CELL BIOLOGY

The Cell Concept

The cell is the basic unit of structure and function in living organisms. Two scientists, Schlieden
and Schwann proposed what is commonly known as cell theory in 1838 and 1839 respectively. In
1855, another idea that new cells can only come from pre-existing cells was proposed.

An easy way of looking at cells is to consider them as a bag of chemicals that is capable of
surviving and multiplying itself. The chemical constituent of each bag is such that it is different in
many ways from those outside it. If this difference cannot be maintained, life could not exist. The
barrier is a very thin membrane called the cell surface membrane. It serves as a border control
point regulating the movement of molecules in and out of the cell.

Although all cells share certain features (for example, every cell has a plasma membrane),
biologists recognize two fundamentally different categories of cells: prokaryotic and eukaryotic.
We compartmentalize cells into several structures, organelles with specific functions. Organelles
are subunits in the anatomy of the cell. The compartmentalization inside the cell allows many
different functions to be localized in specific places. This brings about a high level of organization
and efficiency in the cell. In this unit we will discuss the structures and functions of the different
parts of the cell. Advancements in science and technology shed more light into the cell, with new
findings and discoveries about its structure and cellular components. In 1950s, scientists postulated
the concept of prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells, with earlier groundwork laid by Edouard Chatton,
a French biologist in 1925. Anatomically, cells vary in respect to their classification, thus,
prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells differ from each other drastically. Read on to explore how
they differ from each other.

Prokaryotic Cell

The term “prokaryote” is derived from the Greek word “pro” (meaning: before) and “karyon”
(meaning: kernel). It translates to “before nuclei”. Prokaryotes are one of the most ancient groups
of living organisms on earth, with fossil records dating back to almost 3.5 billion years ago. These
prokaryotes thrived in the earth’s ancient environment, some using up chemical energy and others
using the sun’s energy. These extremophiles thrived for millions of years, evolving and adapting.
Scientists speculated that these organisms gave rise to the eukaryotes. Prokaryotic cells are
comparatively smaller and much simpler than eukaryotic cells. The other defining characteristic
of prokaryotic cells is that they do not possess membrane-bound cell organelles such as a nucleus,
and reproduction is by binary fission.

Structurally, each prokaryote has a capsule enveloping its entire body which functions as a
protective coat. This is crucial for preventing the process of phagocytosis (where the bacteria get
engulfed by other eukaryotic cells, such as macrophages). A hair-like appendage found on the
external surface of most prokaryotes is called pilus, and it helps the organism to attach itself to
various environments. The pilus is commonly observed in bacteria and essentially resists being
flushed, hence, it is also called attachment pili.

Right below the protective coating lies the cell wall, which provides strength and rigidity to the
cell. Further down lies the cytoplasm that helps in cellular growth, and is contained within the
plasma membrane. This separates the inner contents of the cell from the outside environment.
Ribosomes exist within the cytoplasm; it is also one of the smallest components within the cell
and plays an important role in protein synthesis. Some prokaryotic cells contain special structures
called mesosomes which assist in cellular respiration. Most prokaryotes also contain plasmids,
which contain small, circular pieces of DNA. To help with locomotion, flagella are present,
though, pilus can also serve as an aid for locomotion. Common examples of Prokaryotic organisms
are bacteria, archaea and all members of Kingdom Monera.

Eukaryotic Cell

The term “Eukaryotes” is derived from the Greek word “eu“, (meaning: good) and “karyon”
(meaning: kernel), being translated to “good or true nuclei.” Eukaryotes are more complex and
much larger than prokaryotes. They include almost all the major kingdoms except kingdom
monera. Structurally, eukaryotes possess a cell wall, which supports and protects the plasma
membrane. The cell is surrounded by the plasma membrane which controls the entry and exit of
some substances. The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear membrane and contains DNA, which
is responsible for storing all genetic information. Within the nucleus is the nucleolus, and it plays
a crucial role in proteins synthesis. Eukaryotic cells also contain mitochondria, which are
responsible for the production of energy utilized by the cell.
Chloroplasts are the subcellular sites of photosynthesis present in only plant cells. The
endoplasmic reticulum helps in the transportation of materials. Besides these, there are also other
cell organelles that perform various other functions, these include ribosomes, lysosomes, Golgi
bodies, cytoplasm, chromosomes, vacuoles and centrosomes.

