Cell Definition

“A cell is defined as the smallest, basic unit of life that is responsible for all of
life’s processes.”
Cells are the structural, functional, and biological units of all living beings. A
cell can replicate itself independently. Hence, they are known as the building
blocks of life.

Each cell contains a fluid called the cytoplasm, which is enclosed by a

membrane. Also present in the cytoplasm are several biomolecules like proteins,
nucleic acids and lipids. Moreover, cellular structures called cell organelles are
suspended in the cytoplasm.

What is a Cell?
A cell is the structural and fundamental unit of life. Robert Hooke was the first
biologist to discover cells in 1665.

All organisms are made up of cells. They may be made up of a single cell
(unicellular), or many cells (multicellular). Mycoplasmas are the smallest
known cells. Cells are the building blocks of all living beings. They provide
structure to the body and convert the nutrients taken from the food into energy.

Robert Hooke discovered the cell in 1665. Robert Hooke observed a piece of
bottle cork under a compound microscope and noticed minuscule structures that
reminded him of small rooms. Consequently, he named these “rooms” as cells

Characteristics of Cells
Following are the various essential characteristics of cells:

 Cells provide structure and support to the body of an organism.

 The cell interior is organised into different individual organelles
surrounded by a separate membrane.
 The nucleus (major organelle) holds genetic information necessary for
reproduction and cell growth.
 Every cell has one nucleus and membrane-bound organelles in the
cytoplasm.
 Mitochondria, a double membrane-bound organelle is mainly responsible
for the energy transactions vital for the survival of the cell.
 Lysosomes digest unwanted materials in the cell.
 Endoplasmic reticulum plays a significant role in the internal organisation
of the cell by synthesising selective molecules and processing, directing
and sorting them to their appropriate locations.

Types of Cells
Cells are similar to factories with different labourers and departments that work
towards a common objective. Various types of cells perform different functions.
Based on cellular structure, there are two types of cells:

 Prokaryotes
 Eukaryotes

Prokaryotic Cells
1. Prokaryotic cells have no nucleus. Instead, some prokaryotes such as
bacteria have a region within the cell where the genetic material is freely
suspended. This region is called the nucleoid.
2. They all are single-celled microorganisms. Examples include archaea,
bacteria, and cyanobacteria.
3. The cell size ranges from 0.1 to 0.5 µm in diameter.
4. The hereditary material can either be DNA or RNA.
5. Prokaryotes generally reproduce by binary fission, a form of asexual
reproduction. They are also known to use conjugation – which is often
seen as the prokaryotic equivalent to sexual reproduction (however, it is
NOT sexual reproduction).
Eukaryotic Cells
1. Eukaryotic cells are characterised by a true nucleus.
2. The size of the cells ranges between 10–100 µm in diameter.
3. This broad category involves plants, fungi, protozoans, and animals.
4. The plasma membrane is responsible for monitoring the transport of
nutrients and electrolytes in and out of the cells. It is also responsible for
cell to cell communication.
5. They reproduce sexually as well as asexually.
6. There are some contrasting features between plant and animal cells. For
eg., the plant cell contains chloroplast, central vacuoles, and other
plastids, whereas the animal cells do not.
Cell Structure
The cell structure comprises individual components with specific functions
essential to carry out life’s processes. These components include- cell wall, cell
membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, and cell organelles. Read on to explore more
insights on cell structure and function.
Cell Membrane
 The cell membrane supports and protects the cell. It controls the
movement of substances in and out of the cells. It separates the cell from
the external environment. The cell membrane is present in all the cells.
 The cell membrane is the outer covering of a cell within which all other
organelles, such as the cytoplasm and nucleus, are enclosed. It is also
referred to as the plasma membrane.
 By structure, it is a porous membrane (with pores) which permits the
movement of selective substances in and out of the cell. Besides this, the
cell membrane also protects the cellular component from damage and
leakage.
 It forms the wall-like structure between two cells as well as between the
cell and its surroundings.
 Plants are immobile, so their cell structures are well-adapted to protect
them from external factors. The cell wall helps to reinforce this function.
Cell Wall
 The cell wall is the most prominent part of the plant’s cell structure. It is
made up of cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin.
 The cell wall is present exclusively in plant cells. It protects the plasma
membrane and other cellular components. The cell wall is also the
outermost layer of plant cells.
 It is a rigid and stiff structure surrounding the cell membrane.
 It provides shape and support to the cells and protects them from
mechanical shocks and injuries.
Cytoplasm
 The cytoplasm is a thick, clear, jelly-like substance present inside the cell
membrane.
 Most of the chemical reactions within a cell take place in this cytoplasm.
 The cell organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles,
mitochondria, ribosomes, are suspended in this cytoplasm.
Nucleus
 The nucleus contains the hereditary material of the cell, the DNA.
 It sends signals to the cells to grow, mature, divide and die.
 The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear envelope that separates the
DNA from the rest of the cell.
 The nucleus protects the DNA and is an integral component of a plant’s
cell structure.
Cell Organelles
Cells are composed of various cell organelles that perform certain specific
functions to carry out life’s processes. The different cell organelles, along with
its principal functions, are as follows:
Cell Organelles and their Functions
Nucleolus
The nucleolus is the site of ribosome synthesis. Also, it is involved in controlling cellular
activities and cellular reproduction.
Nuclear membrane
The nuclear membrane protects the nucleus by forming a boundary between the nucleus
and other cell organelles.
Chromosomes
Chromosomes play a crucial role in determining the sex of an individual. Each human
cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes.
Endoplasmic reticulum
The endoplasmic reticulum is involved in the transportation of substances throughout the
cell. It plays a primary role in the metabolism of carbohydrates, synthesis of lipids,
steroids and proteins.
Golgi Bodies
Golgi bodies are called the cell’s post office as it is involved in the transportation of
materials within the cell.
Ribosome
Ribosomes are the protein synthesisers of the cell.
Mitochondria
The mitochondrion is called “the powerhouse of the cell.” It is called so because it
produces ATP – the cell’s energy currency.
Lysosomes
Lysosomes protect the cell by engulfing the foreign bodies entering the cell and help in
cell renewal. Therefore, they are known as the cell’s suicide bags.
Chloroplast
Chloroplasts are the primary organelles for photosynthesis. It contains the pigment called
chlorophyll.
Vacuoles
Vacuoles store food, water, and other waste materials in the cell.

Cell Theory
Cell Theory was proposed by the German scientists, Theodor Schwann,
Matthias Schleiden, and Rudolf Virchow. The cell theory states that:
 All living species on Earth are composed of cells.
 A cell is the basic unit of life.
 All cells arise from pre-existing cells.
A modern version of the cell theory was eventually formulated, and it
contains the following postulates:
 Energy flows within the cells.
 Genetic information is passed on from one cell to the other.
 The chemical composition of all the cells is the same.
Functions of Cell
A cell performs major functions essential for the growth and development of an
organism. Important functions of cell are as follows:
Provides Support and Structure
All the organisms are made up of cells. They form the structural basis of all the
organisms. The cell wall and the cell membrane are the main components that
function to provide support and structure to the organism. For eg., the skin is
made up of a large number of cells. Xylem present in the vascular plants is
made of cells that provide structural support to the plants.
Facilitate Growth Mitosis
In the process of mitosis, the parent cell divides into the daughter cells. Thus,
the cells multiply and facilitate the growth in an organism.
Allows Transport of Substances
Various nutrients are imported by the cells to carry out various chemical
processes going on inside the cells. The waste produced by the chemical
processes is eliminated from the cells by active and passive transport. Small
molecules such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and ethanol diffuse across the cell
membrane along the concentration gradient. This is known as passive transport.
The larger molecules diffuse across the cell membrane through active transport
where the cells require a lot of energy to transport the substances.
Energy Production
Cells require energy to carry out various chemical processes. This energy is
produced by the cells through a process called photosynthesis in plants and
respiration in animals.
Aids in Reproduction
A cell aids in reproduction through the processes called mitosis and meiosis.
Mitosis is termed as the asexual reproduction where the parent cell divides to
form daughter cells. Meiosis causes the daughter cells to be genetically different
from the parent cells.
Thus, we can understand why cells are known as the structural and functional
unit of life. This is because they are responsible for providing structure to the
organisms and perform several functions necessary for carrying out life’s
processes.
DIFFERENCE BTW PLANT CELL AND ANIMAL CELL
Carbohydrates
Carbohydrates are macronutrients and are one of the three main ways by which
our body obtains its energy. They are called carbohydrates as they
comprise carbon, hydrogen and oxygen at their chemical level. Carbohydrates
are essential nutrients which include sugars, fibers and starches. They are found
in grains, vegetables, fruits and in milk and other dairy products. They are the
basic food groups which play an important role in a healthy life.
The food containing carbohydrates are converted into glucose or blood sugar
during the process of digestion by the digestive system.
Our body utilizes this sugar as a source of energy for the cells, organs and
tissues. The extra amount of energy or sugar is stored in our muscles and liver
for further requirement. The term ‘carbohydrate’ is derived from a French term
‘hydrate de carbone‘ meaning ‘hydrate of carbon‘. The general formula of this
class of organic compounds is Cn(H2O)n.
Classification of Carbohydrates
The carbohydrates are further classified into simple and complex which is
mainly based on their chemical structure and degree of polymerization.
Simple Carbohydrates (Monosaccharides, Disaccharides and
Oligosaccharides)
Simple carbohydrates have one or two sugar molecules. In simple
carbohydrates, molecules are digested and converted quickly resulting in a rise
in the blood sugar levels. They are abundantly found in milk products, beer,
fruits, refined sugars, candies, etc. These carbohydrates are called empty
calories, as they do not possess fiber, vitamins and minerals.
Plants, being producers, synthesize glucose (C6H12O6) using raw materials like
carbon dioxide and water in the presence of sunlight. This process of
photosynthesis converts solar energy to chemical energy. Consumers feed on
plants and harvest energy stored in the bonds of the compounds synthesized by
plants.
1. Monosaccharides
Glucose is an example of a carbohydrate monomer or monosaccharide. Other
examples of monosaccharides include mannose, galactose, fructose, etc. The
structural organization of monosaccharides is as follows:
Monosaccharides may be further classified depending on the number of carbon
atoms:
(i)Trioses (C3H6O3): These have three carbon atoms per molecule. Example:
Glyceraldehyde
(ii)Tetroses (C4H6O4): These monosaccharides have four carbon atoms per
molecule. Example: Erythrose.
Similarly, we have-
(iii) Pentoses,
(iv) Hexoses, and
(v) Heptoses

