Meas Ins1

Measurement and

Instrumentation

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2007 Pearson Education, Inc. All rights reserved.

Course Books
1)Experimental Methods For Engineers-Holman
2) lme Teknii-Osman Fevzi Genceli
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1.1. Simple Definition and Brief Story

Measurement is an evaluation of an unknown
quantity comparing with a known quantity.

Measurement techniques have been of great
importance since the start of civilization, specially
since the industrial revolution.
During this period in 19th century, new
measurement techniques and their instruments were
developed rapidly.
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1.1. Brief Story of Measurement

Since the industrial revolution, new
measurement techniques and their instruments

were developed rapidly. The many developments
were also realized in electronics, production
techniques and computer science.
These new conditions brought with some new
requirements in measurement techiques such as
tighter accuracy and lower production costs.
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1.1. Brief Story of Measurement

Therefore, all instrument manufacturers focus
on these problems and they improved new

solutions using digital computing techniques.
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1.2. Basic Measurement System Design

A measurement system exists to provide information
about the physical value of some variable being

measured.
A measurement system usually consists of several
separate components, although only one component
might be involved for some very simple measurement
tasks.
These components might be contained within one
or more boxes, and the boxes holding individual
measurement elements.
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The first element in any measurement system is the
sensor: this gives an output of the measurand. Some

examples of sensors are a liquid-in glass thermometer,
and a strain gauge.
Variable conversion elements convert the inconvenient
form of a measured variable to a more convenient form.
For instance, the measuring strain gauge has an output
in the form of a varying resistance. Because the resistance
change cannot be measured easily, it is converted to a
change in voltage by a variable conversion element.
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In many cases, the primary sensor and variable
conversion element are combined, this combination is

known as a transducer.
Signal processing elements improve the quality of the
output of a measurement system in some way. A very
common type of signal processing element is the
electronic amplifier, which amplifies the output of the
transducer.
In addition to these components, some measurement
systems have one or two other components, first to
transmit the signal to some remote point and second to
display or record the signal.
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Suppose we want to measure the profile of a surface at a
nanometer scale using an atomic force microscobe. If this

cantilever is translated over the surface, the cantilever will deflect,
indicating the height of the surface. The cantilever beam is a
sensor and the movement of the cantilever will deflect the laser. A
transducer converts the sensed information into a detectable
signal.
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Consider the simple bourdon-tube pressure gage. This gage offers a

mechanical example of the generalized measurement system. In this
case the bourdon tube is the detector-transducer stage because it
converts the pressure signal into a mechanical displacement of the
tube. The intermediate stage consists of the gearing arrangement,
which amplifies the displacement of the end of the tube. The final
indicator stage consists of the pointer and the dial arrangement.
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1.3. Measurement System Applications

Current applications of measurement instruments can be
classified into three major areas.

The first of these is their use in trade, applying
instruments that measure physical quantities such as
length, volume, and mass in terms of standard units.
The second application area of measuring instruments is
in monitoring functions. These provide information that
enables people to take some precautions or decisions about
their actions accordingly.
Use as part of automatic feedback control systems forms
the third application area of measurement systems.
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1.3. Measurement System Applications

Figure 1.4 shows a functional block diagram of a simple
temperature control system in which temperature Ta of a

room is maintained at reference value Td. The value of the
controlled variable, Ta , as determined by a temperaturemeasuring device, is compared with the reference value, Td
and the difference, e, is applied as an error signal to the
heater.
The heater then modifies the room temperature until Ta =
Td. The characteristics of the measuring instruments used
in any feedback control system are of fundamental
importance to the quality of control achieved.
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1.4. Static Characteristics of the Instruments

Readability: This term indicates the wideness of the
instrument scale. Wide range scale should be preferred. An
instrument with a 12-in scale has a higher readability than an
instrument with a 6-in scale.
Least Count: It is the smallest difference between two values
that can be detected on the instrument scale. It means that the
least value of the change in physical magnitude sensed by
instrument. Both readability and Least Count depend on scale
length, graduation and size of pointer.
Accuracy: The difference between the real value of measurand
and the value can be read from instrument scale.
Sensitivity is the ratio of the linear movement of the
instrument pointer on an analog instrument to the change in
the measured variable.
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307
200
314
230
321
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328
290
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Range: The minimum and maximum values of the

instrument. These limits define operating range of the
system.
Resolution: The smallest variation of the measured physical
magnitude can be read in the instrument scale. One of the
major factors influencing the resolution of an instrument is
how finely its output scale is divided into subdivisions.
Linearity is the deviation of the input, output values from a
linear function. It is normally desirable that the output
reading of an instrument is linearly proportional to the
quantity being measured. Nonlinearity is defined as the
maximum deviation of the output from the straight line.
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Precision is the property of an instrument is to give the same