Examples of eukaryotes include almost every unicellular organism with a nucleus and all
multicellular organisms.

Figure 1. An image illustrating the difference between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells.
Note that the prokaryotic cell is a complete individual organism.
Difference between Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

Though these two classes of cells are quite different, they do possess some common characteristics.
For example, both possess cell membranes and ribosomes. The complete list of differences
between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells is summarized as follows:

Feature Prokaryotes Eukaryotes

Organisms Bacteria Protists, fungi, plants and animals
Cell size Average diameter 0.5 - 10µm Diameter commonly 1000 – 10000
times the volume of prokaryotes

Form Mainly Unicellular Mainly Multicellular

Evolution origin 3.5 thousand million years ago 1.2 thousand million years ago, evolve
from prokaryotes
Cell division Mostly binary fission, no spindle Mitosis, meiosis or both, spindle
formed
Genetic material DNA is circular and lies freely in the DNA is also associated with RNA to
cytoplasm (no true nucleus). DNA is form chromosomes
also naked; not associated with RNA
to form chromosomes
Protein 70s ribosomes, no endoplasmic 80s ribosomes, and may be attached to
Synthesis reticulum endoplasmic reticulum

Organelles Few organelles, none surrounded by Many organelles and envelope-bound

envelope (two membranes) organelles present e.g. nucleus,
mitochondria, chloroplast. There are
also, some organelles bounded by
single membrane e.g. Golgi apparatus,
lysosomes, endoplasmic reticulum.
Cell wall Rigid and contain polysaccharides Cell walls of green plants and fungi are
with amino acids; murein rigid and contain polysaccharides;
strengthening compounds cellulose is the main strengthening
compounds of plant cell walls. Chitin
for fungal cell wall while there is no
cell wall in animal cells.
Flagella Simple, lacking microtubules; Complex with microtubules;
extracellular, 20nm diameter intracellular, 200nm diameter
Respiration Membranes in blue green bacteria Mitochondria for aerobic respiration
Photosynthesis No chloroplasts; takes place in Chloroplasts containing membranes
membranes which show no stacking which are usually stacked into lamellae
or grana
Nitrogen fixation Some have the ability to fix nitrogen None can fix nitrogen

Structure of Plant cells

Plant cells (figure 2.1) are bounded by a relatively rigid well which is formed by the secretion of
the protoplasm (living cell) within it. When plant cells divide, primary walls are formed. As the
wall continues to thicken, it may later become a secondary wall. Another way of looking at cells
is to see them as a small unit of living protoplasm surrounded by a non-living wall in the case of
plants. In the case of animal cells, it is always a cell surface membrane. The most prominent
structure in the cell the nucleus. It contains a deep staining material known as chromatin.
Chromosomes which contain the genetic material (DNA) of the plant cell are regulated by the
DNA which is capable of replicating itself so that new cells can be formed. Between the nucleus
and the cell surface membrane, there is a living material known as cytoplasm. The cytoplasm
contains another distinct part of the cell that has a particular structure and function. It is called
organelle

Figure 2. General plant cell as seen with a light microscope

Structure of an Animal cell

The structure of a typical animal cell is shown in figure 2.2 Examine the details carefully and note
the similarities and differences between plant cells and animal cells. The diameter of a typical
animal cell is about one hundredth of a millimeter (l0 um pronounced ten micrometer). It is
bounded by a cell surface membrane, which encloses the protoplasm. At the center of the cell is
the nucleus which controls the activities of the cell. The nucleus is surrounded by the cytoplasm.
The protoplasm embraces the nucleus and cytoplasm. A nuclear envelop bounds the nucleus (a
dense body) and fine deep staining threads called chromatin.

Figure 3. Structure of an animal cell.

