have nucleus on the side, one
vacuole, synthesizes nutrients and has plasmodesmata.
CELL WALL
A cell wall is a structural layer surrounding
some types of cells, just outside the cell
membrane. It can be tough, flexible, and
sometimes rigid. It provides the cell with
both structural support and protection, and
also acts as a filtering mechanism. Cell
walls are present in most prokaryotes in
algae, fungi and eukaryotes including
plants but are absent in animals. A major
function is to act as pressure vessels, protection, mechanical support and
preventing over-expansion of the cell when water enters.
CELL MEMBRANE
The cell membrane (also known as the plasma membrane, or cytoplasmic
membrane, and historically referred to as the plasmalemma) is the
semipermeable membrane of a cell that surrounds and encloses its contents of
cytoplasm and nucleoplasm. Separates the cell from the surrounding interstitial
fluid, the main component of the extracellular fluid.
The cell membrane consists of a lipid bilayer, including cholesterols that sit
between phospholipids to maintain their fluidity at various temperatures. Also
contains membrane proteins, including
integral proteins that go across the
membrane serving as membrane
transporters, and peripheral proteins
that loosely attach to the outer
(peripheral) side of the cell membrane,
acting as enzymes shaping the cell.
The cell membrane controls the
movement of substances in and out of
cells and organelles. Also of movement
of molecules across it like diffusion,
osmosis, active transport, phagocytosis and pinocytosis.

The Endomembrane System

The endomembrane system consists of the nuclear envelope, the endoplasmic
reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, and several vesicles (tiny membranous sacs).

Cytoplasm
The word was coined by the ‘Rudolf von Kolliker‘ in the year 1863, as the
synonym of protoplasm. The term ‘Cyto‘ means cell and ‘Plasm‘ means liquid, so
Cytoplasm is the transparent material, percent between the cell membrane and
the nucleus of the eukaryotic cell. It is the semi-fluid, translucent material and
constitutes all the cell organelles, metabolic wastes, proteins, food reserves.
As different organelles have different functions like mitochondria, which is called
the ‘powerhouse of the cell’ is known for producing energy, Golgi is known for
protein sorting, endoplasmic reticulum is known for transporting material,
cytoskeleton provides the structure and rigidity to the cell and so on. Therefore,
these organelles are supported by the cytoplasm to work smoothly and
faultlessly.
The cytoplasm also surrounds the nucleus. It contains the cytosol or cytoplasmic
matrix, which is the aqueous substance and is differentiated into outer ectoplasm

Protoplasm
The word Protoplasm is a Greek word, which means “first thing formed“. It is jelly-
like substance, where numerous chemical, as well as biological activities, takes
place. Therefore, protoplasm is said as the ‘physical basis for life’ and part of the
living cell. It contains about 90% water, salts, proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates.
It is selectively permeable, elastic, granular, colloidal, colourless substance.
Protoplasm is said as the living substance of a cell. Although in modern biology
protoplasm is not used commonly, as it does not have the full proof origin and so
these days only cytoplasm, organelles and nucleus is studied.

BASIS FOR
CYTOPLASM PROTOPLASM
COMPARISON

Meaning The semi-solid material, present Protoplasm is called as the living substance
netween the nucleus and the cell of the cell, and it surrounds the cell
membrane. Mainly made up of water membrane, the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
and is responsible for the half of the So we can say protoplasm constitute the
cell's volume. cytoplasm as well as the nucleus.

Structural Cytoplasm contains organelles like Protoplasm contains cytoplasm as well as the
difference Golgi body, Endoplasmic reticulum, nucleus; thus we can say that protoplasm =
Mitochondria, Ribosomes, nucleus + cytoplasm.
Lysosomes, etc., but not the
nucleus.

