Integumentary System

Dr. Abdul Ahad Shaikh

Introduction
• The skin and its accessory structures make up
the integumentary system
• A surface area of 1.5 - 2 square meters
• Weighs approximately 4-5 kg (9-11 lbs.)
• Forms the boundary between our internal and
the external environment
• It is a malleable, tough, organ that is constantly
regenerating
• Without skin we would succumb to infection,
water loss, or heat loss
Functions
• Protection
– Chemical barrier
– Physical or Mechanical barrier
– Biological barrier
• Body Temperature Regulation
• Cutaneous Sensation
• Metabolic Functions
• Blood Reservoir
• Excretion
Protection
• Chemical barrier
– Skin secretions create an acid mantle
that retard bacteria reproduction
– Sebum from sebaceous glands is
bactercidal
– Skin cells secrete a natural antibiotic
called human defensin
– Melanin shields the skin from UV
radiation
Protection
• Physical or mechanical barrier
– Hard keratinized cells provide a continuous
barrier
– Glycolipids of the epidermis block the diffusion
of water and water soluble substances from
between cells
– Substances that do penetrate the skin in limited
amounts include
• Lipid soluble substances; oxygen, carbon dioxide
and fat soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K)
• Natural and manufactured solvents, salts, and drugs
Protection
• Biological barrier
– Langerhans’ cells of the epidermis
“present” foreign substances
(antigens) to the white blood cells
(lymphocytes) which in turn activate
our immune system
– Macrophages of the dermis dispose
of viruses and bacteria that have
penetrate the epidermis but they also
work as presenters
Body Temperature Regulation
• The body works best when its temperature
remains within homeostatic limits
• Cooling occurs through radiation of heat
and evaporation of water from the surface
of the skin
• Heating occurs from metabolism, activity
and shivering
• Extremes of environmental temperature
threaten homeostatic balance
Cutaneous Sensation
• The skin is richly supplied with cutaneous
sensory receptors
• Cutaneous receptors are classified as
exteroreceptors because they respond to
external stimuli
• Cutaneous receptors include
– Meissner’s corpuscles (light touch)
– Pacinian corpuscles (deep pressure
– Root hair plexuses (displacement of hair shaft)
– Free nerve endings (pain)
Metabolic Functions
• Sunlight bombarding modifies
cholesterol molecules in the epidermal
cells are converted to a precursor of
vitamin D
• Keratinocyte enzymes can “disarm”
many cancer causing carcinogens
• Keratinocytes can also activate steroid
hormones
Blood Reservoir
• The skin can hold about 5% of the
body’s entire blood volume
• Blood volume can be diverted from the
skin to other organs in need
• Blood volume can be diverted to the
skin for temperature regulation
Excretion
• Limited amount of nitrogen-containing
wastes (ammonia, urea, and uric acid)
are eliminated from the body in sweat
• Sweating also excretes water and salt
Homeostatic Imbalances of the
Skin
• Homeostatic imbalances of the skin
range from mild to life-threatening
• Homeostatic imbalances are readily
visible
• There are over 1000 different conditions
and ailments affecting the skin
Burns
• Burns are a devastating threat to the
individual because of their effect on the skin
• The threat to life severe burns is loss of
body fluids contain protein and electrolytes
• Fluid loss can cause dehydration and
electrolyte imbalances
• These in turn can lead to renal shutdown
and circulatory shock
• The amount of fluid volume lost is estimated
using the rule of nines
Burns

• Estimating the area of a burn using the rule of 9’s

Primary germ layer
• Epidermis, hair, nails, skin gland- Ectoderm

• Dermis (connective tissue)- Mesoderm

Structure of the skin
• The superficial portion of the skin is the
epidermis and is composed of epithelial
tissue
• The deeper layer of the skin is dermis and
is composed of connective tissue
• Deep to the dermis is the subcutaneous
layer or hypodermis (not a part of skin)
Skin (Integument)
Epidermis
• A thick keratinized layer of stratified
squamous epithelium
• Consists of four distinct cell types
• Arranged in four or five distinct cell
layers
Cells of the
Epidermis

• Keratinocytes
• Melanocytes
• Merkel cells
• Langerhans’
cells
Cells of the Epidermis
Keratinocyte

• Principle cell
of the
epidermis
• Seen here
migrating
upward
through
various layers
of the
epidermis
Keratinocytes
• Most of the epidermal cells are keratinocytes
• The chief role of keratinocytes is to produce keratin, the
tough fibrous protein that gives the epidermis its protective
qualities
• Tightly connected by desmosomes
• Keratinocytes arise from constant cell mitosis at the
deepest layer of the epidermis
• Keratinocyte cells manufacture keratin during their
migration to the skin surface
• Keratins (cytokeratins) are polymers of type I and type
II intermediate filaments, found in the genomes of
vertebrates, 
Keratinocytes (continued)
• As cells migrate to the surface their contents
become dominated by keratin
• The cells will deform to become flattened,
dead structures that are keratin filled
• Million of cells on the free surface rub off daily
• A totally new epidermis every 25-45 days
• Cell reproduction is higher in areas subject to
friction (hands, feet)
Melanocytes
• Spider
shaped
cells found
in Stratum
basale or
basal layer
Melanocytes
• Specialized epithelial cells that synthesize the
pigment melanin
• Cells are found in the deepest layer of the
epidermis
• Melancytes have many branching processes
that touch all keratinocytes in the basal layer
• Processes carry melanin to keratinocytes
• Melanin granules accumulate on the super-
ficial side of the nucleus of the ketatinocytes
Melanocytes
• Melanin granules form a pigment shield that protects
the nucleus from ultraviolet (UV) radiation in sunlight
• All humans have the same amount of melanocytes
• Racial differences in skin coloring is thought to reflect
the kind and amount of melanin made and retained
• Production of melanin is stimulated by DNA damage
induced by UVB-radiation
• The photochemical properties of melanin make it an
excellent photoprotectant.
• It absorbs harmful UV-radiation and transforms the
energy into harmless heat through a process called
"ultrafast internal conversion". This property enables
melanin to dissipate more than 99.9% of the absorbed
UV radiation as heat
Langerhan’s
Cells

