UNIT:1

CELL THEORY

The microscopes we use today are far more complex than those used in the 1600s by Antony van
Leeuwenhoek, a Dutch shopkeeper who had great skill in crafting lenses. Despite the limitations of
his now-ancient lenses, van Leeuwenhoek observed the movements of protista (a type of single-
celled organism) and sperm, which he collectively termed “animalcules. ”

In a 1665 publication called Micrographia, experimental scientist Robert Hooke coined the term
“cell” for the box-like structures he observed when viewing cork tissue through a lens. In the 1670s,
van Leeuwenhoek discovered bacteria and protozoa. Later advances in lenses, microscope
construction, and staining techniques enabled other scientists to see some components inside cells.

Structure of an Animal Cell: The cell is the basic unit of life and the study of the cell led to the
development of the cell theory.

By the late 1830s, botanist Matthias Schleiden and zoologist Theodor Schwann were studying
tissues and proposed the unified cell theory. The unified cell theory states that: all living things are
composed of one or more cells; the cell is the basic unit of life; and new cells arise from existing
cells. Rudolf Virchow later made important contributions to this theory.

Schleiden and Schwann proposed spontaneous generation as the method for cell origination, but
spontaneous generation (also called abiogenesis) was later disproven. Rudolf Virchow famously
stated “Omnis cellula e cellula”… “All cells only arise from pre-existing cells. “The parts of the
theory that did not have to do with the origin of cells, however, held up to scientific scrutiny and
are widely agreed upon by the scientific community today. The generally accepted portions of the
modern Cell Theory are as follows:

1. The cell is the fundamental unit of structure and function in living things.
2. All organisms are made up of one or more cells.
3. Cells arise from other cells through cellular division.

The expanded version of the cell theory can also include:

 Cells carry genetic material passed to daughter cells during cellular division
 All cells are essentially the same in chemical composition
 Energy flow (metabolism and biochemistry) occurs within cells

What are the 9 basic properties of cell?

1. Cells are Highly Complex and Organized
2. Cells Possess a Genetic Program and the Means to Use it
3. Cells need Organic Compounds to Generate Essential Macromolecules
4. Cells are dependent to Water, making up more than 70% of the cell
5. Cells are Capable of Producing More of Themselves
6. Cells Acquire and Utilize Energy
7. Cells Carry Out a Variety of Chemical Reactions
8. Cells Engage in Mechanical Activities
9. Cells Die very Fast and Regenerate very Fast to Make New Cells
10. Cells are Able to Respond to Stimuli
11. Cells Are Capable of Self-Regulation
12. Cells Evolve

Prokaryotic Cells

All cells share four common components:

1. a plasma membrane: an outer covering that separates the cell’s interior from its surrounding
environment.
2. cytoplasm: a jelly-like cytosol within the cell in which other cellular components are found
3. DNA: the genetic material of the cell
4. ribosomes: where protein synthesis occurs

However, prokaryotes differ from eukaryotic cells in several ways.

A prokaryote is a simple, single-celled (unicellular) organism that lacks an organized nucleus or

any other membrane-bound organelle. We will shortly come to see that this is significantly different
in eukaryotes. Prokaryotic DNA is found in a central part of the cell: the nucleoid.

Most prokaryotes have a peptidoglycan cell wall and many have a polysaccharide capsule. The cell
wall acts as an extra layer of protection, helps the cell maintain its shape, and prevents dehydration.
The capsule enables the cell to attach to surfaces in its environment. Some prokaryotes have
flagella, pili, or fimbriae. Flagella are used for locomotion. Pili are used to exchange genetic
material during a type of reproduction called conjugation. Fimbriae are used by bacteria to attach to
a host cell.

Figure 4.2A.14.2A.1: General

Structure of a Prokaryotic Cell: This figure shows the generalized structure of a prokaryotic
[Link] prokaryotes have chromosomal DNA localized in a nucleoid, ribosomes, a cell membrane,
and a cell [Link] other structures shown are present in some, but not all, bacteria.