It contains Cytoplasm is one of the constituents Protoplasm is thick, viscous fluid which is
of the protoplasm, it is jelly like fluid translucent and is made up of proteins, lipids,
and contains water, metabolic carbohydrates, nucleic acid and inorganic
wastes, proteins, food reserves. salts. It is the site for various biological and
chemical activities.
The Nucleus
The nucleus, which has a diameter of about 5 m, is a prominent structure in the
eukaryotic cell. The
nucleus is of primary
importance because
it stores the genetic
material DNA which
governs the
characteristics of the
cell and its metabolic
functioning. Every
cell in the same
individual contains
the same DNA, but,
in each cell type,
certain genes are
turned on and certain
others are turned off.
Activated DNA, with RNA acting as an intermediary, specifies the sequence of
amino acids when a protein is synthesized. The proteins of a cell determine its
structure and the functions it can perform.
When you look at the nucleus, even in an electron micrograph, you cannot see a
DNA molecule. You can see chromatin, which consists of DNA and associated
proteins. Chromatin looks grainy, but actually it is a threadlike material that
undergoes coiling to form rodlike structures, called chromosomes, just before the
cell divides. Chromatin is immersed in a semifluid medium called the
nucleoplasm. A difference in pH between the nucleoplasm and the cytoplasm
suggests that the nucleoplasm has a different composition
Most likely, too, when you look at an electron micrograph of a nucleus, you will
see one or more regions that look darker than the rest of the chromatin. These
are nucleoli (sing., nucleolus), where another type of RNA, called ribosomal RNA
(rRNA), is produced and where rRNA joins with proteins to form the subunits of
ribosomes. (Ribosomes are small bodies in the cytoplasm that contain rRNA and
proteins.)
The nucleus is separated from the cytoplasm by a double membrane known as
the nuclear envelope, which is continuous with the endoplasmic reticulum
discussed on the next page. The nuclear envelope has nuclear pores of sufficient
size (100 nm) to permit the passage of proteins into the nucleus and ribosomal
subunits out of the nucleus.
Ribosomes
Ribosomes are made up of two subunits, a large and a small one. Each subunit
has its own mix of proteins and rNA. Its shape is rounded and its size is 29
nanometers in prokaryotic cells and 32 nanometers in eukaryotes. They are the
cellular centers of translation that make
possible the expression of genes and the
synthesis of proteins in ribosomes.
Ribosomes can be found within the
cytoplasm, either individually or in groups
called polyribosomes. Ribosomes can
also be found attached to the
endoplasmic reticulum.

Chromosome
In the nucleus of each cell, the DNA molecule is packaged into thread-like
structures called chromosomes. Each chromosome is made up of DNA tightly
coiled many times around
proteins called histones that
support its structure.
Chromosomes are not
visible in the cell’s nucleus—
not even under a
microscope—when the cell
is not dividing. However, the
DNA that makes up
chromosomes becomes
more tightly packed during
cell division and is then
visible under a microscope.
Most of what researchers
know about chromosomes
was learned by observing chromosomes during cell division.
Each chromosome has a constriction point called the centromere, which divides
the chromosome into two sections, or “arms.” The short arm of the chromosome
is labeled the “p arm.” The long arm of the chromosome is labeled the “q arm.”
The location of the centromere on each chromosome gives the chromosome its
characteristic shape, and can be used to help describe the location of specific
genes.
DNA and histone proteins are packaged into structures called chromosomes.
The endoplasmic reticulum (ER), a complicated system of membranous
channels and saccules (flattened vesicles), is physically continuous with the
outer membrane of the nuclear envelope.
 Rough ER is studded with ribosomes on the side of the membrane that
faces the cytoplasm
 Smooth ER, which is continuous with rough ER, doesnot have attached
ribosomes. Smooth ER synthesizes the phospholipids that occur in
membranes and has various other functions depending on the particular
cell.

