Physiology of the skin

FSG 251

Dr M Gamede,
Email: [Link]@[Link]
BMS 7-13
Learning objectives

• Describe the five layers of the epidermis

• Differentiate between the thick and thin skin

• Know what the functions of the skin

• Explain what causes the differences in skin

color

• Understand the repair and regeneration of

the skin
integument anatomy

• Skin is the body’s largest organ, which serves to protect the internal structures and the entire
body against infections

• The surface is covered by the epithelial layer that is followed by the connective tissue for
strength and resilience to the skin

• In the connecting tissue, there are smooth muscles associated with hair follicles

• Nervous tissue detects and monitors sensory stimuli in the skin (touch, pressure,
vibration ,temperature, and pain)
Integument anatomy

• Skin thickness ranges from 1.5mm-4mm or even more, depending on the

body location

• Consist of two distinct layers epidermis and dermis :

• Epidermis is a layer of stratified squamous epithelium
• Dermis is a layer of primary dense irregular connective tissue

• Deep into the dermis is the layer of areolar and adipose connective tissue
knowns as the subcutaneous layer or hypodermis(not part of the
integumentary system)
Epidermis layer
• Keratinized stratified squamous
epithelium( epi-on; derma-skin)
• The epidermis from the basement
membrane to the surface has five specific
layers or strata:
• Stratum basale
• Stratum spinosum
• Stratum granulosum
• Stratum lucidum(found in thick skin only)
• Stratum corneum
• First three are composed of living
keratinocytes while the last two are
composed of dead keratinocytes
Stratum basale (BS)
• Deep epidermal layer is also known as the
stratum germinativum or basal layer
• Cells: Made of a single layer of cuboidal to low
columnar that is attached to the basement
membrane
• Three cell types occupy the stratum basale:
keratinocytes, melanocytes, and tactile cells

• SB is dominated by the large keratinocyte stem

cells that generate new cells to replace dead
keratinocytes in the surface when their shed off

• Function: Synthesis of keratin protein that

strengthens the epidermis
Stratum basale (BS)

• Melanocytes (melano-black): long

branching process, scattered among
keratinocytes of the BS

• They produce and store pigment melanin in

response to ultraviolet light exposure
• Cytoplasmic processes transferring
melanosomes into keratinocytes
• Pigment accumulates around the nucleus and
shields nuclear DNA from UV light radiation

• Tactile cells(Merkel cells): few in number,

scattered among the cells of the BS,
sensitive to touch, pressure, etc.
Stratum spinosum (SS)
• Formed by the layers of the polygonal
keratinocytes, dominated by the specialized
non-dividing keratinocytes

• The keratinocytes in the BS divide into two daughter

cells, one pushed towards the external surface and the
other remaining as the stem cell
• The one that enters the SS layer, divides into non-
dividing keratinocytes

• SS also contains the fourth epidermal cell type,

epidermal dendritic (Langerhans) cells, the
immune cell of the skin that initiates an immune
response
Stratum Granulosum

• Consists of three to five layers of keratinocytes on

top of the stratum spinosum and this is where the
process of keratinization begins

• Keratinocytes fill up with keratin and cause the

nucleus and organelles to disintegrate and the cell
begins to die

• Keratinization is only completed cell reaches the

superficial epidermal layers

• A fully keratinized cell is dead because it has neither

nucleus or organelles, but it’s structurally strong due
to the presence of keratin
Stratum Lucidum

• A thin, translucent layer of about two to three

cell layers on top of stratum granulosum

• Found only in the thick skin areas such as the

palms of hands and soles of the feet

• Cells occupying this layer appear pale, and

featureless, with distinct boundaries

• Keratinocytes of SL are flatted and filled with

translucent protein(eleidin)
• Protect the skin against UV light
Stratum corneum

• The most superficial epidermal layer consists of

about 20 -30 layers of dead, scaly, interlocking
keratinized

• Migration of the keratinocytes from SB to SC

takes about two weeks and dead keratinized cells
remain in the SC for about two weeks before
being shed off

• Providing a physical barrier

Variations in the epidermis (Thick vs thin skin)
• The epidermis exhibit variation between
different body regions within one individual
and differences between individuals
• These variations include thickness,
coloration, and skin markings
• Thick vs thin skin
• Thick skin(0.4-0.6 mm) found in palms of
the hands(fingers) and soles of the
feet(toes), Has sweat glands but lacks
hair follicles and sebaceous gland