2. Disaccharides
Two monosaccharides combine to form a disaccharide. Examples of
carbohydrates having two monomers include- Sucrose, Lactose, Maltose, etc.
3. Oligosaccharides
Carbohydrates formed by the condensation of 2-9 monomers are called
oligosaccharides. By this convention, trioses, pentoses, hexoses are all
oligosaccharides.
Complex Carbohydrates (Polysaccharides)
Complex carbohydrates have two or more sugar molecules, hence they are
referred to as starchy foods. In complex carbohydrates, molecules are digested
and converted slowly compared to simple carbohydrates. They are abundantly
found in lentils, beans, peanuts, potatoes, peas, corn, whole-grain bread, cereals,
etc.
Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates formed by the polymerization of a
large number of monomers. Examples of polysaccharides include starch,
glycogen, cellulose, etc. which exhibit extensive branching and are
homopolymers – made up of only glucose units.
1. Starch is composed of two components- amylose and amylopectin.
Amylose forms the linear chain and amylopectin is a much-branched
chain.
2. Glycogen is called animal starch. It has a structure similar to starch, but
has more extensive branching.
3. Cellulose is a structural carbohydrate and is the main structural
component of the plant cell wall. It is a fibrous polysaccharide with high
tensile strength. In contrast to starch and glycogen, cellulose forms a
linear polymer.

Functions of Carbohydrates
The main function of carbohydrates is to provide energy and food to the body
and to the nervous system.
Carbohydrates are known as one of the basic components of food, including
sugars, starch, and fibre which are abundantly found in grains, fruits and milk
products.
Carbohydrates are also known as starch, simple sugars, complex carbohydrates
and so on.
It is also involved in fat metabolism and prevents ketosis.
Inhibits the breakdown of proteins for energy as they are the primary source of
energy.
An enzyme by name amylase assists in the breakdown of starch into glucose,
finally to produce energy for metabolism.

Sources of Carbohydrates
1. Simple sugars are found in the form of fructose in many fruits.
2. Galactose is present in all dairy products.
3. Lactose is abundantly found in milk and other dairy products.
4. Maltose is present in cereal, beer, potatoes, processed cheese, pasta, etc.
5. Sucrose is naturally obtained from sugar and honey containing small
amounts of vitamins and minerals.
These simple sugars that consist of minerals and vitamins exist commonly in
milk, fruits, and vegetables. Many refined and other processed foods like white
flour, white rice, and sugar, lack important nutrients and hence, they are labelled
“enriched.” It is quite healthy to use vitamins, carbohydrates and all other
organic nutrients in their normal forms.

Carbohydrate Foods
Eating too much sugar results in an abnormal increase in calories, which finally
leads to obesity and in turn low calories leads to malnutrition. Therefore, a well-
balanced diet needs to be maintained to have a healthy life. That is the reason a
balanced diet is stressed so much by dietitians.
Let us look into the differences between the good and bad carbohydrates.
Good Carbohydrates Bad Carbohydrates
High in Nutrients Low in nutrients
Moderate in calories High in calories
Low in sodium and saturated fats High in sodium and saturated fats
Low in trans-fat and cholesterol High in trans-fat and cholesterol
They are complex carbs. For Foods considered bad carbs rarely have any
instance: Legumes, vegetables, nutritional value. Some of the foods include white
whole grains, fruits, and beans. flour, rice, pastries, sodas and processed foods.

Examples of Carbohydrates
Following are the important examples of carbohydrates:
 Glucose
 Galactose
 Maltose
 Fructose
 Sucrose
 Lactose
 Starch
 Cellulose
 Chitin
What is Digestion?
Digestion is the process of breaking large, insoluble food molecules into smaller
molecules for absorption into the bloodstream. This process involves the use of
many digestive fluids and enzymes such as saliva, mucus, bile and hydrochloric
acid, among others.

There are four primary stages of food digestion in the human body that include:

 After the intake of food through the mouth, it makes its way through the
stomach into the small intestine, where it is digested.

 The nutrients from the digested food get absorbed into the bloodstream
through small pores in the small intestine.

 The remaining undigested food is sent to the large intestine, where any
unprocessed water or nutrients are reabsorbed into the body.
 The remaining waste food product is passed out of the body in the form
of stools.

Digestion and Absorption of Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are one of the essential nutrients in the human diet. There are
two types of carbohydrates that can be digested by the human digestive
system– sugar and starch.
Sugar is broken down in the gastrointestinal tract by the small intestine and
three enzymes present in the mouth, namely, Lactase, Sucrase, and Maltase.
Proteins

We often see bodybuilders and physical trainer drinking whey protein along
with milk to build-up metabolism and strength.When it comes to our body, our
hair and nails are mostly made of proteins. Basically, proteins are the
fundamental building blocks of our body. They are large and complex
macromolecules or bio-molecules which perform a major role in the functioning
and regulating of our body cells, tissues and other organs in the human body.
They are also used in providing strength to our body in producing hormones,
enzymes, and other metabolic chemicals. They are also involved in functioning
and regulating of our body cells, tissues and organs.

Proteins are composed of amino acids, arranged into different groups. These
fundamental amino acids sequences are specific and its arrangements are
controlled by the DNA. Since our body cannot synthesize these essential amino
acids by its own, we should have plenty of protein foods in our everyday diet to
keep our body metabolisms stable.

Protein Structure

In general, they are two types of protein molecules fibrous proteins and globular
proteins. Fibrous proteins are insoluble and elongated. Globular proteins are
soluble and compact. Fibrous and Globular proteins may comprise one or four
types of protein structures and they include primary, secondary, tertiary and
quaternary structure.
Primary Structure: It is a specific sequence of amino acids. The order of
amino acids bonded together is detected by information stored in genes.

Secondary Structure: It is a three-dimensional form of a local segment of

proteins. They are formed by hydrogen bonds between the atoms along the
backbone of the polypeptide chain.

Tertiary Structure: It is determined by R-groups. It is a three-dimensional

shape of a protein. Many numbers of tertiary structure fold to form Quaternary
Structure.

Quaternary Structure: It is the arrangement of multiple folded protein

subunits in a multi-subunit complex.

Protein Synthesis
Protein synthesis takes place through a process called translation. This process
occurs in the cytoplasm. It involves the rendering of genetic codes. Ribosomes
of a cell help in translating genetic codes into a polypeptide chain. These
polypeptide chains become functioning proteins only after undergoing certain
modifications.

Types of Proteins and Their Functions

Although there are debates about the intake of carbohydrates and fats in order to
maintain a proper health, a minimum amount of daily protein intake is always a
doctor’s first recommendation. The common examples of proteins in
biology are eggs, almond, chicken, oats, fish and seafood, soy, beans and
pulses, cottage cheese, Greek yogurt, milk, broccoli, and quinoa.

Functions of Proteins

1. Enzymes: Enzymes mostly carry out all numerous chemical reactions

which take place within a cell. They also help in regenerating and
creating DNA molecules and carry out complex processes.
2. Hormones: Proteins are involved in the creation of various types of
hormones which help in balancing the components of the body. For
example hormones like insulin, which helps in regulating blood sugar and
secretin. It is also involved in the digestion process and formation of
digestive juices.
3. Antibody: Antibody also known as an immunoglobulin. It is a type of
protein which is majorly used by the immune system to repair and heal
the body from foreign bacteria. They often work together with other
immune cells to identify and separate the antigens from increasing until
the white blood cells destroy them completely.
4. Energy: Proteins are the major source of energy that helps in the
movements of our body. It is important to have the right amount of
protein in order to convert it into energy. Protein, when consumed in
excess amounts, gets used to create fat and becomes part of the fat cells.

Listed below are few functions of Proteins.

Aspect Functions of Proteins in Human Body Examples

Storage Legume Storage, albumin, and proteins. Supplies food during the early
stage of the seedling or
embryo.

Hormone Counterpart activities of different body Glucagon and Insulin.

Signalling parts.

Transport It transport substances throughout the Hemoglobin.

body through lump or blood cells.

Contraction To carry out muscle contraction. Myosin.

Digestive Breaks down nutrients present in the food Pepsin, Amylase, and Lipase
Enzyme into smaller portions so that it can be
easily absorbed

Stay tuned with BYJU’S to learn more about Proteins.

 Nutrition In Human Beings

 Decomposition
Frequently Asked Questions
Q1

What is protein and why is it necessary?

Proteins are the building blocks of living beings. Protein is present in every
human cell. An amino acid chain forms the basic building block of proteins. For
our body to repair damaged cells and create new ones, we need protein in our
daily diet. Children, teenagers, and pregnant women all need protein for healthy
growth and development.
Q2

What is protein deficiency?

When protein consumption is insufficient to meet our body’s needs, we have a

protein deficiency. Worldwide, an estimated 1 billion people experience
inadequate protein intake. Up to 30% of South Asia and Central Africa children
have insufficient protein intake, making these regions among the worst affected.
Q3

What are the four types of proteins?

Primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structure are the four levels of
complexity that can be used to characterise the entire structure of a protein.
Proteins play a vital role in the growth and replenishment of body cells and
tissues. The digestion of proteins takes place in the stomach with the help of
protease and pepsin enzymes, which breaks down the proteins into amino
acids. The process is facilitated by the hydrochloric acid present in the stomach.
Amino acids are tiny elements which get absorbed into the blood system
through the wall of the small intestine. Also refer: Proteins
Lipids

Lipids Definition
“Lipids are organic compounds that contain hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen
atoms, which form the framework for the structure and function of living
cells.”

What are Lipids?

These organic compounds are nonpolar molecules, which are soluble only in
nonpolar solvents and insoluble in water because water is a polar molecule. In
the human body, these molecules can be synthesized in the liver and are
found in oil, butter, whole milk, cheese, fried foods and also in some red meats.

Let us have a detailed look at the lipid structure, properties, types and
classification of lipids.

Properties of Lipids
Lipids are a family of organic compounds, composed of fats and oils. These
molecules yield high energy and are responsible for different functions within
the human body. Listed below are some important characteristics of Lipids.
1. Lipids are oily or greasy nonpolar molecules, stored in the adipose
tissue of the body.
2. Lipids are a heterogeneous group of compounds, mainly composed of
hydrocarbon chains.
3. Lipids are energy-rich organic molecules, which provide energy for
different life processes.
4. Lipids are a class of compounds characterised by their solubility in
nonpolar solvents and insolubility in water.
5. Lipids are significant in biological systems as they form a mechanical
barrier dividing a cell from the external environment known as the
cell membrane.

Lipid Structure
Lipids are the polymers of fatty acids that contain a long, non-polar
hydrocarbon chain with a small polar region containing oxygen. The lipid
structure is explained in the diagram below:

Lipid Structure – Saturated and Unsaturated Fatty Acids

Classification of Lipids
Lipids can be classified into two main classes:

 Nonsaponifiable lipids
 Saponifiable lipids
Nonsaponifiable Lipids
A nonsaponifiable lipid cannot be disintegrated into smaller molecules through
hydrolysis. Nonsaponifiable lipids include cholesterol, prostaglandins, etc

Saponifiable Lipids
A saponifiable lipid comprises one or more ester groups, enabling it to undergo
hydrolysis in the presence of a base, acid, or enzymes, including waxes,
triglycerides, sphingolipids and phospholipids.

Further, these categories can be divided into non-polar and polar lipids.

Nonpolar lipids, namely triglycerides, are utilized as fuel and to store energy.

Polar lipids, that could form a barrier with an external water environment, are
utilized in membranes. Polar lipids comprise sphingolipids and
glycerophospholipids.

Fatty acids are pivotal components of all these lipids.

Types of Lipids
Within these two major classes of lipids, there are numerous specific types of
lipids, which are important to life, including fatty acids, triglycerides,
glycerophospholipids, sphingolipids and steroids. These are broadly classified
as simple lipids and complex lipids.

Also read: Biomolecules in Living Organisms

Simple Lipids
Esters of fatty acids with various alcohols.

1. Fats: Esters of fatty acids with glycerol. Oils are fats in the liquid state

2. Waxes: Esters of fatty acids with higher molecular weight monohydric

alcohols

Complex Lipids
Esters of fatty acids containing groups in addition to alcohol and fatty acid.
1. Phospholipids: These are lipids containing, in addition to fatty acids and
alcohol, phosphate group. They frequently have nitrogen-containing
bases and other substituents, eg, in glycerophospholipids the alcohol is
glycerol and in sphingophospholipids the alcohol is sphingosine.

2. Glycolipids (glycosphingolipids): Lipids containing a fatty acid,

sphingosine and carbohydrate.

3. Other complex lipids: Lipids such as sulfolipids and amino lipids.

Lipoproteins may also be placed in this category.

Precursor and Derived Lipids

These include fatty acids, glycerol, steroids, other alcohols, fatty aldehydes, and
ketone bodies, hydrocarbons, lipid-soluble vitamins, and hormones. Because
they are uncharged, acylglycerols (glycerides), cholesterol, and cholesteryl
esters are termed neutral lipids. These compounds are produced by
the hydrolysis of simple and complex lipids.

Some of the different types of lipids are described below in detail.

Fatty Acids
Fatty acids are carboxylic acids (or organic acid), usually with long aliphatic
tails (long chains), either unsaturated or saturated.

 Saturated fatty acids

Lack of carbon-carbon double bonds indicate that the fatty acid is saturated. The
saturated fatty acids have higher melting points compared to unsaturated acids
of the corresponding size due to their ability to pack their molecules together
thus leading to a straight rod-like shape.

 Unsaturated fatty acids

Unsaturated fatty acid is indicated when a fatty acid has more than one double
bond.

“Often, naturally occurring fatty acids possesses an even number of carbon

atoms and are unbranched.”

On the other hand, unsaturated fatty acids contain a cis-double bond(s) which
create a structural kink that disables them to group their molecules in straight
rod-like shape.
Role of Fats
Fats play several major roles in our body. Some of the important roles of fats
are mentioned below:

 Fats in the correct amounts are necessary for the proper functioning of
our body.
 Many fat-soluble vitamins need to be associated with fats in order to be
effectively absorbed by the body.
 They also provide insulation to the body.
 They are an efficient way to store energy for longer periods.

Examples of Lipids
There are different types of lipids. Some examples of lipids include butter, ghee,
vegetable oil, cheese, cholesterol and other steroids, waxes, phospholipids, and
fat-soluble vitamins. All these compounds have similar features, i.e. insoluble in
water and soluble in organic solvents, etc.

Waxes
Waxes are “esters” (an organic compound made by replacing the hydrogen with
acid by an alkyl or another organic group) formed from long-alcohols and long-
chain carboxylic acids.
Waxes are found almost everywhere. The fruits and leaves of many plants
possess waxy coatings, that can safeguard them from small predators and
dehydration.
Fur of a few animals and the feathers of birds possess the same coatings serving
as water repellants.
Carnauba wax is known for its water resistance and toughness (significant for
car wax).

Phospholipids
Membranes are primarily composed of phospholipids that are
Phosphoacylglycerols.
Triacylglycerols and phosphoacylglycerols are the same, but, the terminal OH
group of the phosphoacylglycerol is esterified with phosphoric acid in place of
fatty acid which results in the formation of phosphatidic acid.
The name phospholipid is derived from the fact that phosphoacylglycerols are
lipids containing a phosphate group.

Steroids
Our bodies possess chemical messengers known as hormones, which are
basically organic compounds synthesized in glands and transported by the
bloodstream to various tissues in order to trigger or hinder the desired process.
Steroids are a kind of hormone that is typically recognized by their tetracyclic
skeleton, composed of three fused six-membered and one five-membered ring,
as seen above. The four rings are assigned as A, B, C & D as observed in the
shade blue, while the numbers in red indicate the carbons.

Cholesterol

 Cholesterol is a wax-like substance, found only in animal source foods.

Triglycerides, LDL, HDL, VLDL are different types of cholesterol
found in the blood cells.
 Cholesterol is an important lipid found in the cell membrane. It is a sterol,
which means that cholesterol is a combination of steroid and alcohol. In
the human body, cholesterol is synthesized in the liver.
 These compounds are biosynthesized by all living cells and are essential
for the structural component of the cell membrane.
 In the cell membrane, the steroid ring structure of cholesterol provides a
rigid hydrophobic structure that helps boost the rigidity of the cell
membrane. Without cholesterol, the cell membrane would be too fluid.
 It is an important component of cell membranes and is also the basis for
the synthesis of other steroids, including the sex hormones estradiol and
testosterone, as well as other steroids such as cortisone and vitamin D.

Digestion and Absorption of Lipids

Lipids are organic compounds comprising fatty acids, which are insoluble in water.
Fats are the most common examples of lipids. The insoluble property of lipids makes
the digestion and absorption of fats a complicated process.