Mitochondria
Most mitochondria are usually 0.5–1.0 m in diameter and 2–5 m in length.
Mitochondria, like chloroplasts, are bounded by a double membrane. In
mitochondria, the inner fluidfilled space is called the matrix. The matrix contains
DNA, ribosomes, and enzymes that break down carbohydrate products, releasing
energy to be used for ATP production.
The inner membrane of a mitochondrion invaginates to form cristae. Mitochondria
and chloroplasts are able to make some proteins, but others are imported from
the cytoplasm.
The Cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton is a network of
interconnected filaments and tubules that
extends from the nucleus to the plasma
membrane in eukaryotic cells. Prior to the
1970s, it was believed that the cytoplasm
was an unorganized mixture of organic
molecules. Then, high-voltage electron
microscopes, which can penetrate thicker
specimens, showed that the cytoplasm is
instead highly organized. It contains actin
filaments, microtubules, and intermediate
filaments. The technique of
immunofluorescence microscopy identified
the makeup of these protein fibers within the
cytoskeletal network.
The name cytoskeleton is convenient in that it compares the cytoskeleton to the
bones and muscles of an animal. Bones and muscles give an animal structure
and produce movement. Similarly, the fibers of the cytoskeleton maintain cell
shape and cause the cell and its organelles to move. The cytoskeleton is
dynamic; assembly occurs when monomers join a fiber and disassembly occurs
when monomers leave a fiber. Assembly and disassembly occur at rates that are
measured in seconds and minutes. The entire cytoskeletal network can even
disappear and reappear at various times in the life of a cell.
Microtubules
Microtubules are small, hollow
cylinders about 25 nm in
diameter and from 0.2 to 25 m in
length. Microtubules are made of
a globular protein called tubulin.
When microtubules assemble,
tubulin molecules come together
as dimers, and the dimers
arrange themselves in rows.
Microtubules have 13 rows of
tubulin dimers surrounding what
appears in electron micrographs
to be an empty central core. in
many cells, microtubule
assembly is under the control of
a microtubule organizing center,
MTCO, called the centrosome.
The centrosome lies near the
nucleus. Before a cell divides, the
microtubules assemble into a structure called a spindle that distributes
chromosomes in an orderly manner. At the end of cell division, the spindle
disassembles, and the microtubules reassemble once again into their former
array.
When the cell is not dividing, microtubules help maintain the shape of the cell and
act as tracks along which organelles can move. Motor molecules are proteins that
derive energy from ATP to propell themselves along a protein filament or
microtubule. Whereas, the motor molecule myosin is associated with actin
filaments, the motor molecules kinesin and dynein move along microtubules.
One type of kinesin is responsible for moving vesicles along microtubules,
including microtubules, including the transport vesicles of the endomembrane
system. The vesicle is bonded to the kinesin, and then kinensin “walks” along the
microtubule by attaching and reattaching itself further along the microtubule.
There are different types of kinesin proteins, each specialized to move one kind
of vesicle or cellular organelle. One type of dynein molecule, called cytoplasmic
dynein, is closely related to the dynein found in flagella
Actin Filaments
Actin filaments (formerly called
microfilaments) are long, extremely thin
fibers (about 7 nm in diameter) that
occur in bundles or meshlike networks.
The actin filament contains two chains
of globular actin monomers twisted
about one another in a helical manner.
Actin filaments play a structural role by
forming a dense complex web just under
the plasma membrane, to which they
are anchored by special proteins. Also,
the assembly and disassembly of a
network of actin filaments lying beneath
the plasma membrane accounts for the
formation of pseudopods, extensions
that allow certain cells to move in an amoeboid fashion. Actin filaments are seen
in the microvilli that Project from intestinal cells, and their presence most likely
accounts for the ability of microvilli to alternately shorten and extend into the
intestine. In plant cells, actin filaments apparently form the tracks along which
chloroplasts circulate or stream in a particular direction.
How are actin filaments involved in the movement of the cell and its organelles?
They interact with motor molecule called myosin. Myosin has both a head and a
tail. In the presence of ATP, the myosin head attaches, and then reattaches to an
actin filament at a more distant location. In muscle cells, the tails of several
muscle myosin molecules are joined to form a thick filament. In nonmuscle cells,
cytoplasmic myosin tails are bound to membranes, but the heads still interact with
actin. During animal cell division, the two new cells form when actin, in
conjunction with myosin, pinches off the cells from one another.
Intermediate Filaments
Intermediate filaments (8–11 nm in
diameter) are intermediate in size between
actin filaments and microtubules. They are
ropelike assemblies of fibrous polypeptides
that support the nuclear envelope and the
plasma membrane. In the skin, intermediate
filaments made of the protein keratin give
great mechanical strength to skin cells.
Recent work has shown intermediate
filaments to be highly dynamic. They also
are able to assemble and disassemble in
thesame manner as actin filaments and
microtubules.