• Star shaped
cells among
keratinocytes
Langerhan’s Cells
• Cells arise from bone marrow and
migrate to the epidermis
• The cells are macrophages that help to
activate the immune system
• Their cell processes extend among
surrounding keratinocytes
• From a continuous network
Merkel
Cells

• Spiky shaped
hemispheres
found at the
epidermal -
dermal
junction
Merkel Cells
• Each Merkel cell is associated with a
disc shaped sensory nerve ending
• The combined structure is called a
Merkel disc
• Merkel discs function as a sensory
nerve receptor for touch
Epidermal
layers

• Four layers
in “thin skin”
• Covers most
of the body
Epidermal
Layers
• Five layers
found in
“thick skin”
• Stratum
lucidum is
extra layer
• Found on
fingertips,
palms and
soles of feet
Stratum
basale
• Deep layer
attached to
underlying
dermis
• Singe row
of youngest
cells
• Ongoing
cell mitosis
Stratum Basale (Basal Layer)
• Deepest epidermal layer firmly attached to
the dermis
• Consists of a single row of the youngest
keratinocytes
• Cells undergo rapid division, hence its
alternate name, stratum germinativum
Stratum Basale (Basal Layer)
Stratum
spinosum
• Several cell
layers thick
• Cells contain
a web-like
system of
filaments
• Abundant
Langerhan’s
cells in this
layer
Stratum Spinosum (Prickly Layer)
• Cells contain a weblike system of
intermediate filaments attached to
desmosomes
• Melanin granules and Langerhans’ cells
are abundant in this layer
Stratum
granulosum
• Area of 3-5 cell
layers
• Ketatinocytes
flatten and
begin to
disintegrate
• Release of
glycolipid slows
water loss
• Cell binding
Stratum Granulosum (Granular Layer)

• Thin; three to five cell layers in which

drastic changes in keratinocyte
appearance occurs

• Keratohyaline and lamellated granules

accumulate in the cells of this layer
Stratum
lucidum
• Consist of
a few rows
of clear,
flat, dead
cells
• Present
only in
thick skin
Stratum Lucidum (Clear Layer)

• Thin, transparent band superficial to the

stratum granulosum
• Consists of a few rows of flat, dead
keratinocytes
• Present only in thick skin
Stratum
corneum
• Broad zone
20-30 cell
layers thick
• 3/4 of
epidermal
thickness
• Protects
skin from
abrasion &
penetration
Stratum Corneum (Horny Layer)
• Outermost layer of keratinized cells
• Accounts for three quarters of the epidermal
thickness
• Functions include:
– Waterproofing
– Protection from abrasion and penetration
– Rendering the body relatively insensitive to
biological, chemical, and physical assaults
Dermis
• Second major skin region containing
strong, flexible connective tissue
• Cell types include fibroblasts,
macrophages, and occasionally mast cells
and white blood cells
• Composed of two layers – papillary and
reticular
Layers of the Dermis: Papillary
Layer
• Papillary layer
– Areolar connective tissue with collagen
and elastic fibers
– Its superior surface contains peglike
projections called dermal papillae
– Dermal papillae contain capillary loops,
Meissner’s corpuscles, and free nerve
endings
Layers of the Dermis: Reticular
Layer
• Reticular layer
– Accounts for approximately 80% of the
thickness of the skin
– Collagen fibers in this layer add strength
and resiliency to the skin
– Elastin fibers provide stretch-recoil
properties
Hypodermis
• Subcutaneous layer deep to the skin
• Composed of adipose and areolar
connective tissue
Skin Color
• Three pigments contribute to skin color
– Melanin – yellow to reddish-brown to black
pigment, responsible for dark skin colors
• Freckles and pigmented moles – result
from local accumulations of melanin
– Carotene – yellow to orange pigment, most
obvious in the palms and soles of the feet
– Hemoglobin – reddish pigment responsible
for the pinkish hue of the skin
Sweat Glands
• Different types prevent overheating of the
body; secrete cerumen and milk
– Eccrine sweat glands – found in palms, soles
of the feet, and forehead
– Apocrine sweat glands – found in axillary and
anogenital areas
– Ceruminous glands – modified apocrine glands
in external ear canal that secrete cerumen
– Mammary glands – specialized sweat glands
that secrete milk
Sebaceous Glands
• Simple alveolar glands found all over the
body
• Soften skin when stimulated by hormones
• Secrete an oily secretion called sebum
Structure of a Nail

• Scalelike modification of the epidermis on the distal,

dorsal surface of fingers and toes

Figure 5.4
Hair
• Filamentous strands of dead keratinized cells
produced by hair follicles
• Contains hard keratin which is tougher and more
durable than soft keratin of the skin
• Made up of the shaft projecting from the skin, and
the root embedded in the skin
• Consists of a core called the medulla, a cortex,
and an outermost cuticle
• Pigmented by melanocytes at the base of the hair
Hair Follicle
• Root sheath extending from the epidermal
surface into the dermis
• Deep end is expanded forming a hair bulb
• A knot of sensory nerve endings (a root
hair plexus) wraps around each hair bulb
• Bending a hair stimulates these endings,
hence our hairs act as sensitive touch
receptors
Hair Follicle
Hair Follicle