values for different measurements. As an example of the
difference between precision and accuracy, consider a known
voltage of 100V for 10 different readings respectively
102,104,104,103,105, 106,103,105,102,106 V.
Mean Value=104V
Accuracy= (106-100)/100=%6
Precision= (106-104)/104=%2
Accuracy=(max.measured value-real value)/real value
Precision =(max.measured value-mean value)/mean value
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Tolerance is a term that is closely related to accuracy and

defines the maximum error that is to be expected in some value.
Example
A packet of resistors bought in an electronics component shop
gives the nominal resistance value as I000 and the
manufacturing tolerance as 5%. If one resistor is chosen at
random from the packet, what is the minimum and maximum
resistance value that this particular resistor is likely to have?
Solution
The minimum likely value is 1000 - 5% = 950 .
The maximum likely value is 1000 + 5% = 1050 .
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Hysteresis: Different values in reading depend on the approaching to the

measured quantity from above or below. It means that the instrument shows
the above or below values from the real values. Hysteresis may be result of
mechanical friction, magnetic and thermal effects, elastic deformation.
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Dead-Space: It is the space which the instrument can not

display the small change in pysical magnitude. Dead-Space also
may be result of mechanical friction, magnetic and thermal
effects, elastic deformation.
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Calibration is the operation to decrease the measurement errors

and to control the instruments. It is applied to the measurement
system
a) According to the Basic Standarts
b)Using an other instrument has the higher accuracy
c)Respect to the known input value
Static Calibration : The most common type of calibration is
known as a static calibration. In this procedure, a known value is
input to the system under calibration and the system output is
recorded. By applying a range of known input values and by
observing the system output values, a direct calibration curve
can be developed for the measurement system. The static
calibration curve describes the static inputoutput relationship
for a measurement system.
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2.Dynamic Characteristics of Instruments

2.1. Measurement System Model
Consider the following model of a measurement system which consist of a
general nth-order linear ordinary diff. equation in terms of a general output
signal, the following general relation between output, represented by variable
y(t) and input signal, represented by the forcing function, F(t) can be
written as:
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Example 2.1
Consider the seismic accelerometer in Figure 2.1. It is used in seismic and
vibration engineering to determine the motion of large bodies. As the
accelerometer mass reacts to motion, it places the piezoelectric crystal into
compression or tension, causing a surface charge to develop on the crystal.
The charge is proportional to the motion. Let y denote the position of the
mass and x denote the displacement of the body. Solving Newtons second
law for the second-order linear, ordinary differential equation
Comparing this to the general form for a second-order equation from

Equation 2.1
we can see that a2=m, a1=b1=c, a0=b0=k.

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The stiffness of the spring, k, provides a restoring force

to move the accelerometer mass back to equilibrium
while frictional damping, c, opposes any displacement
away from equilibrium.
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where K=1/a0. K is called the static sensitivity or static gainof the system.
This property is the relation between the change in output associated with a
change in static input. Any instrument that behaves according to (2.2) it is
a zero-order type.
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2.2.1. Zero-Order Systems

In ZOS, following a step change in the input (mesured value) at time
t, the instrument output moves instantly to a new value at the same
t(Figure 2.2).
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2.2.1. Zero-Order Systems

They are the simplest model of the measurement systems and for real
systems, the zero-order system concept is used to model the timeindependent measurement system response to static inputs. In fact,
the zero-order concept appropriately models any system during a
static calibration.
Determination of K
The static sensitivity is found from the static calibration of the

measurement system. It is the slope of the calibration curve, K=dy/dx.
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Example 2.2
A pencil-type pressure gauge commonly used to measure tire pressure can be
modeled at static equilibrium by considering the force balance on the gauge
sensor, a piston that slides up and down a cylinder. Considering the piston
free-body at static equilibrium in Figure 2.3b, the static force balance, F = 0,
gives
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Eq. (2.3) can be written as
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When we apply a step function input to a measurement

system, we obtain information about how quickly a system
will respond to a change in input signal.
Let us apply a step function as an input to the general firstorder system.