The Golgi apparatus

Consists of a stack of three to twenty slightly curved saccules whose appearance
can be compared to a stack of pancakes . Vesicles can frequently be seen at the
edges of the saccules.The Golgi apparatus receives protein and also lipidfilled
vesicles that bud from the smooth ER. These molecules then move through the
Golgi from the inner face to the outer face. The vesicles fuse to form an inner face
saccule, which matures as it gradually becomes a saccule at the outer face.
During their passage through the Golgi apparatus, glycoproteins have their sugar
chains modified before they are repackaged in secretory vesicles. Secretory
vesicles proceed to the plasma membrane, where they discharge their contents.
Because this is secretion, the Golgi apparatus is said to be involved in
processing, packaging, and secretion.
The Golgi apparatus is also involved in the formation of lysosomes, vesicles that
contain proteins and remain within the cell.
Lysosomes
Lysosomes are relatively large organelles, formed by the Golgi apparatus. They
are structures surrounded by a simple membrane. They
are bags of enzymes that, if released, would destroy the
entire cell. The size of the lysosomes varies from 0.1
micrometer to 1.2 micrometer.
They contain hydrolytic and proteolytic enzymes
responsible for degrading intracellular material of
external origin (heterophagy) or internal (autophagy)
that reach them. That is, its function is cellular digestión.
Centrosomes
 Found in animal cells & in motile algae.
 It has two cylindrical structures called centrioles surrounded by
centrosphere.
 Centrioles are arranged at right angles
 They are made up of micro tubules

Cilia and Flagella

Cilia and flagella are hairlike projections that can move either in an undulating
fashion, like a whip, or stiffly, like an oar. Cells that have these organelles are
capable of movement. For example,
unicellular paramecia move by
means of cilia, whereas sperm cells
move by means of flagella. The cells
that line our upper respiratory tract
have cilia that sweep debris trapped
within mucus back up into the throat,
where it can be swallowed. This
action helps keep the lungs clean. In
eukaryotic cells, cilia are much
shorter than flagella, but they have a
similar construction. Both are
membranebounded cylinders
enclosing a matrix area. In the matrix
are nine microtubule doublets arranged in a circle around two central
microtubules. Therefore, they have a 9 + 2 pattern of microtubules. Cilia and
flagella move when the microtubule doublets slide past one another.
As mentioned, each cilium and flagellum has a basal body lying in the cytoplasm
at its base. Basal bodies have the same circular arrangement of microtubule
triplets as centrioles and are believed to be derived from them. The basal body
initiates polymerization of the nine outer doublets of a cilium or flagellum
Vacuoles
A vacuole is a large membranous sac. A vesicle is smaller than a vacuole. Animal
cells have vacuoles, but they are much more
prominent in plant cells. Typically, plant cells have
a large central vacuole so filled with a watery fluid
that it gives added support to the cell.
Vacuoles store substances. Plant vacuoles contain
not only water, sugars, and salts but also pigments
and toxic molecules. The pigments are responsible
for many of the red, blue, or purple colors of flowers
and some leaves. The vacuoles present in
unicellular protozoans are quite specialized, and
they include contractile vacuoles for ridding the cell of excess water and digestive
vacuoles for breaking down nutrients.
Peroxisomes
Peroxisomes, similar to lysosomes, are
membrane-bounded vesicles that enclose
enzymes. However, the enzymes in
peroxisomes are synthesized by cytoplasmic
ribosomes and transported into a peroxisome
by carrier proteins. Typically, peroxisomes
contain enzymes whose action results in
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2).
Peroxisomes are especially prevalent in cells
that are synthesizing and breaking down fats. In the liver, some peroxisomes
break down fats and others produce bile salts from cholesterol. In leaves,
peroxisomes can carry out a reaction that is opposite to photosynthesis the
reaction uses up oxygen and releases carbon dioxide.
Chloroplasts
Plant and algal cells contain chloroplasts, the
organelles that allow them to produce their own
organic food. Chloroplasts are about 4–6 m in
diameter and 1–5 m in length; they belong to a
group of organelles known as plastids. A
chloroplast is bounded by two membranes that
enclose a fluid-filled space called the stroma. A
membrane system within the stroma is organized
into interconnected flattened sacs called
thylakoids. Chlorophyll, which is located within the
thylakoid membranes of grana, captures the solar energy needed to enable
chloroplasts to produce carbohydrates. The stroma also contains DNA,
ribosomes, and enzymes that synthesize carbohydrates from carbon dioxide and
water.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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ut%20no%20cell%20wall.
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_membrane
 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_wall
 http://www.esalq.usp.br/lepse/imgs/conteudo_thumb/Cell-structure-and-
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 https://biodifferences.com/difference-between-cytoplasm-and-
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