Cell Size

At 1 μm to 5 μm in diameter, prokaryotic cells are significantly smaller than eukaryotic cells,

which have diameters ranging from 10 to 100 μm. The small size of prokaryotes allows ions and
organic molecules that enter them to quickly diffuse to other parts of the cell. Similarly, any wastes
produced within a prokaryotic cell can quickly diffuse out. This is not the case in eukaryotic cells,
which have developed different structural adaptations to enhance intracellular transport.
Figure 4.2A.14.2A.1: Microbial Size: This figure shows relative sizes of microbes on a logarithmic
scale (recall that each unit of increase in a logarithmic scale represents a 10-fold increase in the
quantity being measured).

Small size, in general, is necessary for all cells, whether prokaryotic or eukaryotic. Let’s examine
why that is so. First, we’ll consider the area and volume of a typical cell. Not all cells are spherical
in shape, but most tend to approximate a sphere. You may remember from your high school
geometry course that the formula for the surface area of a sphere is 4πr2, while the formula for its
volume is 4/3πr3. Thus, as the radius of a cell increases, its surface area increases as the square of
its radius, but its volume increases as the cube of its radius (much more rapidly). Therefore, as a
cell increases in size, its surface area-to-volume ratio decreases. This same principle would apply if
the cell had the shape of a cube. If the cell grows too large, the plasma membrane will not have
sufficient surface area to support the rate of diffusion required for the increased volume. In other
words, as a cell grows, it becomes less efficient. One way to become more efficient is to divide;
another way is to develop organelles that perform specific tasks. These adaptations led to the
development of more sophisticated cells called eukaryotic cells.

Figure 4.2A.14.2A.1: Cell

Surface Size: Notice that as a cell increases in size, its surface area-to-volume ratio
[Link] there is insufficient surface area to support a cell’s increasing volume, a cell will
either divide or [Link] cell on the left has a volume of 1 mm3 and a surface area of 6 mm2, with a
surface area-to-volume ratio of 6 to 1, whereas the cell on the right has a volume of 8 mm3 and a
surface area of 24 mm2, with a surface area-to-volume ratio of 3 to 1

Eukaryotic Cell Structure

Like a prokaryotic cell, a eukaryotic cell has a plasma membrane, cytoplasm, and ribosomes.
However, unlike prokaryotic cells, eukaryotic cells have:

1. a membrane-bound nucleus
2. numerous membrane-bound organelles (including the endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
apparatus, chloroplasts, and mitochondria)
3. several rod-shaped chromosomes

Because a eukaryotic cell’s nucleus is surrounded by a membrane, it is often said to have a “true
nucleus. ” Organelles (meaning “little organ”) have specialized cellular roles, just as the organs of
your body have specialized roles. They allow different functions to be compartmentalized in
different areas of the cell.

The Nucleus & Its Structures

Typically, the nucleus is the most prominent organelle in a cell. Eukaryotic cells have a true
nucleus, which means the cell’s DNA is surrounded by a membrane. Therefore, the nucleus houses
the cell’s DNA and directs the synthesis of proteins and ribosomes, the cellular organelles
responsible for protein synthesis. The nuclear envelope is a double-membrane structure that
constitutes the outermost portion of the nucleus. Both the inner and outer membranes of the nuclear
envelope are phospholipid bilayers. The nuclear envelope is punctuated with pores that control the
passage of ions, molecules, and RNA between the nucleoplasm and cytoplasm. The nucleoplasm is
the semi-solid fluid inside the nucleus where we find the chromatin and the nucleolus. Furthermore,
chromosomes are structures within the nucleus that are made up of DNA, the genetic material. In
prokaryotes, DNA is organized into a single circular chromosome. In eukaryotes, chromosomes are
linear structures.
Eukaryotic Nucleus: The nucleus stores chromatin (DNA plus proteins) in a gel-like substance
called the [Link] nucleolus is a condensed region of chromatin where ribosome synthesis
[Link] boundary of the nucleus is called the nuclear [Link] consists of two phospholipid
bilayers: an outer membrane and an inner [Link] nuclear membrane is continuous with the
endoplasmic [Link] pores allow substances to enter and exit the nucleus.