The Cell Organelles

Cell organelles are the cellular constituents and they differ in their structures and functions. They
include both membrane-bound and nonmembrane-bound organelles. For the cell to function
properly, they coordinate and work effectively. Some of them giving shape and support to a cell,
while others are involved in a cell's movement and reproduction. The cells are divided into three
groups based on whether they have a membrane or not. However, as we will see in a moment, a
semi-permeable plasma membrane protects the cytoplasm that is home to these organelles will be
treated as component part of the cell.
The Plasma Membrane

Eukaryotic cells, like prokaryotes, have a plasma membrane, a phospholipid bilayer with proteins
embedded that separates the inside of the cell from its external environment. A phospholipid is a
lipid molecule that has a phosphate-containing group and two fatty acid chains. The flow of organic
molecules, ions, water, and oxygen into and out of the cell is regulated by the plasma membrane.
Wastes such as including ammonia and carbon dioxide also exit the cell through the plasma
membrane.

Figure 4. The eukaryotic plasma membrane

The Cytoplasm

The total area of a cell between the nuclear envelope and the plasma membrane is known as the
cytoplasm. The Cytoplasm is made up of the cytoskeleton, numerous molecules, and organelles
suspended in the gel like cytosol. The proteins in the cytoplasm give it a semi-solid solidity, despite
the fact that it contains between 70 and 80 percent water. However, organic compounds other than
proteins can also be present in the cytoplasm. In addition, polysaccharides, amino acids, nucleic
acids, fatty acids, and glycerol derivatives are present there along with glucose and other simple
carbohydrates. The cytoplasm also contains dissolved sodium, potassium, calcium, and many other
elemental ions. The cytoplasm is where many metabolic processes, including as protein synthesis,
take place
(A) Organelles without membrane

The Cell wall, Ribosomes, Cytoskeleton (actin filaments, intermediate filaments, centrioles) and
microtubules are non-membrane-bound cell organelles. They are present both in the prokaryotic
land the eukaryotic cells.

The Cell wall

Outside of the plasma membrane is a structure known as cell wall. The cell wall is a thick layer
that serves as the cell's defense, structural support, and form. Cell walls are also present in fungus
and protozoan cells. While peptidoglycan is the main organic molecule in the cell walls of
prokaryotic organisms, cellulose, a polysaccharide comprising of glucose units, is the main organic
molecule in the cell walls of plants. Have you ever noticed how a raw vegetable, like celery,
crunches as you chew it? This is due to the fact that you are shredding the celery cells' stiff cell
walls with your teeth. The dashed lines at each end of the figure indicate a series of many more
glucose units. The size of the page makes it impossible to portray an entire cellulose molecule.

Ribosomes

Ribosomes are biological elements in charge of producing proteins. Under an electron microscope,
ribosomes can be observed as either solitary, tiny specks floating freely in the cytoplasm or as
polyribosome clusters. They might be connected to the plasma membrane, the cytoplasmic side of
the endoplasmic reticulum, or the nuclear envelope. Since ribosomes are large complexes of
protein and RNA, electron microscopy has shown that they are composed of two subunits known
as large and small subunits. The ribosomes receive their "orders" for protein synthesis from the
nucleus, where DNA is transformed into messenger RNA (mRNA). The mRNA travels to the
ribosomes, which translate the code provided by the sequence of the nitrogenous bases in the
mRNA into a specific order of amino acids in a protein. Amino acids are the building blocks of
proteins. Ribosomes put together amino acids into proteins during the process of protein synthesis.
All cells including enzymes, hormones, antibodies, pigments, structural elements, and surface
receptors must be able to synthesize proteins, hence ribosomes are present in almost all cells. In
cells that produce a lot of protein, ribosomes are very prevalent, as seen in the pancreas that is in
charge of producing a number of digestive enzymes. We observe another instance of form
following function as a result.
Figure 5. Ribosomes are made up of a large subunit (top) and a small subunit (bottom)

Cytoskeleton

Would the plasma membrane and the cytoplasm be the only elements left in a cell if all the
organelles were taken out? No. Ions and organic molecules would still be present in the cytoplasm,
along with a network of protein fibers that support some organelles in particular places, permit
movement of cytoplasm and vesicles inside the cell, and allow movement of cells within
multicellular animals. The term "cytoskeleton" refers to this web of protein fibers as a whole. The
cytoskeleton is made up of three different types of fibers: microfilaments, intermediate filaments,
and microtubules. Here, we'll look at each. Inside the cell, microtubules prevent compressive
forces from changing the shape of the cell. Intermediate filaments are found throughout the cell
and hold organelles in place.