Since they are hydrophobic, fats stick together as a large glob of insoluble mass
after reaching the stomach. It is broken down with the help of bile juice, which
contains bile salts. These broken molecules are then acted upon by pancreatic
lipase, the major fat-absorbing enzymes in the body.
Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid (DNA)
Genes carry genetic information from one generation to the other. The structure
of nucleic acids such as DNA consists of a long polymer of nucleotides
connected by phosphodiester bonds. In the case of DNA, the nucleotides are
deoxynucleotides. The most widely accepted structure of DNA (right-handed
double- helix) was proposed by Watson and Crick in 1963.
The nitrogenous bases present in DNA are Adenine, Guanine, Thymine, and
Cytosine. This suggests that there are four different types of
deoxyribonucleotides in DNA- deoxyadenosine monophosphate (dAMP),
deoxyguanosine monophosphate (dGMP), deoxythymidine monophosphate
(dTMP) and deoxycytidine monophosphate (dCTP). The two strands of the
DNA helix are antiparallel to each other exhibiting complementary pairing
between two specific bases. Adenine pairs with thymine (A=T), while guanine
pairs with cytosine (G≡C). If we imagine the structure of DNA in the form of a
staircase model, the complementary base pairs will form the stairs and the
sugar-phosphate backbone will form the stair railings.
Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
Ribonucleic acid is an example of the nucleic acid formed by the
polymerization of ribonucleotides. It is a single-stranded chain formed by 7-
12000 ribonucleotides. This structure of nucleic acid contains a ribose sugar, a
phosphate group, and a nitrogen base. The nitrogenous bases in RNA are
Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine, and Uracil (U). RNA is formed from DNA by the
process of ‘transcription’ and is generally involved in protein synthesis.
Types of RNA include – Ribosomal RNA (rRNA), Transfer RNA (tRNA) and
Messenger RNA (mRNA).
Functions of nucleic acids
 DNA is the genetic material carrying hereditary information.
 By the process of transcription, it gives rise to RNA, which in turn
contains the code for the synthesis of proteins.
 DNA controls cell metabolism along with differentiation and
development of an organism.
 Mutations in DNA help organisms evolve and adapt to changing
conditions.
 RNA forms the genetic code in certain viruses such as HIV.
Enzymes
The human body is composed of different types of cells, tissues and other complex organs.
For efficient functioning, our body releases some chemicals to accelerate biological processes
such as respiration, digestion, excretion and a few other metabolic activities to sustain a
healthy life. Hence, enzymes are pivotal in all living entities which govern all the biological
processes.
Let us understand what are enzymes, types, their structure, mechanism and various factors
that affect its activity.
What Are Enzymes?
“Enzymes can be defined as biological polymers that catalyze biochemical reactions.”
The majority of enzymes are proteins with catalytic capabilities crucial to perform different
processes. Metabolic processes and other chemical reactions in the cell are carried out by a
set of enzymes that are necessary to sustain life.
The initial stage of metabolic process depends upon the enzymes, which react with a
molecule and is called the substrate. Enzymes convert the substrates into other distinct
molecules, which are known as products.
The regulation of enzymes has been a key element in clinical diagnosis because of their role
in maintaining life processes. The macromolecular components of all enzymes consist of
protein, except in the class of RNA catalysts called ribozymes. The word ribozyme is derived
from the ribonucleic acid enzyme. Many ribozymes are molecules of ribonucleic acid, which
catalyze reactions in one of their own bonds or among other RNAs.
Enzymes are found in all tissues and fluids of the body. Catalysis of all reactions taking place
in metabolic pathways is carried out by intracellular enzymes. The enzymes in the plasma
membrane govern the catalysis in the cells as a response to cellular signals and enzymes in
the circulatory system regulate the clotting of blood. Most of the critical life processes are
established on the functions of enzymes.
Enzyme Structure
Enzymes are a linear chain of amino acids, which give rise to a three-dimensional structure.
The sequence of amino acids specifies the structure, which in turn identifies the catalytic
activity of the enzyme. Upon heating, the enzyme’s structure denatures, resulting in a loss of
enzyme activity, which typically is associated with temperature.
Compared to its substrates, enzymes are typically large with varying sizes, ranging from 62
amino acid residues to an average of 2500 residues found in fatty acid synthase. Only a small
section of the structure is involved in catalysis and is situated next to the binding sites. The
catalytic site and binding site together constitute the enzyme’s active site. A small number of
ribozymes exist which serve as an RNA-based biological catalyst. It reacts in complex with
proteins.
Enzymes Classification

Earlier, enzymes were assigned names based on the one who discovered them. With further
research, classification became more comprehensive.
According to the International Union of Biochemists (I U B), enzymes are divided into six
functional classes and are classified based on the type of reaction in which they are used to
catalyze. The six kinds of enzymes are hydrolases, oxidoreductases, lyases, transferases,
ligases and isomerases.
Listed below is the classification of enzymes discussed in detail:

Types Biochemical Property

Oxidoreductase The enzyme Oxidoreductase catalyzes the oxidation reaction where the electrons tend
s to travel from one form of a molecule to the other.

The Transferases enzymes help in the transportation of the functional group among
Transferases
acceptors and donor molecules.

Hydrolases are hydrolytic enzymes, which catalyze the hydrolysis reaction by adding
Hydrolases
water to cleave the bond and hydrolyze it.

Adds water, carbon dioxide or ammonia across double bonds or eliminate these to
Lyases
create double bonds.

The Isomerases enzymes catalyze the structural shifts present in a molecule, thus
Isomerases
causing the change in the shape of the molecule.

Ligases The Ligases enzymes are known to charge the catalysis of a ligation process.
Oxidoreductases
These catalyze oxidation and reduction reactions, e.g. pyruvate dehydrogenase, catalysing the
oxidation of pyruvate to acetyl coenzyme A.
Transferases
These catalyze transferring of the chemical group from one to another compound. An
example is a transaminase, which transfers an amino group from one molecule to another.
Hydrolases
They catalyze the hydrolysis of a bond. For example, the enzyme pepsin hydrolyzes peptide
bonds in proteins.
Lyases
These catalyze the breakage of bonds without catalysis, e.g. aldolase (an enzyme in
glycolysis) catalyzes the splitting of fructose-1, 6-bisphosphate to glyceraldehyde-3-
phosphate and dihydroxyacetone phosphate.
Isomerases
They catalyze the formation of an isomer of a compound. Example: phosphoglucomutase
catalyzes the conversion of glucose-1-phosphate to glucose-6-phosphate (phosphate group is
transferred from one to another position in the same compound) in glycogenolysis (glycogen
is converted to glucose for energy to be released quickly).
Ligases
Ligases catalyze the association of two molecules. For example, DNA ligase catalyzes the
joining of two fragments of DNA by forming a phosphodiester bond.
Cofactors
Cofactors are non-proteinous substances that associate with enzymes. A cofactor is essential
for the functioning of an enzyme. The protein part of enzymes in cofactors is apoenzyme. An
enzyme and its cofactor together constitute the holoenzyme.
There are three kinds of cofactors present in enzymes:
 Prosthetic groups: These are cofactors tightly bound to an enzyme at all times. FAD
(flavin adenine dinucleotide) is a prosthetic group present in many enzymes.
 Coenzyme: A coenzyme binds to an enzyme only during catalysis. At all other times,
it is detached from the enzyme. NAD is a common coenzyme.
 Metal ions: For the catalysis of certain enzymes, a metal ion is required at the active
site to form coordinate bonds. Zinc is a metal ion cofactor used by a number of
enzymes.
Examples of Enzymes
Following are some of the examples of enzymes:
Beverages
Alcoholic beverages generated by fermentation vary a lot based on many factors. Based on
the type of the plant’s product, which is to be used and the type of enzyme applied, the
fermented product varies.
For example, grapes, honey, hops, wheat, cassava roots, and potatoes depending upon the
materials available. Beer, wines and other drinks are produced from plant fermentation.
Food Products
Bread can be considered as the finest example of fermentation in our everyday life.
A small proportion of yeast and sugar is mixed with the batter for making bread. Then one
can observe that the bread gets puffed up as a result of fermentation of the sugar by the
enzyme action in yeast, which leads to the formation of carbon dioxide gas. This process
gives the texture to the bread, which would be missing in the absence of the fermentation
process.
Drug Action
Enzyme action can be inhibited or promoted by the use of drugs which tend to work around
the active sites of enzymes.
Also Read: Digestive Enzymes
Mechanism of Enzyme Reaction
Any two molecules have to collide for the reaction to occur along with the right orientation
and a sufficient amount of energy. The energy between these molecules needs to overcome
the barrier in the reaction. This energy is called activation energy.
Enzymes are said to possess an active site. The active site is a part of the molecule that has a
definite shape and the functional group for the binding of reactant molecules. The molecule
that binds to the enzyme is referred to as the substrate group. The substrate and the enzyme
form an intermediate reaction with low activation energy without any catalysts.
reactant(1)+reactant(2)→productreactant(1)+enzyme→intermediateintermediate+reactant(2)
→product+enzyme
The basic mechanism of enzyme action is to catalyze the chemical reactions, which begins
with the binding of the substrate with the active site of the enzyme. This active site is a
specific area that combines with the substrate.
Enzyme-Substrate Interactions
Enzymes are biocatalysts, which are high molecular weight proteinous compounds. It
enhances the reactions which occur in the body during various life processes. It helps the
substrate by providing the surface for the reaction to occur. The enzyme comprises hollow
spaces occupying groups such as -SH, -COOH, and others on the outer surface. The substrate
which has an opposite charge of the enzyme fits into these spaces, just like a key fits into a
lock. This substrate binding site is called the active site of an enzyme (E).
The favourable model of enzyme-substrate interaction is called the induced-fit model. This
model states that the interaction between substrate and enzyme is weak, and these weak
interactions induce conformational changes rapidly and strengthen binding and bring catalytic
sites close enough to substrate bonds.
There are four possible major mechanisms of catalysis:
Catalysis by Bond Strain
The induced structural rearrangements in this type of catalysis produce strained substrate
bonds that attain transition state more easily. The new conformation forces substrate atoms
and catalytic groups like aspartate into conformations that strain substrate bonds.
Covalent Catalysis
The substrate is oriented to active place on the enzymes in such a manner that a covalent
intermediate develops between the enzyme and the substrate, in catalysis that occurs by
covalent mechanisms. The best example of this involves proteolysis by serine proteases that
have both digestive enzymes and various enzymes of the blood clotting cascade. These
proteases possess an active site serine whose R group hydroxyl generates a covalent bond
with a carbonyl carbon of a peptide bond and results in the hydrolysis of the peptide bond.
Catalysis Involving Acids and Bases
Other mechanisms add to the completion of catalytic events which are launched by strain
mechanisms such as the usage of glutamate as a general acid catalyst.
Catalysis by Orientation and Proximity
Enzyme-substrate interactions induce reactive groups into proximity with one another. Also,
groups like aspartate are chemically reactive, and their proximity towards the substrate
favours their involvement in catalysis.
Action and Nature of Enzymes
Once substrate (S) binds to this active site, they form a complex (intermediate-ES) which
then produces the product (P) and the enzyme (E). The substrate which gets attached to the
enzyme has a specific structure and that can only fit in a particular enzyme. Hence, by
providing a surface for the substrate, an enzyme slows down the activation energy of the
reaction. The intermediate state where the substrate binds to the enzyme is called the
transition state. By breaking and making the bonds, the substrate binds to the enzyme
(remains unchanged), which converts into the product and later splits into product and
enzyme. The free enzymes then bind to other substrates and the catalytic cycle continues until
the reaction completes.
The enzyme action basically happens in two steps:
Step1: Combining of enzyme and the reactant/substrate.
E+S → [ES]
Step 2: Disintegration of the complex molecule to give the product.
[ES]→E+P
Thus, the whole catalyst action of enzymes is summarized as:
E + S → [ES] → [EP] → E + P
Biological Catalysts
Catalysts are the substances which play a significant role in the chemical reaction. Catalysis
is the phenomenon by which the rate of a chemical reaction is altered/ enhanced without
changing themselves. During a chemical reaction, a catalyst remains unchanged, both in
terms of quantity and chemical properties. An enzyme is one such catalyst which is
commonly known as the biological catalyst. Enzymes present in the living organisms
enhance the rate of reactions which take place within the body.
Biological catalysts, enzymes, are extremely specific that catalyze a single chemical reaction
or some closely associated reactions. An enzyme’s exact structure and its active site decide
an enzyme’s specificity. Substrate molecules attach themselves at the active site of an
enzyme. Initially, substrates associate themselves by noncovalent interactions to the enzymes
which include ionic, hydrogen bonds and hydrophobic interactions. Enzymes reduce the
reactions and activation energy to progress towards equilibrium quicker than the reactions
that are not catalyzed. Both eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells usually make use of allosteric
regulation to respond to fluctuations in the state inside the cells.
The nature of enzyme action and factors affecting the enzyme activity are discussed below.
Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity
The conditions of the reaction have a great impact on the activity of the enzymes. Enzymes
are particular about the optimum conditions provided for the reactions such as temperature,
pH, alteration in substrate concentration, etc.
Typically, enzyme activities are accelerated with increasing temperatures. As enzymes are
functional in cells, the feasible conditions for nearly all enzymes are temperatures that are
moderate. At higher temperatures, given a specific point, there is a drastic decrease in the
activity with the denaturation of enzymes. In diluted solutions, purified enzymes denature
quickly compared to enzymes in crude extracts. Denaturation of enzymes can also take place
when enzymes are incubated for long durations. More appropriate is to utilize a shorter time
duration when it comes to incubation time to gauge the starting velocities of such enzyme
reactions.
The International Union of Biochemistry suggests the standard assay temperature to be 30
°C. Almost all enzymes are extremely sensitive to pH change. Just some enzymes feasibly
operate with pH above 9 and below 5. Most enzymes have their pH – optimum near to
neutrality. Any alteration of pH causes the ionic state of amino acid residues to change in the
whole protein and in the active site. The modifications in the ionic state can modify catalysis
and substrate binding. The preference of substrate concentration is critical as at lower
concentrations, the rate is driven by concentration, however, at high concentrations, the rate
does not depend on any increase in the concentration of the substrate.
Active site
Enzymatic catalysis depends upon the activity of amino acid side chains assembled in the
active centre. Enzymes bind the substrate into a region of the active site in an intermediate
conformation.
Often, the active site is a cleft or a pocket produced by the amino acids which take part in
catalysis and substrate binding. Amino acids forming an enzyme’s active site is not
contiguous to the other along the sequence of primary amino acid. The active site amino acids
are assembled to the cluster in the right conformation by the 3-dimensional folding of the
primary amino acid sequence. The most frequent active site amino acid residues out of the 20
amino acids forming the protein are polar amino acids, aspartate, cysteine, glutamate,
histidine, Serine, and lysine. Typically, only 2-3 essential amino acid residues are involved
directly in the bond causing the formation of the product. Glutamate, Aspartate, and Histidine
are the amino acid residues which also serve as a proton acceptor or donor.
Temperature and pH
Enzymes require an optimum temperature and pH for their action. The temperature or pH at
which a compound shows its maximum activity is called optimum temperature or optimum
pH, respectively. As mentioned earlier, enzymes are protein compounds. A temperature or
pH more than optimum may alter the molecular structure of the enzymes. Generally, an
optimum pH for enzymes is considered to be ranging between 5 and 7.