• Thin skin (0.015-0.075 mm) covers most

of the body and lacks a stratum lucidum
layer, contains hair follicles, sebaceous
glands, and sweat glands
Variations in the epidermis(Skin colour)

• Normal skin colour results from a combination of the colours of haemoglobin, melanin
and carotene

• Haemoglobin- found in the red blood cells in blood vessels of the dermis and gives a
reddish tint, most seen on the slightly pigmented individuals

• Melanin – the amount of melanin is determined by both heredity and light exposure
• Darker-skinned individuals have melanocytes that produce darker and more
melanin compared to light-skinned individuals
• Carotene- A yellow-orange pigment found in the keratinocytes of the SC and in
subcutaneous fats
• Converted into vitamin A, role in vision and antioxidants
Variations in the epidermis(Skin markings)

• Nevus or mole –a localized overgrowth of melanin-forming cells

• Freckles –yellowish-brown spots due to increased melanocytes activity

• Friction ridges – formed from the large folds and valleys of both the dermis
and epidermis, found on the fingers, palms, soles, and toes.
• Each individual has a unique pattern of ridges, fingerprints
Dermis layer

• Lies beneath the epidermis and ranges from

about 0.5mm-3.0mm
• Composed of connective tissue proper and
contain primarily collagen fibers, with elastic
and reticular fibers also present

• Other components of the dermis: sebaceous

gland, sweat gland, hair follicle, nail roots,
erector pili and nerve endings

• Divided into two major regions: papillary

layer(superficial) and reticular layer (deep)
Dermis layers

• Papillary layers: Superficial region of the dermis

• Composed of areolar connective tissue , with dermal
papillae that integrate with the epidermal ridges

• Each derma papillae contains capillaries that supply

nutrients to the cells of the epidermis and sensory nerve
ending that function as tactile receptors

• Reticular layer: A deeper major portion of the

dermis that is primarily const of irregular connective
tissue, with branching bundles of collagen fibers

• Dermis doesn’t have a rapid cell turnover, the

injected dye remain in the area for a long time
Innervation and perfusion

• The dermis of the skin is extensively supplied with sensory nerve fibers that monitor
stimuli in both the epidermis and dermis

• Touch receptors monitor stimuli such as pressure, vibration, and temperature

• Motor nerve fibers also extend to the skin to control blood flow and gland secretions

• Epidermis is avascular therefore the blood vessels within the dermis supply nutrients to
the living cells in the epidermis and dermis

• Dermal blood vessel plays a vital role in thermoregulation

Subcutaneous layer

• Subcutaneous/ hypodermis/ superficial fascia NOT considered to be part of the

integument
• Consist of areolar connective tissue and adipose connective tissue
• Pads protect the body, act as an energy reservoir and provide thermal
insulation
• Drugs are often injected in the subcutaneous layer due to the extensive
vascular network promoting rapid absorption
Hair and nails

• Nail, hair, and exocrine glands are derived from epidermal epithelial, also
known as epidermal derivatives or appendages of the integument

• Both hair and nails are composed primarily of dead, keratinized epithelial cell
• Exocrine glands are composed of living epithelial cell

• Nail covers the layer of the epidermis called the nail bed which contains only
the deeper living cells of the epidermis
Hair type and distribution

• There are three different kinds of hair we produce in our lives, lanugo, valleys, and
terminal hair

• Lanugo- fine, unpigmented, downy hair that appears on the fetus during the last
trimester
• Vellus- fine, unpigmented hair that replaces most of the lanugo at birth, vellus is the
primary human hair that is found in the upper and lower limbs of the adults
• Terminal hair- coarser, pigmented, and lover than vellus, it grows in the scalp,
eyebrows, and eyelashes

• At puberty terminal hair replaces vellus in the axillary and pubic regions as it forms a
beard in males
Hair functions

• Protection
• Scalp from sunburn and injury, nostrils trap
particles, ear from insects and foreign particles, eye
from sweat and injury
• Heat retention
• Prevent the loss of conducted heat from the scalp to
the surrounding air
• Sensory reception
• Hair has associated tactile receptors that detect
light touch
• Chemical signals dispersal
• Hairs help disperse pheromones
• Hair color is a result of the synthesis of
melanin in the matrix adjacent to the hair
papillae (aging and hormones )
Hair growth and replacement