Microfilaments

Of the three types of protein fibers in the cytoskeleton, microfilaments are the narrowest. They
function in cellular movement, have a diameter of about 7 nm, and are made of two intertwined
strands of a globular protein called actin. For this reason, microfilaments are also known as actin
filaments. The filamentous form of actin, which serves as a conduit for the motion of the myosin
motor protein, is created using ATP. Actin can now take part in cellular activities that require
movement, such as cell division in animal cells and cytoplasmic streaming, the circular movement
of the cell cytoplasm in plant cells. Actin and myosin are both abundantly dispersed in muscle
cells. As actin and myosin filaments pass by one another, your muscles tighten. Microfilaments
also give the cell some form and stiffness. A cell can change and migrate because it has the capacity
to depolymerize (disassemble) and reconstruct quickly. The cells in your body that fight infections,
called white blood cells, are quite good at using this ability

Intermediate Filaments

Intermediate filaments are made of several strands of fibrous proteins that are wound together.
These elements of the cytoskeleton get their name from the fact that their diameter, 8 to 10 nm, is
between those of microfilaments and microtubules. In the migration of cells, intermediate
filaments play no part. Their sole purpose is structural. They support tension, preserving the cell's
structure, and serve as anchors for the nucleus and other organelles. demonstrates how internal
scaffolding is built by intermediate filaments. The cytoskeletal elements with the highest variety
are the intermediate filaments. The intermediate filaments contain several kinds of fibrous proteins
known as keratin, which supports your hair, nails, and skin's epidermis, is perhaps the one you
know best.

Microtubules

Microtubules are little, hollow tubes, as their name suggests. Two globular proteins, α-tubulin and
β -tubulin, are polymerized dimers that make up the walls of the microtubule. The largest
cytoskeleton elements are microtubules, which have a diameter of roughly 25 nm. They enable
vesicles to flow across the cell along a track and draw replicated chromosomes to the opposite
ends of a dividing cell. They also aid in the cell's resistance to compression. Microtubules can
dissolve and swiftly regenerate, just like microfilaments. Microtubules are also the structural
elements of flagella, cilia, and centrioles (the latter are the two perpendicular bodies of the
centrosome). In fact, in animal cells, the centrosome is the microtubule organizing center. In
eukaryotic cells, flagella and cilia are quite different structurally from their counterparts in
prokaryotes, as discussed below.

Flagella and Cilia

Recall that flagella are long, hair like projections that emerge from the plasma membrane and are
used to propel an entire cell (for example, sperm, Euglena). The cell may have one or more
flagellums when they are present. However, a sizable number of cilia (singular: cilium) cover the
whole surface of the plasma membrane when they are present. They are microscopic, hair-like
structures that transfer materials or whole cells, like paramecia, along the surface of the cell (for
example, the cilia of cells lining the Fallopian tubes that move the ovum toward the uterus, and
cilia lining the cells of the respiratory tract that trap particulate matter and move it toward your
nostrils.) Despite their differences in length and number, flagella and cilia share a common
structural arrangement of microtubules called a "9 + 2 array". This is an appropriate name because
a single flagellum or cilium is made of a ring of nine microtubule doublets, surrounding a single
microtubule doublet in the center

(B) Single membrane-bound organelles

Vacuole, Vesicles, Lysosome, Golgi Apparatus, Endoplasmic Reticulum, mitochondria,

peroxisomes, and transport vesicles are single membrane-bound organelles present only in a
eukaryotic cell