Other Membrane-Bound Organelles

Mitochondria are oval-shaped, double membrane organelles that have their own ribosomes and
DNA. These organelles are often called the “energy factories” of a cell because they are responsible
for making adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the cell’s main energy-carrying molecule, by conducting
cellular respiration. The endoplasmic reticulum modifies proteins and synthesizes lipids, while the
golgi apparatus is where the sorting, tagging, packaging, and distribution of lipids and proteins
takes place. Peroxisomes are small, round organelles enclosed by single membranes; they carry out
oxidation reactions that break down fatty acids and amino acids. Peroxisomes also detoxify many
poisons that may enter the body. Vesicles and vacuoles are membrane-bound sacs that function in
storage and transport. Other than the fact that vacuoles are somewhat larger than vesicles, there is a
very subtle distinction between them: the membranes of vesicles can fuse with either the plasma
membrane or other membrane systems within the cell. All of these organelles are found in each and
every eukaryotic cell.

Animal Cells Versus Plant Cells

While all eukaryotic cells contain the aforementioned organelles and structures, there are some
striking differences between animal and plant cells. Animal cells have a centrosome and lysosomes,
whereas plant cells do not. The centrosome is a microtubule-organizing center found near the nuclei
of animal cells while lysosomes take care of the cell’s digestive process.
Figure 4.3A.14.3A.1: Animal Cells:
Despite their fundamental similarities, there are some striking differences between animal and plant
cells. Animal cells have centrioles, centrosomes, and lysosomes, whereas plant cells do not.

In addition, plant cells have a cell wall, a large central vacuole, chloroplasts, and other specialized
plastids, whereas animal cells do not. The cell wall protects the cell, provides structural support,
and gives shape to the cell while the central vacuole plays a key role in regulating the cell’s
concentration of water in changing environmental conditions. Chloroplasts are the organelles that
carry out photosynthesis.
Figure 4.3A.14.3A.1: Plant
Cells: Plant cells have a cell wall, chloroplasts, plasmodesmata, and plastids used for storage, and a
large central vacuole, whereas animal cells do not.

CELL CYCLE: PHASES OF CELL CYCLE

 In both unicellular and multicellular eukaryotes, the cell reproduction is a cyclic process of
growth, nuclear division and usually cytoplasmic division called cell cycle.
 Cell cycle is a series of macromolecular events that lead to cell division and the
production of two daughter cells, each containing chromosomes identical with those of
the parental cell.
 Two main molecular processes take place during the cell cycle are duplication of parental
chromosome during S phase and separation of chromosome equally to daughter cell during
M phase.
 In somatic cell, the cell cycle consists of following four phase;
 G1 (gap 1) phase
 S (synthesis) phase
 G2 (gap2) phase
 M (mitosis) phase

1. G1 (gap1) phase:

 The first stage of interphase is called the G1 phase (first gap) because, from a microscopic
aspect, little change is visible. However, during the G1 stage, the cell is quite active at the
biochemical level.
 It is characterized by a change in chromosome from condensed state to more extended state
and series of metabolic events that leads to initiation of DNA replication. During G1 phase,
chromatin fibres become slender, less coiled and fully extended and more active for
transcription. The transcription results in synthesis of RNAs (tRNA, mRNA and rRNA) ad
series of proteins molecules required for initiation of DNA replication.
 The length of G1 phase varies from cell to cell and also the length of G1 phase is more than
other three phase in cell cycle.
 G1 phase represents 25-40% of generation time of a cell.
 G1 phase is very significant phase of cell cycle as the cell grows and accumulates the
building blocks of chromosomal DNA and the associated proteins as well as sufficient energy
reserves to complete the task of replicating each chromosome.
 Within G1 phase there is a definite check point at which DNA synthesis is initiated and once
the biochemical events associated with that point have occurred cell proceeds towards
division.