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Setting F(t)=AU(t) in Equation 2.4 gives
The solution of the differential equation, y(t), is the response

of the system. Equation 2.5 describes the behavior of the
system to a step change in input. This means that y(t) is in
fact the output indicated by the display stage of the system.
We have simply used mathematics to simulate this response.
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The rise time is the time required to achieve a

response of 90 percent of the step input. This
requires:
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The general solution of (2.7) yields the measurement system

output signal, that is, the time response to the applied input,
y(t):
where the value for C depends on the initial conditions. The

output signal, y(t), of Equation (2.8) consists of a transient
and a steady response. The first term on the right side is the
transient response. Transient response is important only
during the initial period following the application of the new
input. We already have information about the system
transient response from the step function study.
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We focus our attention on the second term, the steady

response. This term persists for as long as the periodic input
is maintained. Equation 3.8 can be rewritten in a general
form:
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2.2.3 Second-Order Systems

A system modeled by a second-order differential equation is
called a second-order . Examples of second-order instruments
include accelerometers and pressure transducers.
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Step Function Input
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Step Function Input
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Step Function Input
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3. Measurement Uncertainty
The existence of measurement uncertainty means that we would be entirely
wrong to assume that the output of a measuring instrument or larger

measurement system gives the exact value of the measured quantity.
Measurement errors are impossible to avoid, although we can minimize
their magnitude by good measurement system design accompanied by
appropriate analysis and processing of measurement data. Uncertainty
analysis provides a methodical approach to estimating the quality of the
results from an anticipated test or from a completed test.
It is extremely important in any measurement system to reduce errors to
the minimum possible level and then to quantify the maximum remaining
error that may exist in any instrument output reading.
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3. Measurement Uncertainty
Errors are a property of the measurement. Measurement is the process of
assigning a value to a physical variable based on a sampling from the

population of that variable. Error causes a difference between the value
assigned by measurement and the true value of the population of the
variable.
We draw from what we know about the measurement to estimate a range of
probable error. This estimate is an assigned value called the uncertainty.
Uncertainty analysis is the process of identifying, quantifying, and
combining the errors.
Uncertainty is a property of the result. The outcome of a measurement is a
result, and the uncertainty quantifies the quality of that result.

Uncertainty analysis provides a powerful design tool for evaluating different
measurement systems and methods, designing a test plan, and reporting

uncertainty.
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Errors are effects, and uncertainties are numbers. While errors are the
effects that cause a measured value to differ from the true value, the
uncertainty is an assigned numerical value that quantifies the probable
range of these errors.
3.1. Measurement Errors

Errors are grouped into two categories: systematic error and random error.
A systematic error remains constant in repeated measurements under
fixed operating conditions. A systematic error may cause either a high or a
low offset in the estimate of the true value of the measured variable.Two
major sources of systematic errors are system disturbance during
measurement and the effect of environmental changes.
Random errors are perturbations caused by random and unpredictable
effects, such that positive errors and negative errors occur in
approximately equal numbers for a series of measurements made of the
same quantity. Random errors often arise when measurements are taken
by human observation of an analogue meter, especially where this
involves interpolation between scale points. Electrical noise can also be a
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source of random errors.
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We discuss uncertainty analysis for the following measurement situations: (1)

design stage, where tests are planned but information is limited; (2) advanced
stage or single measurement, where additional information about process control
can be used to improve a design-stage uncertainty estimate; and (3) multiple
measurements, where all available test information is combined to assess the
uncertainty in a test result.
3.2. Design-Stage Uncertainty
Design-stage uncertainty analysis refers to an analysis performed in the

formulation stage prior to a test. It provides only an estimate of the minimum
uncertainty based on the instruments and method chosen. If this uncertainty
value is too large, then alternate approaches will need to be found. So, it is useful
for selecting instruments and selecting measurement techniques.
In the design stage, distinguishing between systematic and random errors might
be too difficult to be of concern. So for this initial discussion, consider only
sources of error and their assigned uncertainty in general.
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Each individual measurement error interacts with other errors to affect the
uncertainty of a measurement. This is called uncertainty propagation. Each
individual error is called an elemental error. For example, the sensitivity error
and linearity error of a transducer are two elemental errors, and the numbers
associated with these are their uncertainties.
Consider a measurement of x that is subject to some K elements of error, each of
uncertainty uk, where k = 1,2, . . . , K. A realistic estimate of the uncertainty in
the measured variable, ux, due to these elemental errors can be computed using
the root-sum-squares (RSS) method to propagate the elemental uncertainties:
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The design-stage uncertainty, ud, for an instrument or measurement method is an

interval found by combining the instrument uncertainty with the zero-order
uncertainty:
Final uncertanties are usually reported at a 95 % probability.
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Identifying Error Sources

Calibration Error
Data Acquisition Error
Data Reduction Error
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Uncertainty Propagation
Suppose we have a set of measurement and these measurements are then
used to calculate the some results of the experiments. We wish to estimate
the uncertainty in the calculated result. The result R is a given function of
the independent variables x1,x2,x3,,xn.
Let uR be the uncertainty in the result and u1,u2,,un be the
uncertainties in the variables. Then we obtain :
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4. Statistical Analysis of Experimental Data