Vesicles and Vacuoles

Vacuoles and vesicles are single membrane-bound sacs with storage and transport capabilities.
There is a little or no difference between vacuoles and vesicles save the fact that the former are
slightly larger: Vesicle membranes are capable of joining with the cell's plasma membrane or

other membrane systems. Furthermore, some substances, like the enzymes found in plant vacuoles,
degrade macromolecules. A vacuole's membrane does not meld with the membranes of other
cellular parts. In response to shifting external conditions, the central vacuole is crucial in
controlling the water content within the cell. Have you ever observed that plants wilt if they go
without water for a few days? This is due to water moving out of the central vacuoles and
cytoplasm as the water concentration in the soil drops below the water concentration in the plants,
the cell wall is left unsupported while the central vacuole contracts. The plant appears wilted as a
result of the loss of support to the cell walls of the plant cells. The expansion of the cell is also
supported by the central vacuole which can store more water, thus allowing the cell to grow
without expending a lot of energy on producing new cytoplasm

Lysosome
Lysosomes are thought to be a member of the endomembrane system in addition to serving as the
animal cell's organelle recycling facility of digestive system. Lysosomes also use their hydrolytic
enzymes to eliminate any pathogens (organisms that cause disease) that might enter the cell. The
immune system of your body's macrophages, a class of white blood cells, serves as a good
illustration of this. A portion of the macrophage's plasma membrane invaginates (folds in) and
engulfs a pathogen during phagocytosis or endocytosis. The pathogen-filled invaginated area
subsequently pinches itself off from the plasma membrane and transforms into a vesicle. The
pathogen is then eliminated by the lysosome's hydrolytic enzymes.

Figure 6. A macrophage has engulfed (phagocytized) a potentially pathogenic bacterium and

then fuses with lysosomes within the cell to destroy the pathogen. Other organelles are present
in the cell but for simplicity are not shown

Golgi Apparatus

The Golgi apparatus, also known as the Golgi body, is a collection of flattened membranes that is
responsible for the classification, labelling, packaging, and distribution of lipids and proteins We
have already mentioned that vesicles can form in the emergency room and travel elsewhere with
their contents, but where do the vesicles themselves go? The transport vesicles' lipids or proteins
still need to be processed, packaged, and labelled before they go to their final location to ensure
they end up there. The cis face refers to the receiving side of the Golgi apparatus. The trans face
is the side that faces the other way. When the transport vesicles from the endoplasmic reticulum
(ER) fuse with the cis face, they release their contents into the lumen of the Golgi apparatus. The
proteins and lipids go through additional changes in the Golgi apparatus that enable sorting as they
move through it. The most common alteration is the insertion of sugar molecules in short chains.
Then, in order to direct these newly altered proteins and lipids to their correct locations, they are
marked with phosphate groups or other tiny molecules. Finally, secretory vesicles that bud from
the trans face of the Golgi are used to package the changed and tagged proteins. Other secretory
vesicles fuse with the plasma membrane and release their contents outside the cell, while some of
these vesicles deposit their contents into other areas of the cell where they will be utilized. Another
example of shape following function is the profusion of Golgi in cells that release a lot of materials,
such as salivary gland cells that secrete digestive enzymes or immune system cells that secrete
antibodies. The Golgi apparatus in plant cells also plays the additional task of synthesizing
polysaccharides, some of which are utilized to build the cell wall and others in other regions of the

cell.

The Endoplasmic Reticulum

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is a collection of mesh worked sacs and tubules that work
together to manufacture lipids and modify proteins. The rough ER and the smooth ER,
respectively, are where these two tasks are carried out in the ER. The lumen or cisternal space
refers to the hollow area of the ER tubules. The nuclear envelope and the phospholipid bilayer that
makes up the ER's membrane are one continuous structure. The two are as follows: I Rough ER:
i). The rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER) is named as such because, when studied under an
electron microscope, the ribosomes clinging to its cytoplasmic surface give it a studded look. The
freshly synthesized proteins are transferred by ribosomes into the lumen of the RER, where they
go through structural changes such folding or side chain acquisition. These altered proteins will
either be released from the cell or integrated into cellular membranes, such as the ER membrane
or those of other organelles (such as protein hormones, enzymes). Phospholipids for cellular
membranes are also produced by the RER. If the phospholipids or altered proteins are not meant
to remain in the RER, transport vesicles that sprout from the RER's membrane will carry them to
their intended locations You would be right in believing that the RER is prevalent in cells that
produce proteins because it is involved in altering proteins such as enzymes, that will be released
from the cell such as liver cells.