2. S (synthesis) phase:

 The synthesis phase of interphase is biochemically a phase of active DNA synthesis and
histone synthesis.
 In the S phase, chromosome numbers doubles which is accomplished by DNA replication
and associated proteins. Although some of the histone protein synthesis occurs in G1 phase,
most of it is synthesized during S phase.
 DNA replication is semi conservative and discontinuous type which results in the formation
of identical pairs of DNA molecules.
 After doubling of chromosome, sister chromatids are still firmly attached to the centromeric
region.
 At the center of each animal cell, the centrosomes of animal cells are associated with a pair of
rod-like objects, the centrioles, which are at right angles to each other. Centrioles help
organize cell division. Centrioles are absent in plants and most fungi.
 The centrosome (centriole) is also duplicated during the S phase. The two centrosomes will
give rise to the mitotic spindle, the apparatus that mediate the movement of chromosomes
during mitosis.
3. Gap2 (gap2) phase:

 G2 phase follows S phase. This phase represents 10-25% of generation time of cell.
 In G2 phase chromosome consists of two chromatids ie the cell has twice the amount of DNA
content.
 In the G2 phase, the cell restore its energy stores and synthesizes proteins necessary for
chromosome manipulation.
 Some cell organelles are duplicated, and the cytoskeleton is dismantled to provide resources
for the mitotic phase.
 There may be additional cell growth during G2. The final preparations for the mitotic phase
must be completed before the cell is able to enter the first stage of mitosis

4. M (mitotic) phase:

M phase follows G2 phase. During this phase cell divides into two daughter cell with equal
distribution of chromosome among daughter cells. After M phase cell enter into G1 phase
and next cell cycle is repeated. However, some cell after completion of mitosis do not enter
into G1 phase, those cell are referred as G0 cells.
 M phase consists of following sub –phases;
 During prophase, the nuclear membrane disappears, spindle fibers form, and DNA
condenses into chromosomes (sister chromatids ).
 During metaphase, the sister chromatids align along the equator of the cell by attaching
their centromeres to the spindle fibers.
 During anaphase, sister chromatids are separated at the centromere and are pulled towards
opposite poles of the cell by the mitotic spindle.
 During telophase, chromosomes arrive at opposite poles and unwind into thin strands of
DNA, the spindle fibers disappear, and the nuclear membrane reappears.
 Cytokinesis is the actual splitting of the cell membrane; animal cells pinch apart, while
plant cells form a cell plate that becomes the new cell wall.
 Cells enter the G0 (inactive) phase after they exit the cell cycle when they are not actively
preparing to divide; some cells remain in G0 phase permanently.

MITOSIS: MITOTIC CELL DIVISION, STAGES AND SIGNIFICANCE

 Mitosis is a type of cell division in which single haploid cell (n) or diploid cell (2n) divides
into two haploid or diploid daughter cells that are same as parent.
 Mitosis occurs in somatic cells of plants and animals. In this cell division, the two daughter
cells have same number of chromosomes as that in the parent cells.

The process of mitosis consists of the following stages or phases:

1. Interphase or Interkinesis
2. Karyokinesis
3. Cytokinesis
1. Interphase or interkinesis

 Interphase is the phase between two successive cell division (end of one cell division to the
beginning of next cell division).
 It is the longest phase in the cell cycle.
 Interphase looks dormant but it is metabolically active stage.

It is divided into 3 sub-stages viz. G1-phase, S-phase and G2-phase.

i. G1-Phase or Gap-1 phase

 The cell grows in size due to active biosynthesis.

 Formation of structural and functional proteins.
 Synthesis of mRNA, tRNA and rRNA takes place.

ii. S-Phase or Synthetic phase

 Replication of DNA takes place.

 Synthesis of histone proteins takes place which covers DNA.

iii. G2-Phase or Gap-two phase or Second growth phase

 RNA and protein is synthesize.

 Centrioles get replicate (in case of animal cell)
 Synthesis of spindle proteins takes place.
2. Karyokinesis

 Karyokinesis is the division of the nucleus.

 It consists of the following four phases.

i. Prophase

 It is the first visible stage in karyokinesis.

