INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

ANATOMY OF SKIN

• Skin also termed as cutaneous membrane or integument is the protective outer

covering of the human body.
• It is the largest organ
• surface area of about 1.5-2.0 m², weight ranges from 4.5-5.0 kg.
• Together with its accessory structures (hair and nails), various muscles, glands and
nerves, it makes up the integumentary system.
• The major functions of the integumentary system is to provide protection, maintain
constant body temperature and to provide information about the surrounding
environment.
Dermatology
 Branch of medicine that deals with the diagnosis and treatment of disorders
affecting the integumentary system.
STRUCTURE

Skin consists of two independent layers namely epidermis and dermis.

I. Epidermis

• It is the superficial layer which is made of keratinized stratified squamous

epithelial cells.

• Thickness of the epidermis varies in different parts of the body.

• Thinnest on the eyelids

• Thickest on the palms and soles

• Cells include in epidermis is keratinocytes, melanocytes, langhrehans cells,

merkel cells
KERATINOCYTES

• Constitute about 90% of epidermal cells

• Produce fibrous proteins called keratin also lamellar granules present

• Keratinocytes are arranged in 4-5 layers

Functions

 Protects the skin and underlying tissues from harmful effects of chemicals, heat, microbes

 Lamellar granules is the waterproof of the skin surface and prevent the entry of the

foreign materials
MELANOCYTES

• Constitute about 8% of epidermal cells

• Produce a yellow-red or brown-black pigment called melanin

• Melanin is a dark pigment primarily responsible for skin color.

• Located in bottom layer of the epidermis

Functions

 Contributes skin colour

 Melanin : absorbs the radiant energy from the sun, thus protect the skin from the UV rays
LANGERHANS CELLS

• Constitute small fraction of epidermal cells

• It is dense network of immune system sentinels

• Otherwise called dendritic cells because they are dendritically shaped cells

• Originate from bone marrow and it migrate to epidermis

• Have immunological functions

Functions

 Plays a role in immune response and

 Help other immune cells in identifying invading microbes for destroying them
MERKEL CELLS

• Constitute least fraction of epidermal cells

• Also known as epithelial neuroendocrine cells

• Secrete Neurogenic factors such as neurotrophins and nerve growth factors

• Found in the deepest layer of epidermis

Functions

 Involved in the perception of touch sensations

 They maintain contact with a component of sensory neuron termed as merkel disc or

tactile disc
Layers of Epidermis

• Epidermis contains 5 layers.

• Major body regions, it consists of only 4 layers ie. it does not contain stratum lucidum.

Such epidermis is known as thin skin.

• In body parts such as the palms, soles and finger tips experience greater friction, the

epidermis is made up of 5 layers. This portion of epidermis is know as thick skin.

1. Stratum Corneum (Corneal Layer)

2. Stratum Lucidum (Clear Layer)

3. Stratum Granulosam (Granular Layer)

4. Stratum Spinosum (Spinous/Prickle Cell Layer)

5. Stratum Basale (Germinatum)

Stratum Corneum (Corneal Layer)

• It is the thick outermost layer of the epidermis.

• made up of 20-30 layers of dead, fat keratinocytes that a continuously removed and

replaced by new cells from the deeper layers.

• The cells of the stratum corneum contain keratin and lipids produced by lamellar granules.

Functions

(i) This layer provides strength and elasticity to the skin.

(ii) The lipids impart water-repellant property.

(iii) Since it is made up of dead cells, it protects the deeper layers from microbes and injury.
Stratum Lucidum (Clear Layer)

• It is made up of 4-6 layers of flat, clear, dead keratinocytes that are found only in areas such

as finger tips, palms and soles.

• These keratinocytes exhibit abundant amounts of keratin and their plasma membranes are

highly thickened

Functions

(i) It protects the skin from harmful effects of UV rays.

(ii) Helps to reduce friction between stratum corneum and granulosum.

Stratum Granulosum (Granular Layer)

• It is a thin middle layer composed of 3-5 layers of flat keratinocytes that are undergoing

apoptosis i.e, programmed cell death.

• This layer is characterized by the presence of dark-staining protein granules called

keratohyalin that converts (keratin intermediate filaments) into keratin.

• Keratin proteins and water proofing lipids are synthesized and organized in this layer.

Functions

(i) The lipids prevent the entry and exit of water from the skin.

(ii) The layer also prevent the entry of foreign materials.

Stratum Spinosum (Spinous/Prickle Cell Layer)

• It contains 8-10 layers of polygonal keratinocytes tightly linked together by desmosomes.

• These desmosomes a spiny appearance to the keratinocytes as these cells shrink during the

staining process.

• Stratum spinosum contains melanocyte projections and Langerhans cells.