 Optimum T°
 The greatest number of molecular collisions
 human enzymes = 35°- 40°C
 body temp = 37°C
 Heat: increase beyond optimum T°
 The increased energy level of molecule disrupts bonds in enzyme & between enzyme
& substrate H, ionic = weak bonds
 Denaturation = lose 3D shape (3° structure)
 Cold: decrease T°
 Molecules move slower decrease collisions between enzyme & substrate
Concentration and Type of Substrate
Enzymes have a saturation point, i.e., once all the enzymes added are occupied by the
substrate molecules, its activity will be ceased. When the reaction begins, the velocity of
enzyme action keeps on increasing on further addition of substrate. However, at a saturation
point where substrate molecules are more in number than the free enzyme, the velocity
remains the same.
The type of substrate is another factor that affects the enzyme action. The chemicals that bind
to the active site of the enzyme can inhibit the activity of the enzyme and such substrate is
called an inhibitor. Competitive inhibitors are chemicals that compete with the specific
substrate of the enzyme for the active site. They structurally resemble the specific substrate of
the enzyme and bind to the enzyme and inhibit the enzymatic activity. This concept is used
for treating bacterial infectious diseases.
Salt concentration
Changes in salinity: Adds or removes cations (+) & anions (–)
 Disrupts bonds, disrupts the 3D shape
 Disrupts attractions between charged amino acids
 Affect 2° & 3° structure
 Denatures protein
 Enzymes intolerant of extreme salinity
 The Dead Sea is called dead for a reason
Functions of Enzymes
The enzymes perform a number of functions in our bodies. These include:
1. Enzymes help in signal transduction. The most common enzyme used in the process
includes protein kinase that catalyzes the phosphorylation of proteins.
2. They break down large molecules into smaller substances that can be easily absorbed
by the body.
3. They help in generating energy in the body. ATP synthase is the enzyme involved in
the synthesis of energy.
4. Enzymes are responsible for the movement of ions across the plasma membrane.
5. Enzymes perform a number of biochemical reactions, including oxidation, reduction,
hydrolysis, etc. to eliminate the non-nutritive substances from the body.
6. They function to reorganize the internal structure of the cell to regulate cellular
activities.
Frequently Asked Questions
Q1
Almost all enzymes are proteins, so which enzyme is not a protein?
Ribozyme.
With the exception of ribozymes, all enzymes are protein-based.
Q2
Define enzymes.
Enzymes can be defined as biological polymers that catalyze biochemical reactions.
Q3
What is the induced fit theory?
The concept of induced fit states that when a substrate binds to an enzyme, it brings about a
change in the shape of the enzyme which either enhances or supresses the activity of the
enzyme.
Q4
What are the examples of enzymes in plants?
Examples of plant-derived enzymes include amylase, protease and peroxidase.
Q5
Can an enzyme be called a polymer?
Yes, most enzymes are made up of proteins which are polymers of amino acids.
Q6
What are the types of enzymes present?
The types of enzymes are:
 Oxidoreductases
 Transferases
 Hydrolases
 Lyases
 Ligases
 Isomerases
Double Circulation
The circulatory system is responsible for the transportation of nutrients and gases like
oxygen, for the body and metabolic waste products away from the body. The heart and the
lungs play an important role in circulating and purification of blood throughout the body. But
is the heart the only organ that helps in purification? Let’s have a brief study on double
circulation and the relevant organs involved.
Types of Circulatory Systems
In animals, there are two types of circulatory systems: open circulatory system and closed
circulatory system. The majority of mammals, including humans, use a double circulatory
system. The closed circulatory system is further classified into two, based on the number of
times blood circulation takes place through the heart:
 Single Circulation
In a single circulatory system, the blood will pass through the heart to gills, then after
purification, blood will be distributed to different parts of the body. Only one cardiac cycle is
completed, hence the name single circulation. For example: single circulation is mainly seen
in birds, fish, reptiles, etc.
 Double Circulation
The heart is the key organ for blood circulation and the double circulation is an efficient way
of circulation as it provides an effective way of circulation. The main difference is that the
blood follows two routes – one for oxygenated blood and the other for deoxygenated blood.
Hence, the name “double circulation.” The majority of mammals, including humans utilize a
double circulatory system.
The human heart is divided into four chambers:
1. Left Atria
2. Right Atria
3. Left Ventricles
4. Right Ventricles
Further, the heart is connected to the lungs through the pulmonary artery and vein. In double
circulation, there are two pathways in which the blood flows. They are:
 Systemic circulation
Systemic circulation carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricles to the tissue capillaries.
 The oxygen-rich blood is transferred to the aorta for circulating into various parts of
the body.
 Later, the veins and venules collect the deoxygenated blood – which is rich in carbon
dioxide from various parts of the body.
 The deoxygenated blood is pumped back into the superior vena cava and then to the
right atrium.
 Once, after receiving the deoxygenated blood, the right atrium carries blood to the
right ventricle for pulmonary circulation.
 Pulmonary circulation
In the pulmonary circulation, the blood circulation starts from the right atrium to the left
atrium. In this pathway:
 The pulmonary artery collects the blood from the right ventricle and carries to lungs
for oxygenation.
 Once, after the purification process, the oxygenated blood is pumped back to the left
atrium through the pulmonary vein which is carried to the left ventricles.
 The left ventricles pump the oxygenated blood to the aorta for systemic circulation.
Double circulation supports a strict separation of both oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.
Therefore, this circulation ensures that the body always has a dedicated supply of oxygen and
also, it improves body efficiency. This is also one of the reasons why mammals can maintain
their body temperatures. Apart from the double circulation, a third portal system also exists
to improve circulation efficiency.
Bain 🧠
The Human Brain
On average, an adult brain weighs between 1.0 kg – 1.5 kg. It is mainly composed of neurons
– the fundamental unit of the brain and nervous system. Recent estimates have suggested that
the brain contains anywhere between 86 billion to 100 billion neurons.
The brain, along with the spinal cord, constitutes the central nervous system. It is
responsible for thoughts, interpretation and origin of control for body movements.
Read More: Central Nervous System
Brain Diagram
The brain diagram given below highlights the different lobes of the human brain.
Where is the Brain located?
The brain is enclosed within the skull, which provides frontal, lateral and dorsal protection.
The skull consists of 22 bones, 14 of which form the facial bones and the remaining 8 form
the cranial bones. Anatomically, the brain is contained within the cranium and is surrounded
by the cerebrospinal fluid.
The Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF) is a fluid that circulates within the skull and spinal cord,
filling up hollow spaces on the surface of the brain. Every day, the specialised ependymal
cells produce around 500mL of cerebrospinal fluid.
The primary function of the CSF is to act as a buffer for the brain, cushioning mechanical
shocks and dampening minor jolts. It also provides basic immunological protection to the
brain.
Furthermore, CSF provides buoyancy for the brain. i.e., the brain is suspended in a layer of
CSF, wherein, the weight of the brain is nearly negated. If the brain is not suspended in CSF,
it would be impeded by its weight, consequently cutting off the blood supply in the lower half
of the brain. It would lead to the death of neurons in the affected area.
Also Read: Neurons – Nerve Impulses
Parts of Human Brain
Following are the major parts of the human brain:
Forebrain – Largest part of the brain
It is the anterior part of the brain. The forebrain parts include:
 Cerebrum
 Hypothalamus
 Thalamus
Forebrain Function: Controls the reproductive functions, body temperature, emotions,
hunger and sleep.
Fact: The largest among the forebrain parts is the cerebrum. It is also the largest part of all
vertebrate brains.
Midbrain: Smallest and central part of the brain
The midbrain consists of:
 Tectum
 Tegmentum
Read more: Tectum and Tegmentum
Hindbrain: The lower part of the brain
The hindbrain is composed of:
 Cerebellum
 Medulla
 Pons
Hindbrain functions: The three regions of the hindbrain coordinates all processes necessary
for survival. These induce breathing, heartbeat, sleep, wakefulness and motor learning.

