Name: Samaila A.

Dilaba

Course & Year: BSRT – II

A cell is the structural and fundamental unit of life. The study of cells from its basic structure to
the functions of every cell organelle is called Cell Biology. Robert Hooke was the first Biologist who
discovered cells. So, if we were to break apart an organism to the cellular level, the smallest
independent component that we would find would be the cell. Cells are the structural, functional, and
biological units of all living beings. A cell can replicate itself independently. Hence, they are known as the
building blocks of life. Each cell contains a fluid called the cytoplasm, which is enclosed by a membrane.
Also present in the cytoplasm are several biomolecules like proteins, nucleic acids and lipids. Moreover,
cellular structures called cell organelles are suspended in the cytoplasm. All organisms are made up of
cells. They may be made up of a single cell (unicellular), or many cells (multicellular). Mycoplasmas are
the smallest known cells. Cells are the building blocks of all living beings. They provide structure to the
body and convert the nutrients taken from the food into energy. Cells are complex and their
components perform various functions in an organism. They are of different shapes and sizes, pretty
much like bricks of the buildings. Our body is made up of cells of different shapes and sizes. Cells are the
lowest level of organization in every life form. From organism to organism, the count of cells may vary.
Humans have the number of cells compared to that of bacteria. Cells comprise several cell organelles
that perform specialized functions to carry out life processes. Every organelle has a specific structure.
The hereditary material of the organisms is also present in the cells.

Robert Hooke discovered the cell in 1665. Robert Hooke observed a piece of bottle cork under a
compound microscope and noticed minuscule structures that reminded him of small rooms.
Consequently, he named these “rooms” as cells. However, his compound microscope had limited
magnification, and hence, he could not see any details in the structure. Owing to this limitation, Hooke
concluded that these were non-living entities. Later Anton Van Leeuwenhoek observed cells under
another compound microscope with higher magnification. This time, he had noted that the cells
exhibited some form of movement (motility). As a result, Leeuwenhoek concluded that these
microscopic entities were “alive.” Eventually, after a host of other observations, these entities were
named as animalcules. In 1883, Robert Brown, a Scottish botanist, provided the very first insights into
the cell structure. He was able to describe the nucleus present in the cells of orchids.

Characteristics of Cells

 Following are the various essential characteristics of cells:

 Cells provide structure and support to the body of an organism.
 The cell interior is organised into different individual organelles surrounded by a separate
membrane.
 The nucleus (major organelle) holds genetic information necessary for reproduction and cell
growth.
 Every cell has one nucleus and membrane-bound organelles in the cytoplasm.
 Mitochondria, a double membrane-bound organelle is mainly responsible for the energy
transactions vital for the survival of the cell.
 Lysosomes digest unwanted materials in the cell.
 Endoplasmic reticulum plays a significant role in the internal organization of the cell by
synthesizing selective molecules and processing, directing and sorting them to their appropriate
locations.

Types of Cells

Cells are similar to factories with different labourers and departments that work towards a
common objective. Various types of cells perform different functions. Based on cellular structure, there
are two types of cells:

 Prokaryotes
 Eukaryotes

Prokaryotic Cells

 Prokaryotic cells have no nucleus. Instead, some prokaryotes such as bacteria have a region
within the cell where the genetic material is freely suspended. This region is called the nucleoid.
 They all are single-celled microorganisms. Examples include archaea, bacteria, and
cyanobacteria.
 The cell size ranges from 0.1 to 0.5 µm in diameter.
 The hereditary material can either be DNA or RNA.
 Prokaryotes generally reproduce by binary fission, a form of asexual reproduction. They are also
known to use conjugation – which is often seen as the prokaryotic equivalent to sexual
reproduction (however, it is NOT sexual reproduction).

Eukaryotic Cells

 Eukaryotic cells are characterized by a true nucleus.

 The size of the cells ranges between 10–100 µm in diameter.
 This broad category involves plants, fungi, protozoans, and animals.
 The plasma membrane is responsible for monitoring the transport of nutrients and electrolytes
in and out of the cells. It is also responsible for cell to cell communication.
 They reproduce sexually as well as asexually.
 There are some contrasting features between plant and animal cells. For eg., the plant cell
contains chloroplast, central vacuoles, and other plastids, whereas the animal cells do not.