Function

(i) provides strength and support to the skin and helps it to resist abrasion.
Stratum Basale (Germinatum)

• It is the deepest layer of the epidermis containing one layer of columnar or cuboidal
keratinocytes.
• In this few stem cells are present which divide continuously to form new cells which
replace the older ones.
• The keratinocytes bear large nucleus and other regular cytoplasmic organelles.
• they also contain intermediate filaments which are termed as tonofilaments.
• These filaments synthesize keratin in the upper

These tonofilaments bear attachment to the following;

(1) Desmosomes - Such attachment helps to bind the cells of stratum basale with each other
and also above epidermal layer.
(ii) Hemidesmosomes - Such attachment helps the keratinocytes to bind with the dermis
basement membrane (membrane that lies between epidermis and dermis).
Dermis

• It is the deeper thicker layer of the skin containing collagen fibres (provides strength),

elastic fibres (provides flexibility) and reticular fibres (provides support)

• It has two layers, the upper papillary layer and the lower reticular layer.
(a) Upper Papillary Layer

• It is composed of loose areolar connective tissue with thin collagen and fine elastic fibres.

• It lies beneath the epidermis

• connected to it through finger-like projections called dermal papillae.

• These dermal papillae increases the surface area of contact between epidermis and dermis.

• The dermal papillae contain certain capillary loops (blood vessels) that nourish the

epidermis, and few of the papillae contain sensory touch receptors (called Meissner

corpuscles) and free nerve endings (dendrites).

(b) Lower Reticular Layer

• It is composed of dense connective tissue with fibroblasts, bundles of collagen fibres and
coarse elastic fibres.

(1) Nerve Endings: They sense pain, pressure, touch and temperature. Their sensitivity varies
with different areas of the skin.
Eg: Nerve endings of the finger tips and toes are highly sensitive to touch

(ii) Blood Vessels: They supply nutrients to the skin and help in regulating the temperature of
the body

(iii) Hair Follicles: They produce different types of hairs throughout the body. They contain stem
cells, that are capable of regrowing the damaged epithelium.

(iv) Glands: The sweat (sudoriferous) and oil (sebaceous) glands are associated with the hair
follicles
Hypodermis

• Beneath the dermis

• It is a layer of subcutaneous tissue containing network of fat cells (adipocytes) and

collagen fibres.

• It insulates the body from heat and cold

• protects the organs from injuries by acting as a shock absorber.

• It acts as a storage site for fats

• It contains large blood vessels

• It nourishes the skin.

Accessory Structures

1. Nail

• Nails are clear, solid parts that cover the dorsal surfaces of the distal portions of fingers

and toes

• Made of tightly packed, hard, dead and keratinized epidermal cells.

• Each nail is composed of a nail body (visible pink portion of the nail), a free edge (part

extending beyond the end of the fingers and toes) and a nail root (portion that is present in

a fold of skin and is not visible).

• The nail body appears pink due to the presence of capillaries in the dermis beneath, with

blood flowing in them

• free edge is white due to the absence of a any such capillaries

• A white crescent-shaped region called lunula is present at the proximal end of the nail body.

• It appears white as the blood capillaries are not visible here due to the presence of a thick

underlying epidermal layer.

• A thick region of stratum corneum called hyponychium is present beneath the free edge that

binds the nail to the tip of the digit.

• The layer of epidermis that is found sticking to the borders of the nail wall is called the

cuticle or eponychium.

• The epithelial region responsible for the growth of the nail lies deep to the nail root and is

called nail matrix.

• New nail cells are formed in this region and are pushed upwards resulting in the growth of

the nail.
2. Skin glands

• Human skin is supplied with millions of pores and associated exocrine glands.

• These glands include sudoriferous (sweat) glands and sebaceous (oil) glands.

• These glands are made up of epithelial cells that secrete certain important substances which

play a vital role in the functioning of the skin.

(a) Sweat Glands

• 3-4 million sweat glands are widely distributed throughout the skin.
• These glands release sweat (perspiration) onto the skin surface by means of pores
• The sweat produced is actually odourless but acquires an odour when it gets decomposed
by bacteria.
• Sweat glands are numerous in palms, soles, axillae (armpits) and groins (junction
between abdomen and thighs) and are absent on the margins of the lips, nail beds, tip of
penis and ear drum.
• The primary function of sweat glands is to regulate body temperature.
• Depending upon the structure, type of secretion and function, sweat glands are mainly of
two types ;
a) Eccrine sweat glands that release sweat onto the skin through sweat pores
b) Apocrine sweat glands that release sweat through hair follicles.
(b) Sebaceous Glands

• Also known as the oil glands secrete an oily substance known as sebum.
• These glands are minute lobulated acinar structures situated in the fibrous tissues of the skin.
• They are present throughout the body but absent in palms and soles.
• They are of larger size
• abundant in the scalp, face, neck and breast
• smaller and lesser in the limbs and trunk portion.
• Sebaceous glands secrete sebum which contains proteins, esters, triglycerides, cholesterol and
inorganic salts.
• Most of the sebaceous glands open into the hair follicles
• some glands like the Meibomian glands of the eye and sweat glands in lips, glans penis, labia
minora open directly onto the skin surface.
• Sebaceous glands develop during puberty and the secretion of sebum is under hormonal
control.
Functions

1. These glands protect the skin from fungal and bacterial infections.

2. Blockage of these glands may lead to skin disorders like acne.

3. The sebum produced by these glands keeps the skin surface moist, hence protects it from

drying and cracking.