ii). The smooth endoplasmic reticulum (SER), which is continuous with the RER, has few or no
ribosomes on the surface of its cytoplasm. The SER performs several functions, such as calcium
ion storage, drug detoxification, and the production of carbohydrates, lipids, and steroid hormones.
The sarcoplasmic reticulum, a specific type of SER, is in charge of storing the calcium ions
required to start the coordinated contractions of muscle cells.

Peroxisomes

Small, spherical organelles called peroxisomes are surrounded by a single membrane. In their
oxidation reactions, fatty acids and amino acids are broken down. They also cleanse the body of
numerous toxins that might be ingested. (Many of these oxidation events produce hydrogen
peroxide, H2O2, which can harm cells; however, when these reactions take place inside of
peroxisomes, enzymes safely break down the H2O2 into oxygen and water.) For example,
peroxisomes in liver cells detoxify alcohol. Plants' specialized peroxisomes called glyoxysomes
are in charge of converting stored fats into sugars.

(C)Double membrane-bound organelles

Nucleus, mitochondria and chloroplast are double membrane-bound organelles present only in a
eukaryotic cell.

Nucleus

Typically, the nucleus is the most prominent organelle in a cell. The nucleus (plural nuclei) houses
the cell's DNA and directs the synthesis of ribosomes and proteins. Let's look at it in more detail

Figure 7. The nucleus stores chromatin (DNA plus proteins) in a gel like substance called the
nucleoplasm.
Ribosome synthesis takes place in the nucleolus, a compressed area of chromatin. The nuclear
envelope is the term used to describe the nucleus' outside. It is made up of an outer membrane and
an inner membrane which are both phospholipid bilayers. The endoplasmic reticulum and the
nuclear membrane are one unit. Nuclear pores allow substances to enter and exit the nucleus.

The Nuclear Envelope

The nuclear envelope is a double-membrane structure that constitutes the outermost portion of the
nucleus. Both the inner and outer membranes of the nuclear envelope are phospholipid bilayers.
The nuclear envelope is punctuated with pores that control the passage of ions, molecules, and
RNA between the nucleoplasm and cytoplasm. The nucleoplasm is the semi-solid fluid inside the
nucleus, where we find the chromatin and the nucleolus.

Chromatin and Chromosomes

It is useful to start with chromosomes in order to comprehend chromatin. Chromosomes are

nucleus-located components consisting of DNA, the genetic material. In prokaryotes, DNA is
arranged into a single circular chromosome, as you may recall. Chromosomes are organized in a
linear fashion in eukaryotes. In the cell nuclei of its body, each eukaryotic species has a certain
number of chromosomes. For instance, the number of chromosomes in humans is 46, whereas it
is just eight in fruit flies. Only when the cell is about to divide can the chromosomes be seen and
distinguished from one another. Proteins are connected to chromosomes during the growth and
maintenance phases of the cell's life cycle, and they take on the appearance of an unraveled,
disorganized collection of threads. These unwound protein-chromosome complexes are called
chromatin; chromatin describes the material that makes up the chromosomes both when condensed
and decondensed.