Cell Structure

The cell structure comprises individual components with specific functions essential to carry out
life’s processes. These components include- cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, and cell
organelles.

Cell Membrane
 The cell membrane supports and protects the cell. It controls the movement of substances in
and out of the cells. It separates the cell from the external environment. The cell membrane is
present in all the cells.
 The cell membrane is the outer covering of a cell within which all other organelles, such as the
cytoplasm and nucleus, are enclosed. It is also referred to as the plasma membrane.
 By structure, it is a porous membrane (with pores) which permit the movement of selective
substances in and out of the cell. Besides this, the cell membrane also protects the cellular
component from damage and leakage.
 It forms the wall-like structure between two cells as well as between the cell and its
surroundings.
 Plants are immobile, so their cell structures are well-adapted to protect them from external
factors. The cell wall helps to reinforce this function.

Cell Wall

 The cell wall is the most prominent part of the plant’s cell structure. It is made up of cellulose,
hemicellulose and pectin.
 The cell wall is present exclusively in plant cells. It protects the plasma membrane and other
cellular components. The cell wall is also the outermost layer of plant cells.
 It is a rigid and stiff structure surrounding the cell membrane.
 It provides shape and support to the cells and protects them from mechanical shocks and
injuries.

Cytoplasm

 The cytoplasm is a thick, clear, jelly-like substance present inside the cell membrane.
 Most of the chemical reactions within a cell take place in this cytoplasm.
 The cell organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum, vacuoles, mitochondria, ribosomes, are
suspended in this cytoplasm.

Nucleus

 The nucleus contains the hereditary material of the cell, the DNA.
 It sends signals to the cells to grow, mature, divide and die.
 The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear envelope that separates the DNA from the rest of the
cell.
 The nucleus protects the DNA and is an integral component of a plant’s cell structure.

Cell Organelles

Cells are composed of various cell organelles that perform certain specific functions to carry out life’s
processes. The different cell organelles, along with its principal functions, are as follows:

Nucleolus - is the site of ribosome synthesis. Also, it is involved in controlling cellular activities and
cellular reproduction

Nuclear membrane - The nuclear membrane protects the nucleus by forming a boundary between the
nucleus and other cell organelles.
Chromosomes - Chromosomes play a crucial role in determining the sex of an individual. Each human
cell contains 23 pairs of chromosomes.

Endoplasmic reticulum - The endoplasmic reticulum is involved in the transportation of substances

throughout the cell. It plays a primary role in the metabolism of carbohydrates, synthesis of lipids,
steroids and proteins.

Golgi Bodies - Golgi bodies are called the cell’s post office as it is involved in the transportation of
materials within the cell.

Ribosome - Ribosomes are the protein synthesizers of the cell.

Mitochondria - The mitochondrion is called “the powerhouse of the cell.” It is called so because it
produces ATP – the cell’s energy currency.

Lysosomes - Lysosomes protect the cell by engulfing the foreign bodies entering the cell and helps in cell
renewal. Therefore, it is known as the cell’s suicide bags.

Chloroplast - Chloroplasts are the primary organelles for photosynthesis. It contains the pigment
chlorophyll.

Vacuoles - Vacuoles stores food, water, and other waste materials in the cell.

Cell Theory was proposed by the German scientists, Theodor Schwann, Matthias Schleiden, and Rudolf
Virchow. The cell theory states that:

 All living species on Earth are composed of cells.

 A cell is the basic unit of life.
 All cells arise from pre-existing cells.

A modern version of the cell theory was eventually formulated, and it contains the following postulates:

 Energy flows within the cells.

 Genetic information is passed on from one cell to the other.
 The chemical composition of all the cells is the same.

Functions of Cell

A cell performs these major functions essential for the growth and development of an organism.
Important functions of cell are as follows:

Provides Support and Structure

All the organisms are made up of cells. They form the structural basis of all the organisms. The
cell wall and the cell membrane are the main components that function to provide support and
structure to the organism. For eg., the skin is made up of a large number of cells. Xylem present in the
vascular plants is made of cells that provide structural support to the plants.

Facilitate Growth Mitosis

In the process of mitosis, the parent cell divides into the daughter cells. Thus, the cells multiply
and facilitate the growth in an organism.