 The chromosomes appear as long coiled threads called chromatids.
 The chromatin becomes shorter, thicker and visible due to the condensation of DNA.
 The chromatins are now called chromosomes.
 Stainability of nucleus increase.
 Each chromosome starts to splits longitudinally into two sister chromatids. These sister
chromatids are attached with each other at centromere.
 The nuclear membrane and nucleolus starts to disappear and by the end it will completely
disappeared.

ii. Metaphase

 Nuclear membrane and nucleolus completely disappears and simultaneously appearance of

spindle fibres
 Spindle fibres attached to the centromere of chromosome.
 The chromosomes are arranged on the equatorial plane.
 The process of gathering of chromosomes in equator is called congression and plate formed
is called metaphasic plate.

iii. Anaphase

 The centromere of each chromosome splits into two sister chromatids and forms two
daughter chromosomes.
 The daughter chromosomes are pulled towards the poles due to the contraction of spindle
fibres and stretching of inter zonal fibres.
 During polar movement, the chromosomes shows different shapes i.e. J,U,V,L or I shaped in
appearance.
 At the end of anaphase, each pole will get one set of daughter chromosomes.
 It is shortest phase and is also known as migratory phase.

iv. Telophase

 The daughter chromosomes reach respective poles and uncoil and become thin, long and
visible.
 The spindle fibres start disappearing and finally disappear.
 The nuclear membrane and the nucleolus reappear.
 Two nuclei are formed at the end of telophase. Both the nuclei have the same number of
chromosome as parent cell.
 It is the last visible stage of karyokinesis and is also known as reorganization phase.

3. Cytokinesis

 Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm.

 In plant cells, cytokinesis occurs by cell plate formation.
 During cytokinesis, many granular matrix formed by the golgibody and endoplasmic
reticulum accumulates in the equatorial region. These granular matrix form cell plate. This
plate divides the cell and by the end of telophase, cytokinesis is completed.
 In animal cells, cytokinesis occurs by cleavage or furrow formation.

SIGNIFICANCE OF MITOSIS:

 Mitosis produces 2 genetically identical cells, so mitosis maintains the genetic stability of
organisms.
 DNA remains constant, so mitosis keeps the chromosomes number constant in a species.
 Mitosis helps in the development of multicellular organism.
 Mitosis helps to replacement of old, dead or damaged cells by new one.
 It helps in the recovery of wounds and injury of the body by formation of new cells.
 In unicellular organisms like Yeast, Paramecium , mitosis is a means of asexual
reproduction.
 Mitosis causes maturation and multiplication of germ cells and makes them ready for
meiosis.

MEIOSIS: MEIOTIC CELL DIVISION, STAGES AND SIGNIFICANCE

 Meiosis is a cell division in which four haploid cells are formed from a single diploid cell.
 It usually occurs in reproductive organs or gonads of the organisms.
 Meiosis is also known as reductional cell division because four daughter cells produced
contain half the number of chromosomes than that of their parent cell.

Meiosis has two nuclear division phases:

1. Meiosis-I (Reductional or Heterotypic division)

2. Meiosis-II (Equational or Homotypic division)

Meiosis-I (heterolytic or Reductional division)

Meiosis-I has four different phases or stages:

1. Prophase-I
2. Metaphase-I
3. Anaphase-I
4. Telophase-I
1. Prophase-I

 It occupies the longest duration in Meiosis-I.

 It is divided into five sub-stages or sub-phases.
i. Leptotene
 This phase starts immediately after interphase.
 The size of cell and nucleus increases
 The chromosomes appear long, uncoiled thread-like in structure bearing many bead-like
structures called chromomeres.
 The nuclear membrane and nucleolus remain as it is.
ii. Zygotene
 Homologous chromosomes come closer and starts to pair up along their length.
 The pairing of homologous chromosomes is called Synapsis and the paired homologous
chromosomes are referred as bivalents.
 The homologous chromosomes are held together by ribonuclear protein between them.
iii. Pachytene
 The chromosome become shorter and thicker.
 Each chromosome of the bivalents splits longitudinally to form two chromatids such that
bivalents is composed of four strands and is known as a tetrad.
 The process of crossing over starts (crossing over; a small fragment of chromosome
exchange between two non-sister chromatids of bivalent by breakage and rejoining).
 Crossing over is the most important genetic phenomenon of meiosis which causes variation
in genetic characters in offspring.
iv. Diplotene
 In this stage crossing over takes place.
 Bivalents (chromatids) repel each other.
 Homologous chromosome (two non-sister chromatids) begins to separates but separation is
not complete, they remains attached to a point with a knot like structure called chiasmata
(singular – chiasma).
 The number of chiasmata varies. Depending upon the number of chiasmata, chromosome
appears different shape.
 1 chiasmata: cross like
 2 chiasmata: ring like
 Many chiasmata: series of loop
 Nuclear membrane and nucleolus begins to disappear.
v. Diakinesis
 The chiasma moves towards the end of the chromosomes (tetrad) due to contraction of
chromosomelastly slips over separating the homologous chromosome. This movement of the
chiasmata towards the end of chromosome is called terminalization.
 By the end of diakinesis the nuclear membrane and nuleolus get completely disappeared and
the chromosomes are free in the cytoplasm.
 Spindle fibres begin to form
2. Metaphase-I