4. It also protects the hair from drying and breaking as the sebum imparts shine and softness

to them.
3. Hair

• Hair or pili are found on the epidermal layer of the skin, especially in scalp, eyebrows,
armpits and around external genital organs.
• They are absent on palms, palmar surfaces of fingers and soles.

Functions of Hair

1. Hair on the scalp protects it from injury and harmful rays of the sun as well as prevents the
heat loss from the scalp.

2. The eyebrows and eyelashes prevent the entry of any foreign particles in the eye.

3. The nasal hair and those present in the ear also provide protection to the associated
organs.

4. The hair follicles are associated with hair root receptors, which basically are touch receptors.
These help in the sensation of touch.
Functions of Skin
1. Thermoregulation

• It is defined as the homeostatic regulation of the body temperature.

• Skin contributes to thermoregulation by maintaining a balance between heat

production and heat loss.

• Heat loss from skin occurs by different mechanisms such as evaporation,

conduction, radiation and convection.

a) Stimulation of Sweat Glands

• In response to high heat production in the body and high environmental

temperature, skin stimulates sweat production from exocrine sweat glands.

• Sweat is then brought to the body surface by ducts which upon evaporation

lowers the body temperature.

• In response to low heat production and low environmental temperature, skin

decreases the sweat production.

b) Vasodilation and Vasoconstriction

• Skin contains extensive network of blood vessels in dermis.

High heat production

results in profize sweating and dilation of blood vessels of the skin.

Such vasodilation leads to increased blood flow to the dermis

when accompanied with profuse sweating

increase the heat loss from the body.

low heat production about constriction of the blood vessels in skin

decreases blood flow and conserves heat.

2. Protection
(a) It acts as a water proof layer & the presence of keratinized epithelial cells
• protects the underlying structures from chemicals, physical agents like UV rays, dehydration

and against invasion of microbes.

(b) Lamellar granules produce lipids which protects the skin against dehydration by inhibiting

the evaporation of water from its surface.

(c) Sebaceous glands produce sebum which helps to retain the moisture content of the skin.

(d) The acidic pH of the sweat shows bacteriostatic activity and retards the growth of

microorganisms.

(e) Melanin protects the skin from harmful UV rays.

(f) Langerhans cells present in the epidermis engulf the intruding microbes and alert the

immune system regarding the presence of intruders.

(g) Macrophages present in the dermis of the skin engulf the bacteria and viruses which

bypass the Langerhans cells.

3. Cutaneous Sensation

• It refer to sensations of the skin such as tactile sensations i.e., touch, pressure, tickling and

vibration along with thermal sensations such as warmth, coolness etc.

• Sensory receptors such as tactile discs in epidermis, corpuscles of touch in dermis, hair

root plexuses in hair follicles etc., are widely distributed in the skin which carry nerve

impulses to the cerebral cortex.

• distribution of sensory receptors is uneven and few areas like lips, finger tips contain more

sensory receptors when compared to others.

4. Excretion

• Skin is a minor excretory organ and despite its water proof nature

• It evaporates about 400 ml of water per day.

• it also excretes small amounts of salts (sodium chloride), carbon dioxide and

organic molecules like urea and ammonia.

5. Absorption
• skin is a lipid membrane it allows fat-soluble substances such as vitamins A, E, D and K to

pass through it, but notwater-soluble vitamins.

• Apart from vitamins, skin also absorbs various toxins including organic solvents like

acetone, carbon tetrachloride and heavy metals like arsenic, lead, mercury etc., giving

rise to life-threatening complications.

• The large surface area and extensive network of blood vessels has led to the introduction

of new drug delivery system known as transdermal drug delivery system (TDDS).

• TDDS is extensively used for the administration of various drugs such as nitroglycerine in

the prevention of angina pectoris, scopolamine for motion sickness, estradiol for

hormone replacement therapy during menopause, fentanyl in cancer patients etc.

6. Synthesis of Vitamin D

• Skin when exposed to UV rays stimulates the production of calcitriol

• Calcitriol is essential for the absorption of calcium and phosphate from the food

and also for the formation and maintenance of bones.