Brain diagram highlighting various parts of the human brain

Cerebrum
The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain. It consists of the cerebral cortex and other
subcortical structures. It is composed of two cerebral hemispheres that are joined together by
heavy, dense bands of fibre called the corpus callosum. The cerebrum is further divided into
four sections or lobes:
1. Frontal lobe: It is associated with parts of speech, planning, reasoning, problem-
solving and movements.
2. Parietal lobe: Help in movements, the perception of stimuli and orientation.
3. Occipital lobe: It is related to visual processing.
4. Temporal lobe: This region is related to perception and recognition of memory,
auditory stimuli and speech.
The brain consists of two types of tissues: Grey matter and White matter.
1. Grey matter mainly consists of various types of cells, which make up the bulk of the
brain.
2. White matter is primarily composed of axons, which connect various grey matter
areas of the brain with each other.
The exterior portion of the cerebrum is called the cortex or the cerebral mantle. The cortex is
extremely convoluted, due to which, it has a large surface area. The cerebrum also includes:
1. Sensory areas: To receive the messages.
2. Association areas: These areas integrate the incoming sensory information. It also
forms a connection between sensory and motor areas.
3. Motor areas: This area is responsible for the action of the voluntary muscles.
Cerebrum Function
The cerebrum is responsible for thinking, intelligence, consciousness and memory. It is also
responsible for interpreting touch, hearing and vision.
Thalamus
The thalamus is a small structure, located right above the brain stem responsible for relaying
sensory information from the sense organs. It is also responsible for transmitting motor
information for movement and coordination. Thalamus is found in the limbic system within
the cerebrum. This limbic system is mainly responsible for the formation of new memories
and storing past experiences.
Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus is a small and essential part of the brain, located precisely below the
thalamus. It is considered the primary region of the brain, as it is involved in the following
functions:
1. Receives impulses
2. Regulates body temperature
3. Controls the mood and emotions
4. Controls the sense of taste and smell
5. Synthesises the body’s essential hormones
6. Coordinates the messages from the autonomous nervous system
7. Controls appetite, peristalsis, the rate of heartbeat, and blood pressure
8. Forms an axis with the pituitary gland which is the main link between the nervous and
the endocrine systems
Explore More: Hypothalamus
Tectum
The tectum is a small portion of the brain, specifically the dorsal part of the midbrain. It
serves as a relay centre for the sensory information from the ears to the cerebrum. It also
controls the reflex movements of the head, eye and neck muscles. It provides a passage for
the different neurons moving in and out of the cerebrum.
Tegmentum
Tegmentum is a region within the brainstem. It is a complex structure with various
components, which is mainly involved in body movements, sleep, arousal, attention, and
different necessary reflexes. It forms the platform for the midbrain and connects with
the thalamus, cerebral cortex and the spinal cord.
Cerebellum
The cerebellum is the second largest part of the brain, located in the posterior portion of the
medulla and pons. The cerebellum and cerebrum are separated by cerebellar tentorium and
transverse fissure. Cortex is the outer surface of the cerebellum, and its parallel ridges are
called the folia. Apart from this, the cerebellum has the cerebellar peduncles, cerebellar
nuclei, anterior and posterior lobes. The cerebellum consists of two hemispheres, the outer
grey cortex and the inner white medulla. It is mainly responsible for coordinating and
maintaining the body balance during walking, running, riding, swimming, and precision
control of the voluntary movements. The main functions of the cerebellum include:
1. It senses equilibrium.
2. Transfers information.
3. Coordinates eye movement.
4. It enables precision control of the voluntary body movements.
5. Predicts the future position of the body during a particular movement.
6. Both anterior and posterior lobes are concerned with the skeletal movements.
7. The cerebellum is also essential for making fine adjustments to motor actions.
8. Coordinates and maintains body balance and posture during walking, running, riding,
swimming.
Medulla Oblongata
The medulla oblongata is a small structure present in the lowest region of the brain. It mainly
controls the body’s autonomic functions such as heartbeat, breathing, and digestion. It plays a
primary role in connecting the spinal cord, pons and the cerebral cortex. Also, it helps us in
maintaining our posture and controlling our reflexes.
Pons
The pons is the primary structure of the brain stem present between the midbrain and medulla
oblongata. It serves as a relay signals between the lower cerebellum, spinal cord, the
midbrain, cerebrum and other higher parts of the brain. The main functions of the pons
include:
1. Controlling sleep cycles.
2. Regulating the magnitude and frequency of the respiration.
3. Transfers information between the cerebellum and motor cortex.
4. Pons is also involved in sensations, such as the sense of taste, hearing and balance.

Frequently Asked Questions

Q1
1. Explain how the nervous system is classified.
The nervous system in humans can be broadly classified into two types, namely, the
peripheral nervous system and central nervous system
Q2
2. Describe the Central Nervous System.
The central nervous system primarily consists of the brain and the spinal cord. The system
coordinates and controls various aspects of life, ranging from physical attributes (heartbeat,
breathing) to mental capabilities (memory, intelligence).
Q3
3. Explain the Peripheral Nervous System.
The nerves and ganglia that are present outside the brain and spinal cord contribute to the
peripheral nervous system. The primary role of the PNS is to connect the central nervous
system to the rest of the body, such as the limbs, skin.
Q4
4. How is the brain protected in the body?
The brain is enclosed within the skull, where it is suspended in a layer of fluid called the
cerebrospinal fluid. It protects the brain from minor mechanical shocks and jolts.
Furthermore, it also serves minor immunological roles and provides the necessary nutrients
required by the brain.
Q5
5. Briefly explain the parts of the brain.
Anatomically, the brain consists of the following parts:
1. Forebrain
 Cerebrum
 Hypothalamus
 Thalamus
2. Midbrain
 Tectum
 Tegmentum
3. Hindbrain
 Cerebellum
 Medulla
 Pons

Ear
The ear is a sensitive organ of the human body. It is mainly concerned with
detecting, transmitting and transducing sound. Maintaining a sense of balance is
another important function performed by the human ear.
Let us have an overview of the structure and functions of the human ear.

Structure of Ear
The human ear consists of three parts:

 External ear
 Middle ear
 Internal ear

Human Ear Parts

The human ear parts are explained below:

External Ear
The external ear is further divided into the following parts:

Auricle (Pinna)

The auricle comprises a thin plate of elastic cartilage covered by a layer of skin. It
consists of funnel-like curves that collect sound waves and transmits them to the
middle ear. The lobule consists of adipose and fibrous tissues supplied with blood
capillaries.

External Auditory Meatus

It is a slightly curved canal supported by bone in its interior part and cartilage in the
exterior part. The meatus or the canal is lined with stratified epithelium and wax
glands.

Tympanic Membrane

This membrane separates the middle ear and the external ear. This part receives
and amplifies the sound waves. Its central part is known as the umbo.

Middle Ear
The middle ear comprises the following parts:

Tympanic Cavity
It is a narrow air-filled cavity separated from the external ear by tympanic membrane
and from inner ear by the bony wall. The tympanic cavity has an auditory tube known
as the eustachian tube in its anterior wall.

Eustachian Tube

The eustachian tube is a 4cm long tube that equalizes air pressure on either side of
the tympanic membrane. It connects the tympanic cavity with the nasopharynx.

Ear Ossicles

These are responsible for transmitting sound waves from the eardrum to the middle
ear. There are three ear ossicles in the human ear:

 Malleus: A hammer-shaped part that is attached to the tympanic membrane through the
handle and incus through the head. It is the largest ear ossicle.
 Incus: An anvil-shaped ear ossicle connected with the stapes.
 Stapes: It is the smallest ossicle and also the smallest bone in the human body.