 The spindle fibres organized between two poles and get attached to the centromere of
chromosomes.
 Chromosome moves to equator
 The bivalent chromosomes are arranged in the equatorial plate in such a way that 2
metaphasic plates are formed.

3. Anaphase-I

 Spindle fibres contracts and pulls the whole chromosomes to the polar region.
 The separated chromosome is known as dyads
 No splitting of chromosomes occurs so the centromere of each homologous chromosome
does not divide. Thus, the chromosome number of the daughter nuclei is reduced to half.
 Now the separated chromosome moves toward opposite poles.

4. Telophase-I

 Two groups of chromosome formed at each pole and organized into nuclei.
 The nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappears.
 The chromosomes get uncoiled into chromatin thread.
 The spindle fibres disappear totally.

Cytokinesis I

 Cytokinesis may or may not follow nuclear division (meiosis-I Cytokinesis occurs by cell
plate formation method in plant cell and furrowing method in animal cells.

Interphase II or Interkinesis

 The two cells or nuclei thus formed pass through a short stage called interphase-II.
Sometimes, interphase-II is absent.
 It is the resting phase between meiosis-I and meiosis-II.
 It is either very short or may be absent
 No DNA synthesis occurs.

Meiosis-II ( Homolytic or equational division)

 Meiosis-II is exactly similar to mitosis, so it is also known as meiotic mitosis.

 In this division, two haploid chromosome splits longitudinally and distributed equally to form
4 haploid cells.
 It completes in 4 stages.
1. Prophase-II
2. Metaphase-II
3. Anaphase-II
4. Telophase-II
1. Prophase-II:

 The dyads chromosome becomes thicker and shorter

 Nuclear membrane and nucleolus disappear
 Spindle fibre starts to form

2. Metaphase-II:

 The dyads chromosomes comes to equatorial plane

 Spindle fibres organize between poles and attaches to centromere of chromosome.

3. Anaphase-II:

 Centromere of each chromosome divides and sister chromatids separates to form two
daughter chromosome
 Spindle fibre contracts and pull the daughter chromosome apart towards opposite pole.

4. Telophase-II:

 Chromosome become organize at respective pole into nuclei

 Chromosome elongates to form thin networks of chromatin
 Nuclear membrane and nucleolus reappears

Cytokinesis-II:

 The result of cytokinesis is four haploid daughter cells (gametes or spores).

 Cytokinesis takes place by cell plate formation in plant cell
 Successive methods: cytokinesis followed by each nuclear division resulting in 4 haploid
cells. Eg. Monocot plants
 Simultaneous methods: cytokinesis occurs only after meiosis-II to form 4 haploid cells. Eg.
Dicot plants
 In animal cells, cytokinesis occurs by furrow formation or depression.
SIGNIFICANCE OF MEIOSIS