The Nucleolus

We already know that the nucleus directs the synthesis of ribosomes, but how does it do this?
Some chromosomes have sections of DNA that encode ribosomal RNA. A darkly staining area
within the nucleus called the nucleolus (plural = nucleoli) aggregates the ribosomal RNA with
associated proteins to assemble the ribosomal subunits that are then transported out through the
pores in the nuclear envelope to the cytoplasm.
The Centrosome

The centrosome is a microtubule-organizing center found near the nuclei of animal cells. It
contains a pair of centrioles, two structures that lie perpendicular to each other. Each centriole is a
cylinder of nine triplets of microtubules. Nine triplets of microtubules make up each centriole,
which is shaped like a cylinder. The microtubule triplets are held together by nontubulin proteins,
which are represented by the green lines. Before a cell divides, the centrosome (the organelle from
which all microtubules originate) copies itself, and centrioles seem to play a part in directing the
duplicated chromosomes to the opposing ends of the dividing cell. The precise role of centrioles
in cell division, however, is unclear because plant cells, which lack centrosomes, can divide even
after having their centrosomes removed from them.

Mitochondria

Mitochondria (singular mitochondrion) are often called the "powerhouses" or "energy factories"
of a cell because they are responsible for making adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the cell's main
energy-carrying molecule. ATP represents the short-term stored energy of the cell. Nine triplets of
microtubules make up each centriole, which is shaped like a cylinder. The microtubule triplets are
held together by nontubulin proteins, which are represented by the green lines. Before a cell
divides, the centrosome (the organelle from which all microtubules originate) copies itself, and
centrioles seem to play a part in directing the duplicated chromosomes to the opposing ends of the
dividing cell. The precise role of centrioles in cell division, however, is unclear because plant cells,
which lack centrosomes, can divide even after having their centrosomes removed from them.

Figure 8. This electron micrograph shows a mitochondrion as viewed with a transmission

electron microscope
This organelle has an outer membrane and an inner membrane. The inner membrane contains folds,
called cristae, which increase its surface area. The space between the two membranes is called the
intermembrane space, and the space inside the inner membrane is called the mitochondrial matrix.
ATP synthesis takes place on the inner membrane.

Chloroplast

Chloroplasts have their own DNA and ribosomes, just like mitochondria, but they serve a
completely different purpose. Organelles in plant cells called chloroplasts are responsible for
photosynthesis. The set of chemical processes known as photosynthesis convert carbon dioxide,
water, and light energy into glucose and oxygen. This is a key distinction between plants and
animals; although animals (heterotrophs) must consume their food, plants (autotrophs) may
produce food like sugars on their own. Chloroplasts, like mitochondria, have an inner and an outer
membrane. However, the inner membrane of a chloroplast encloses a collection of interconnected
and stacked fluid-filled membrane sacs known as thylakoids. A granum (plural: grana) is the name
given to each stack of thylakoids. the liquid that fills the space between the inner membrane and
the grana

Figure 9. The chloroplast has an outer membrane, an inner membrane, and membrane structures called thylakoids
that are stacked into grana.

The space inside the thylakoid membranes is called the thylakoid space. The light harvesting
reactions take place in the thylakoid membranes, and the synthesis of sugar takes place in the fluid
inside the inner membrane, which is called the stroma. Chloroplasts also have their own genome,
which is contained on a single circular chromosome. The chloroplasts contain a green pigment
called chlorophyll, which captures the light energy that drives the reactions of photosynthesis. Like
plant cells, photosynthetic protists also have chloroplasts. Some bacteria perform photosynthesis,
but their chlorophyll is not relegated to an organelle.

Differences Between an Animal Cell and A Plant Cell

Animal cells have adrenaline, thyroxine and the organelle centriole which are not found in plant
cells. Plant cells have chlorophyll, cellulose and starch which are not found in animal cells. Plants
have more elaborate structures. Other differences are:

➢ "a relatively rigid cell wall outside the cell surface membrane; pores containing fine threads known
as plasmodesmata link the cytoplasm of neighboring cells through the cell walls.
➢ Chloroplasts in photosynthetic plant cells;
➢ A large central vacuole: animal cells may have small vacuoles such as phagocytic vacuoles

Summary

You have learnt in this unit that the cell falls into one of two broad categories: prokaryotic and
eukaryotic. You have also learnt that the predominantly single-celled organisms of the domains
Bacteria and Archaea are classified as prokaryotes, and all other animal cells, plant cells, fungi,
and protists are eukaryotes, and how to draw and describe the structure of the various cell
organelles.