Inner Ear
It comprises two parts:

 Bony labyrinth
 Membranous labyrinth

Bony Labyrinth

The bony labyrinth comprises a vestibule, three semi-circular canals, and spirally
coiled cochlea. It is filled with perilymph.

Membranous labyrinth

The bony labyrinth surrounds the membranous labyrinth. It comprises sensory

receptors responsible for balance and hearing. The membranous labyrinth is filled
with endolymph and comprises three semi-circular ducts, cochlear duct, saccule and
utricle. The sensory receptors include cristae, an organ of corti, and ampullaris
maculae.

Also Read: Structure of Eye

Function of Ear
Following are the important function of the ear:
Hearing
The mechanism of hearing involves the following steps:

 The sound waves pass through the auditory canal and reach the eardrum.
 The vibrations produced pass through the tympanic membrane to the tympanic cavity.
 The ear ossicles in the tympanic cavity receive the vibrations and the stapes pushes the
oval window in and out.
 This action is passed on to the organ of corti, the receptor of hearing, that contains tiny
hair cells that translate the vibrations into an electrical impulse that are transmitted to the
brain by sensory nerves.

Balance
The eustachian tube and the vestibular complex are the important parts of the ear
responsible for the balance.

 The eustachian tube equalizes the air pressure in the middle ear and maintains the
balance.
 The vestibular complex contains receptors that maintain body balance.

Liver
Liver
The liver is located in the upper right portion of the abdomen. It is the largest
gland in the human body that performs several important functions. It is the
only organ that has the ability to regenerate efficiently.
Liver Anatomy
Structure of Liver
The liver is a triangular, bilobed structure consisting of a larger right lobe and a
smaller left lobe. The falciform ligament separates the two lobes.
A layer of fibrous tissue called Glisson’s capsule covers the liver. This capsule
is covered by the peritoneum. This protects the liver from physical damage.
It has two main sources of blood:
 Hepatic Portal Vein carries nutrient-rich blood from the digestive
system.
 Hepatic Artery carries oxygenated blood from the heart.

Functions of Liver
The important functions of the liver are mentioned below:
Production of Bile
Bile, which helps in the digestion and absorption of fats, vitamins and
cholesterol is produced in the liver.
Absorption of Bilirubin
Bilirubin is formed by the breakdown of haemoglobin. The iron released is
stored in the liver to make next-generation blood cells.
Supporting Blood Clots
Bile is responsible for the absorption of vitamin K. If bile is not produced,
clotting factors will not be produced.
Metabolization of Fats
Bile helps in the breakdown and digestion of fats.
Carbohydrate Metabolization
The carbohydrates stored in the liver as glycogen are broken down into glucose
and released into the blood to maintain glucose levels.
Storage of Vitamins and Minerals
Vitamins A, D, E, K, and B12 are stored in the liver. It also stores iron in the
form of ferritin to form new red blood cells.
Metabolization of Proteins
Bile helps in the digestion of proteins.
Filtering Blood
The compounds such as hormones, alcohol, etc are filtered by the liver from
the blood.
Immunological Function
The liver contains Kuffer cells involved in immune activity. These destroy any
disease-causing agents.
Albumin Production
Albumin transports fatty acids and steroids to maintain correct pressure and
prevent leakage of blood vessels.
Angiotensinogen Synthesis
This hormone is responsible for the narrowing of blood vessels which results in
an increase in blood pressure.
Regeneration of Liver
The liver has the ability to regrow in all vertebrates. The functions of the liver
are not lost during the growth process. In humans, regeneration takes 8-15 days.
In mice, the same process takes around 5-7 days.
Liver Diseases
Fascioliasis
This is caused by a parasite “liver fluke”. The parasite can lie dormant in the
liver for months or even years.
Cirrhosis
This can be caused due to alcohol consumption, toxins and hepatitis. Here, the
scar cells replace liver cells in a process known as fibrosis. The functionality of
liver cells is destroyed, which might lead to liver failure.
Hepatitis
It is the inflammation of the liver caused by viruses such as hepatitis A, B and
C. In most cases, it leads to liver failure.
Alcoholic Liver Disease
Uncontrolled alcohol consumption leads to liver damage. It is the most common
cause of cirrhosis.
Fatty Liver Disease
This is the result of alcohol abuse or obesity. In this disease, the vacuoles of fat
build up in the liver cells.
Liver Cancer
Alcohol and hepatitis are the major cause of liver cancer. Hepatocellular
carcinoma and cholangiocarcinoma are the two types of liver cancer.

Heart
Human Heart
The heart is a muscular organ that is situated in the front of the chest. It pumps blood all
through the body in a process called circulation. Apart from the heart, the blood vessels and
blood as a unit constitute the cardiovascular system.

Introduction to the Human Heart

The human heart is one of the most important organs responsible for sustaining life. It is a
muscular organ with four chambers. The size of the heart is the size of about a clenched fist.
The human heart functions throughout a person’s lifespan and is one of the most robust and
hardest working muscles in the human body.
Besides humans, most other animals also possess a heart that pumps blood throughout their
bodies. Even invertebrates such as grasshoppers possess a heart like pumping organ, though
they do not function the same way a human heart does.

Position of Heart in Human Body

The human heart is located between the lungs in the thoracic cavity, slightly towards the left
of the sternum (breastbone). It is derived from the embryonic mesodermal germ layer.
The Function of Heart
The function of the heart in any organism is to maintain a constant flow of blood throughout
the body. This replenishes oxygen and circulates nutrients among the cells and tissues.
Following are the main functions of the heart:
 One of the primary functions of the human heart is to pump blood throughout the
body.
 Blood delivers oxygen, hormones, glucose and other components to various parts of
the body, including the human heart.
 The heart also ensures that adequate blood pressure is maintained in the body
There are two types of circulation within the body, namely pulmonary circulation and
systemic circulation.
Pulmonary circulation (blue) and Systemic circulation (red)
Types of Circulation
 Pulmonary circulation is a portion of circulation responsible for carrying
deoxygenated blood away from the heart, to the lungs and then bringing
oxygenated blood back to the heart.
 Systemic circulation is another portion of circulation where the oxygenated blood is
pumped from the heart to every organ and tissue in the body, and deoxygenated
blood comes back again to the heart.
Now, the heart itself is a muscle and therefore, it needs a constant supply of oxygenated
blood. This is where another type of circulation comes into play, the coronary circulation.
 Coronary circulation is an essential portion of the circulation, where oxygenated
blood is supplied to the heart. This is important as the heart is responsible for
supplying blood throughout the body.
 Moreover, organs like the brain need a steady flow of fresh, oxygenated blood to
ensure functionality.
In a nutshell, the circulatory system plays a vital role in supplying oxygen, and nutrients and
removing carbon dioxide and other wastes from the body. Let us gain a deeper insight into
the various anatomical structures of the heart:
Structure of the Human Heart
The human heart is about the size of a human fist and is divided into four chambers,
namely two ventricles and two atria. The ventricles are the chambers that pump blood and
the atrium are the chambers that receive blood. Among these both the right atrium and
ventricle make up the “right heart,” and the left atrium and ventricle make up the “left heart.”
The structure of the heart also houses the biggest artery in the body – the aorta.
The right and the left region of the heart are separated by a wall of muscle called the septum.
The right ventricle pumps the blood to the lungs for re-oxygenation through the pulmonary
arteries. The right semilunar valves close and prevent the blood from flowing back into the
heart. Then, the oxygenated blood is received by the left atrium from the lungs via the
pulmonary veins. Read on to explore more about the structure of the heart.
External Structure of Heart
One of the very first structures which can be observed when the external structure of the heart
is viewed is the pericardium.
Pericardium
The human heart is situated to the left of the chest and is enclosed within a fluid-filled cavity
described as the pericardial cavity. The walls and lining of the pericardial cavity are made up
of a membrane known as the pericardium.
The pericardium is a fibre membrane found as an external covering around the heart. It
protects the heart by producing a serous fluid, which serves to lubricate the heart and prevent
friction between the surrounding organs. Apart from the lubrication, the pericardium also
helps by holding the heart in its position and by maintaining a hollow space for the heart to
expand itself when it is full. The pericardium has two exclusive layers—
 Visceral Layer: It directly covers the outside of the heart.
 Parietal Layer: It forms a sac around the outer region of the heart that contains the
fluid in the pericardial cavity.
Structure of the Heart Wall
The heart wall is made up of 3 layers, namely:
 Epicardium – Epicardium is the outermost layer of the heart. It is composed of a
thin-layered membrane that serves to lubricate and protect the outer section.
 Myocardium – This is a layer of muscle tissue and it constitutes the middle layer
wall of the heart. It contributes to the thickness and is responsible for the pumping
action.
 Endocardium – It is the innermost layer that lines the inner heart chambers and
covers the heart valves. Furthermore, it prevents the blood from sticking to the inner
walls, thereby preventing potentially fatal blood clots.
Internal Structure of Heart
The internal structure of the heart is rather intricate with several chambers and valves that
control the flow of blood.
Chambers of the Heart
Vertebrate hearts can be classified based on the number of chambers present. For instance,
most fish have two chambers, and reptiles and amphibians have three chambers. Avian and
mammalian hearts consists of four chambers. Humans are mammals; hence, we have four
chambers, namely:
 Left atrium
 Right atrium
 Left ventricle
 Right ventricle
Atria are thin and have less muscular walls and are smaller than ventricles. These are the
blood-receiving chambers that are fed by the large veins.
Ventricles are larger and more muscular chambers responsible for pumping and pushing
blood out into circulation. These are connected to larger arteries that deliver blood for
circulation.
The right ventricle and right atrium are comparatively smaller than the left chambers. The
walls consist of fewer muscles compared to the left portion, and the size difference is based
on their functions. The blood originating from the right side flows through the pulmonary
circulation, while blood arising from the left chambers is pumped throughout the body.
Blood Vessels
In organisms with closed circulatory systems, the blood flows within vessels of varying sizes.
All vertebrates, including humans, possess this type of circulation. The external structure of
the heart has many blood vessels that form a network, with other major vessels emerging
from within the structure. The blood vessels typically comprise the following:
 Veins supply deoxygenated blood to the heart via inferior and superior vena cava, and
it eventually drains into the right atrium.
 Capillaries are tiny, tube-like vessels which form a network between the arteries to
veins.
 Arteries are muscular-walled tubes mainly involved in supplying oxygenated blood
away from the heart to all other parts of the body. Aorta is the largest of the arteries
and it branches off into various smaller arteries throughout the body.
Valves
Valves are flaps of fibrous tissues located in the cardiac chambers between the veins. They
ensure that the blood flows in a single direction (unidirectional). Flaps also prevent the blood
from flowing backwards. Based on their function, valves are of two types:
 Atrioventricular valves are between ventricles and atria. The valve between the right
ventricle and right atrium is the tricuspid valve, and the one which is found between
the left ventricle and left atrium is known as the mitral valve.
 Semilunar valves are located between the left ventricle and the aorta. It is also found
between the pulmonary artery and the right ventricle.
Facts about Human Heart