Allows Transport of Substances

Various nutrients are imported by the cells to carry out various chemical processes going on
inside the cells. The waste produced by the chemical processes is eliminated from the cells by active and
passive transport. Small molecules such as oxygen, carbon dioxide, and ethanol diffuse across the cell
membrane along the concentration gradient. This is known as passive transport. The larger molecules
diffuse across the cell membrane through active transport where the cells require a lot of energy to
transport the substances.

Energy Production

Cells require energy to carry out various chemical processes. This energy is produced by the cells
through a process called photosynthesis in plants and respiration in animals.

Aids in Reproduction

A cell aids in reproduction through the processes called mitosis and meiosis. Mitosis is termed as
the asexual reproduction where the parent cell divides to form daughter cells. Meiosis causes the
daughter cells to be genetically different from the parent cells. Thus, we can understand why cells are
known as the structural and functional unit of life. This is because they are responsible for providing
structure to the organisms and performs several functions necessary for carrying out life’s processes.

What is cell transport?

It is the movement of substances across the cell membrane either into or out of the cell.
Sometimes things just move through the phospholipid bilayer. Other times, substances need the
assistance of a protein, like a channel protein or some other transmembrane protein, to cross the cell
membrane.

Cell Transport

Cell transport refers to the movement of substances across the cell membrane. Probably the
most important feature of a cell's phospholipid membranes is that they are selectively permeable. A
membrane that is selectively permeable, or semipermeable, has control over what molecules or ions can
enter or leave the cell, as shown in Figure below. This feature allows a cell to control the transport of
materials, as dictated by the cell's function. The permeability of a membrane is dependent on the
organization and characteristics of the membrane lipids and proteins. In this way, cell membranes help
maintain a state of homeostasis within cells (and tissues, organs, and organ systems) so that an
organism can stay alive and healthy.

Transport Across Membranes

The molecular make-up of the phospholipid bilayer limits the types of molecules that can pass
through it. For example, hydrophobic (water-hating) molecules, such as carbon dioxide (CO2) and
oxygen (O2), can easily pass through the lipid bilayer, but ions such as calcium (Ca2+) and polar
molecules such as water (H2O) cannot. The hydrophobic interior of the phospholipid bilayer does not
allow ions or polar molecules through because they are hydrophilic, or water loving. In addition, large
molecules such as sugars and proteins are too big to pass through the phospholipid bilayer. Transport
proteins within the membrane allow these molecules to cross the membrane into or out of the cell. This
way, polar molecules avoid contact with the nonpolar interior of the membrane, and large molecules
are moved through large pores.

Every cell is contained within a membrane punctuated with transport proteins that act as
channels or pumps to let in or force out certain molecules. The purpose of the transport proteins is to
protect the cell's internal environment and to keep its balance of salts, nutrients, and proteins within a
range that keeps the cell and the organism alive. There are four main ways that molecules can pass
through a phospholipid membrane. The first way requires no energy input by the cell and is called
simple diffusion. This type of transport includes passive diffusion and osmosis. No assistance by a
transport is necessary in simple diffusion. Facilitated diffusion, does involve the assistance of transport
proteins. The third way, called active transport, requires that the cell uses energy to pull in or pump out
certain molecules and ions. Active transport involves proteins known as pumps. The fourth way is
through vesicle transport, in which large molecules are moved across the membrane in bubble-like sacks
that are made from pieces of the membrane. Vesicular transport includes exocytosis and endocytosis.

Homeostasis and Cell Transport

Homeostasis refers to the balance, or equilibrium, within the cell or a body. It is an organism's
ability to keep a constant internal environment. Keeping a stable internal environment requires constant
adjustments as conditions change inside and outside the cell. The adjusting of systems within a cell is
referred to as homeostatic regulation. Because the internal and external environments of a cell are
constantly changing, adjustments must be made continuously to stay at or near the normal proportions
of all internal substances. This involves continual adjustments in transport of substances across the cell
membrane. Homeostasis is a dynamic equilibrium rather than an unchanging state. The cellular
processes discussed in the cell transport (passive and active transport) concepts all play an important
role in homeostatic regulation.

 The cell membrane is selectively permeable, allowing only certain substances to pass through.
 Cell transport may require assistance by a protein/pump.
 Cell transport may require energy.
 Some transport involves vesicles.