1. Meiosis helps to maintain a constant number of chromosomes by reducing the chromosome

number in the gametes
2. Essential for sexual reproduction in higher animals and plants
3. Meiosis helps in the formation haploid gametes and spores for sexual reproduction.
4. Number of chromosome remain fixed in a species from generation to generation
5. Crossing over occurring brings genetic variations in offspring which helps in evolution of
organisms.
6. Failure disjunction in Meiosis leads mutation to the formation of polypoid forms.
7. The random distribution of maternal and paternal chromosomes takes place into daughter
cells during meiosis and it is a sort of independent assortment which leads to variation.
BINARY FISSION
Binary fission is a type of asexual reproduction most commonly seen in prokaryotes and some
single-celled eukaryotes. In this method of asexual reproduction, there is a separation of the parent
cell into two new daughter cells. This process happens with the duplication and division of the
parent’s genetic material into two parts, where, each daughter cells receive one copy of its parent
DNA.
It is a primary method of reproduction in prokaryotic organisms. Binary Fission occurs without any
spindle apparatus formation in the cell. In this process, the single DNA molecule begins replication
and then attaches each copy to various parts of the cell membrane. When the cell starts to get pulled
apart, the original and replicated chromosomes get separated.
However, asexual mode of reproduction has a significant drawback. All resultant cells are
genetically identical mirror copies of each other and the parent cell. Most antibiotics work on this
principle. If a parent cell is vulnerable to an antibiotic, then all resultant daughter cells are also
vulnerable too. If a mutation occurs in their genes, then it can render a particular strain resistant to
antibiotics.
Prokaryotes such as E. coli, Archaea as well as eukaryotes such as euglena reproduce through
binary fission.
Binary fission is a form of cell division in eukaryotes. In prokaryotes, it is a form of asexual
reproduction

Binary Fission in Bacteria

The process of binary fission is usually rapid, and its speed varies among species. The time required
by bacteria to double the number of cells it has is called doubling time. Furthermore, each species
requires specific conditions for its growth. These conditions include pH levels, temperature,
oxygen, light, moisture, osmotic pressure.
For instance, mesophiles thrive at moderate temperatures ranging from 20°C to 45 °C. The ambient
temperature of the human body is 37 °C, which means many of the disease-causing bacteria are
mesophiles. Mycobacterium tuberculosis is the bacterium that causes tuberculosis in humans. It
divides every 15 to 20 hours, which is very slow when compared to other pathogenic bacteria such
as Escherichia coli, which can divide every 20 minutes.
On the other end of the spectrum are the extremophiles. These bacteria can survive extremely harsh
conditions such as high temperatures, high salinity, highly acidic environments and more. For
instance, the Deinococcus radiodurans is an extremophilic bacteria that can survive a thousand
times more radiation than a person can. Under normal circumstances, it can divide every 48 hours.
However, when exposed to harsh conditions like drought, it can slow down its growth rate until
more favourable conditions arise.
Read more: Bacteria
The steps involved in the bacterial binary fission are:

Step 1- Replication of DNA

The bacterium uncoils and replicates its chromosome, essentially doubling its content.

Step 2- Growth of a Cell

After copying the chromosome, the bacterium starts to grow larger in preparation for binary
fissions. It is followed by an increase in cytoplasm volume as well as an increase in the number of
organelles. Another prominent trait of this stage is that the two strands migrate to opposite poles of
the cell.
Step 3-Segregation of DNA
The cell elongates with a septum forming at the middle. The two chromosomes are also separated
in this phase.

Step 4- Splitting of Cells

A new cell wall is formed at this phase, and the cell splits at the centre, dividing the parent cell into
two new daughter cells. Each of the daughter cells contains a copy of the nuclear materials as
necessary organelles.

Amoeba Reproduction-Binary Fission in Amoeba

Amoeba is a unicellular organism, and just like bacteria, it reproduces through binary fission. After
replicating its genetic material through mitotic division, the cell divides into two equal-sized
daughter cells. In this method, two similar individuals are produced from a single parent cell.
An amoeba that is about to undergo division grows larger, and eventually, its nucleus extends and
divides into two. The division of cytoplasm follows the division of the nucleus. So, two amoebae
are produced from a single parent, and the parent’s identity is technically “lost.”

1. How does Amoeba reproduce?

Amoeba reproduces asexually through binary fission. In this process, an individual divides itself
into two daughter cells. These are genetically identical to each other.

2. List out the similarities and differences between binary fission and mitosis
Similarities:

 During binary fission as well as mitosis, chromosomes are copied before a cell
divides and forms two new daughter cells.
Differences:

 Mitosis is a process of cell division, observed in all eukaryotes -organisms with a

true nucleus.
Binary fission is a process of asexual reproduction carried out by all prokaryotes-
organisms without a true nucleus.