• Hair normally grows about 1/3 mm per

day for 2 to 5 years, up to 1 m long
• Post growing phase hair enters a dormant
phase and new hair start to grow inside
the hair follicle pushing the older hair out

• Alopecia –thinning of hair ( aging, both

sexes )
• Diffuse hair loss- hair shed from all parts
of the scalp(mainly women; hormones,
medication, or iron deficiency )
• Male pattern baldness- loss of hair only
in the region of the scalp (testosterone )
Exocrine glands of the skin
• The skin has many types of exocrine glands,
the most common are sweat (sudoriferous)
glands and sebaceous glands
• Sweat glands are further divided into two
groups merocrine (eccrine) and apocrine
sweat glands

• Merocrine sweat glands

• Widely distributed all over the body ( 3-4 million,
adults), discharge directly into the skin surface
• Secrete liquid called sweat by exocytosis
• Sweat composed of 99% water and 1% NaCl,
lactic acid, and waist products (urea and
ammonia)
Exocrine glands of the skin

• Apocrine sweat glands

• Release their secretions into hair follicles, in the axillae, around nipples, pubic
region, and anal region

• Their secretions are vicious and cloudy containing proteins and lipids that
produces odor when bacteria act on it
• Sebaceous glands (holocrine gland)
• Secretes sebum (fats, cholesterol, and proteins) upon hormone stimulation
• Keep hair from drying out, keeps skin moist
• Whiteheads, blackheads, and acne

• Both become active at the beginning of puberty

Exocrine glands of the skin

• Ceruminous glands
• Located external auditory canal
• Modified apocrine glands that
produce cerumen (ear wax)

• Keeps the eardrum pliable,

lubricates and cleans the external
auditory canal,
• waterproofs the canal,
• kills bacteria,
• and serves as a barrier to trap
foreign particles
Summary of the skin functions

• Protection
• Physical barrier that protects the body from injury, and infection.
• Body temperature regulation
• Sweat production and regulated radiation
• Sensory reception
• Sense temperature, pain, pressure, touch
• Excretion and absorption
• Sweat removes water from the body, minerals
• Gaseous exchange and drug administration
• Vitamin D synthesis (from cholesterol)
• Cholesterol reacts with UV light
• Prevention of water loss
• Skin is water resistant
Skin Repair and Regeneration
Homeostasis
• Cut blood vessels initiate bleeding into the wound, blood
brings clotting factors, leukocytes, and antibodies

• The damaged tissues are normally

repaired in one of two ways regeneration or Inflammation
fibrosis • Blood cloth forms, temporally patching the edges of the
wound, preventing pathogen entry into the body,
• Regeneration- replacement of the • macrophages and neutrophils in the clot clean the wound
damaged or dead by the same type of the cellular debris

Proliferation
• Fibrosis- the filling of the gap with the scar • Cut blood vessels regrow in the wound and granulation
tissue forms
tissue, when the damage is too big and • Macrophages remove blood clots
cells lack the capacity to divide • Fibroblasts produce collagen fibers

• Scar tissue is produced by the fibroblasts

Remodelling
and is primarily composed of collagen • Epithelium regenerates and connective tissue is
fibers replaced fibrosis
Stages of wound healing
Review questions
1. Describe the five layers of the epidermis
2. Differentiate between thick and thin skin
3. Explain what causes the skin difference in skin colors
4. As you trim the roses, a thorn penetrates you palm of your hand through all your epidermal strata, what are the layers of the epidermis penetrated from starting from
the surface of the skin
5. How does hemoglobin contribute to skin color
6. What is the function of the friction ridges
7. Briefly describe the process of keratinization and where it occurs and why is it important
8. Describe how your face become paler when you are out in the cold
9. List the functions of hair
10. How does the apocrine sweat gland differ from the merocrine sweat gland in terms of its location, secretion, and function?
11. What do sebaceous gland secret and where is this material secreted
12. Distinguish between regeneration and fibrosis
13. Describe the process of wound healing
14. Name the way by which the epidermis protects the body and prevents water loss
15. Describe the skin’s role in secretion and absorption
16. Identify the immune cells that reside in the skin and describe their functions
17. How does the skin produce vitamin D
18. Describe how the skins selective permeability is useful for the administration of the transdermal drugs
19. List some of the shared functions between the dermis and the epidermis
20. Describe how the skin helps the body to cool or retain warmth
21. List five sensations detected by the skin’s sensory receptors