 The heart pumps around 6,000-7,500 litres of blood in a day throughout the body.
 The heart is situated at the centre of the chest and points slightly towards the left.
 On average, the heart beats about 100,000 times a day, i.e., around 3 billion beats in a
lifetime.
 The average male heart weighs around 280 to 340 grams (10 to 12 ounces). In
females, it weighs around 230 to 280 grams (8 to 10 ounces).
 An adult’s heart beats about 60 to 100 times per minute, and a newborn baby’s heart
beats at a faster pace than an adult which is about 90 to 190 beats per minute.
To know more about the human heart structure and function, or any other related concepts
such as arteries and veins, the internal structure of the heart, and the external structure of the
heart, explore BYJU’S Biology. Also, learn an easy diagram of the heart, concepts and
relevant questions for the human heart for Class 10 by downloading BYJU’S – The Learning
App.
More to Explore:
 Hypoxia
 Heart Diseases
 Hepatic Portal System
Frequently Asked Questions
Q1
1. What is pulmonary circulation? Explain.
Pulmonary circulation is a type of blood circulation responsible for carrying deoxygenated
blood away from the heart, and to the lungs, where it is oxygenated. The system then brings
oxygenated blood back to the heart to be pumped throughout the body.
Q2
2. Define systemic circulation.
In systemic circulation, the heart pumps the oxygenated blood through the arteries to every
organ and tissue in the body, and then back again to the heart through a system of veins.
Q3
3. Elaborate on coronary circulation and its significance.
The heart is a muscle, and it needs a constant supply of oxygenated blood to survive and
work effectively. This is where coronary circulation fulfils this function through a network of
arteries and veins in the heart. The coronary arteries supply oxygenated blood to the heart,
and the cardiac veins drain the blood once it has been deoxygenated by the tissues of the
heart.
Q4
4. Briefly explain the structure of the human heart.
The human heart is divided into four chambers, namely two ventricles and two atria. The
ventricles are the chambers that pump blood and atrium are the chambers that receive the
blood. Among which, the right atrium and ventricle make up the “right portion of the heart”,
and the left atrium and ventricle make up the “left portion of the heart.”
Q5
5. Name the chambers of the heart.
 Left atrium
 Right atrium
 Left ventricle
 Right ventricle
Q6
6. What is pericardium? Explain its function.
The pericardium is a fibrous membrane that envelops the heart. It also serves a protective
function by producing a serous fluid, which lubricates the heart and prevents friction between
the surrounding organs. Furthermore, the pericardium also holds the heart in its position and
provides a hollow space for the heart to expand and contract.
Q7
7. Explain the three layers of the heart wall.
The heart wall is made up of 3 layers, namely:
 Epicardium – This is the outermost layer of the heart. It is composed of a thin layer of
membrane that protects and lubricates the outer section.
 Myocardium – This is a layer of muscle tissue that constitutes the middle layer wall of
the heart. It is responsible for the heart’s “pumping” action.
 Endocardium – The innermost layer that lines the inner heart chambers and covers the
heart valves. Prevents blood from sticking, thereby avoiding the formation of fatal
blood clots.
Q8
8. Explain the three major blood vessels of the human body.
The blood vessels comprise:
 Veins – It supplies deoxygenated blood to the heart via inferior and superior vena
cava, eventually draining into the right atrium.
 Capillaries – They are minuscule, tube-like vessels which form a network between the
arteries and veins.
 Arteries – These are muscular-walled tubes responsible for supplying oxygenated
blood away from the heart to all other parts of the body.
Q9
9. What is the function of the heart valves? Provide examples of various valves.
Valves are flaps of tissues that are present in cardiac chambers between the veins. They
prevent the backflow of blood. Examples include the atrioventricular valves, tricuspid valves,
mitral valves and the semilunar valves.
Q10
10. What is meant by myocardial infarction?
Myocardial infarction is a serious medical condition where the blood flow to the heart is
reduced or entirely stopped. This causes oxygen deprivation in the heart muscles, and
prolonged deprivation can cause tissues to die.
Eye
Structure of the Eye
The eye is one of the sensory organs of the body. In this article, we shall explore the anatomy
of the eye

The structure of the eye is an important topic to understand as it one of the important sensory
organs in the human body. It is mainly responsible for vision, differentiation of colour (the
human eye can differentiate approximately 10 – 12 million colours) and maintaining the
biological clock of the human body. The human eye can be compared to a camera as both
works by gathering, focusing and transmitting the light through the lens for creating an image
of an object.
Table of Contents
 Structure and Functions
 The External Structure
 The Internal Structure
Human Eye Diagram: Contrary to popular belief, the eyes are not perfectly spherical;
instead, it is made up of two separate segments fused together.Explore: Facts About The Eye
To understand more in detail about our eye and how our eye functions, we need to look into
the structure of the human eye.
Recommended Video:

Structure and Functions of the Human Eye

The human eyes are the most complicated sense organs in the human body. From the
muscles and tissues to nerves and blood vessels, every part of the human eye is responsible
for a certain action. Furthermore, contrary to popular belief, the eye is not perfectly spherical;
instead, it is two separate segments fused together. It is made up of several muscles and
tissues that come together to form a roughly spherical structure. From an anatomical
perspective, the human eye can be broadly classified into external structure and internal
structure.
The External Structure of an Eye
The parts of the eye that are visible externally include the following :-
Sclera: It is a white visible portion. It is made up of dense connective tissue and protects the
inner parts.
Conjunctiva: It lines the sclera and is made up of stratified squamous epithelium. It keeps
our eyes moist and clear and provides lubrication by secreting mucus and tears.
Cornea: It is the transparent, anterior or front part of our eye, which covers the pupil and the
iris. The main function is to refract the light along with the lens.
Iris: It is the pigmented, coloured portion of the eye, visible externally. The main function of
the iris is to control the diameter of the pupil according to the light source.
Pupil: It is the small aperture located in the centre of the Iris. It allows light to enter and
focus on the retina.

The Internal Structure of an Eye

The internal components of an eye are:
Lens: It is a transparent, biconvex, lens of an eye. The lens is attached to the ciliary body by
ligaments. The lens along with the cornea refracts light so that it focuses on the retina.
Retina: It is the innermost layer of the eye. It is light sensitive and acts as a film of a camera.
Three layers of neural cells are present in them, they are ganglion, bipolar and photoreceptor
cells. It converts the image into electrical nerve impulses for the visual perception by the
brain.
Optic nerve: It is located at the posterior portion of the eyes. The optic nerves carry all the
nerve impulses from the retina to the human brain for perception.
Aqueous Humour: It is a watery fluid present between the cornea and the lens. It nourishes
the eye and keeps it inflated.
Vitreous Humour: it is a transparent, jelly-like substance present between the lens and the
retina. It contains water (99%), collage, proteins, etc. The main function of vitreous humour
is to protect the eyes and maintain its spherical shape.
Structure of the Eye explained in detail
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Explore more about the Structure of Eye and its functions or discover other related topics
at BYJU’S Biology.
Frequently Asked Questions
Q1
Briefly explain the structure of the human eye.
The human eye is a roughly spherical organ, responsible for perceiving visual stimuli. It is
enclosed within the eye sockets in the skull and is anchored down by muscles within the
sockets.
Anatomically, the eye comprises two components fused into one; hence, it does not possess a
perfect spherical shape. External components include structures which can be seen on the
exterior of the eye and internal components include structures present within.
External components include:
 Sclera
 Conjunctiva
 Cornea
 Iris
 Pupil
Internal components include:
 Lens
 Retina
 Optic nerve
 Aqueous Humour
 Vitreous Humour
Q2
What are the external structures of the eye?
The external structures of the eye include:
 Sclera
 Conjunctiva
 Cornea
 Iris
 Pupil
Q3
What is the function of conjunctiva?
Conjunctiva lubricates the front surface of the eye. It also protects the eyes from debris, dust
and infection-causing microorganisms.
Q4
What is the function of the iris? How many layers does it have?
The iris regulates the amount of light entering the eyes by controlling the diameter and size of
the pupil.
The iris consists of two layers:
 Stroma, the front pigmented fibrovascular layer
 Pigmented epithelial cells.
What are the internal components of the eye?
Q5
What are the internal components of the eye?
The internal components of the eye include:
 Lens
 Retina
 Aqueous humour
 Optic nerve
 Vitreous humour