When a set of readings of an instrument is taken, the
individual readings will vary from each other, and the

experimenter should have the information about mean value of
all the readings. If each reading is denoted by xi and there are n
readings, the arithmetic mean is given by
The deviation di for each reading is defined by
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The average of the absolute values of the deviations is given by
The standart deviation presents the distribution of the data

deviation from the arithmetic mean value. The standart
deviation or root-mean-square deviation is defined by
and the square of the standard deviation 2 is called the

variance.
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A Different Presentation
For any set of n measurements x1, x2.xn, of a constant quantity, the most
likely true value is the mean given by
The median is an other approximation to the mean that can be written down
without having to sum the measurements. The median is the middle value
in the data set. For a set of n measurements x1, x2.xn, the median value is
given by
Thus, for a set of nine measurements x1, x2...x9 arranged in order of
magnitude, the median value is x5. For an even number of measurements,
the median value is midway between the two center values, that is, for 10
measurements x1 x10, the median value is given by (x5 + x6)/2.
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Suppose that the length of a steel bar is measured by a number of different

observers and the following set of 11 measurements are recorded (units
millimeter). We will call this measurement set A.
398 420 394 416 404 408 400 420 396 413 430 (Measurement set A)
Using Equations (4.5) and (4.6) , mean = 409.0 and median = 408. Suppose
now that the measurements are taken again using a better measuring rule
and with the observers taking more care to produce the following
measurement set B:
409 406 402 407 405 404 407 404 407 407 408 (Measurement set B)
For these measurements, mean = 406.0 and median = 407. We can regard
measurement set B as being more reliable because the measurements are
much closer together. In set A, the spread between the smallest (396) and
largest (430) value is 34, while in set B, the spread between 402-409.
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Thus, the smaller the spread of the measurements, the more confidence we
have in the mean or median value calculated.
Let us now see what happens if we increase the number of measurements by

extending measurement set B to 23 measurements. We will call this
measurement set C.
409 406 402 407 405 404 407 404 407 407 408 406 410 406 405 408 406
409 406 405 409 406 407 (Measurement set C)
Now, mean = 406.5 and median = 406
We can say that the median value tends toward the mean value as the
number of measurements increases.
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A much better way of expressing the distribution is to calculate the
variance or standard deviation of the measurements. The starting point

for calculating these parameters is to calculate the deviation (error) di of
each measurement xi from the mean value:
The variance (Vs) of the set of measurements is defined formally as the
mean of the squares of deviations:
The standard deviation () of the set of measurements is defined as the
square root of the variance:
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These definitions for the variance and standard deviation of data are made
with respect to an infinite population of data values whereas, in all

practical situations, we can only have a finite set of measurements.
A better prediction of the variance of the infinite population can be
obtained using the formula given below:
This leads to a similar better prediction of the standard deviation:
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Sometimes it is appropriate to use a geometric mean when studying
phenomena which grow in proportion to their size. This would apply to

certain biological processes and to growth rates in financial resources. The
geometric mean is defined by
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Example 4.1: The following readings are taken of a certain physical length.
Compute the mean reading, standard deviation, variance.
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5. Probability
Probability is a measure or estimation of likelihood of
occurrence of an event.
Suppose we throw a coin, the probability that we get a head is
for one toss, the probability of tail will be also . Somebody
may get the same numbers of heads and tail for if the coin is
thrown large number of times. In other words, the frequency of
occurrence is the same for both heads or tails for a very large
number of tosses.
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Suppose we toss a horseshoe some distance x. Even though we make an
effort to toss the horseshoe the same distance each time, we would not
always meet with success. On the first toss the horseshoe might travel a
distance x1, on the second toss a distance of x2, and so forth. If one is a
good player of the game, there would be more tosses which have an x
distance equal to that of the objective.
Since each x distance will vary from other x distances, we may calculate
the probability of a toss landing in a certain increment of x between x and

x + Dx.
When this calculation is made, we might get something like the situation
shown in Fig. 5.1. For a good player the maximum probability is expected
to surround the distance xm designating the position of the target.
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A particular probability distribution is the binomial distribution. This
distribution gives the number of successes n for N possible independent

events when each event has a probability of success p.
It will be noted that the quantity (1p) is the probability of failure of each
independent event.
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Example 5.1. A coin is tossed three times. Calculate the probability of
getting zero, one, two, or three heads in these tosses.

Solution
The binomial distribution applies in this case since the probability of each
toss of the coin is independent of previous or successive toss. The
probability of getting a head on each throw is p = 1/ 2 and N = 3, while n
takes on the values 0, 1, 2, and 3.
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Matlab Application
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5.1.1. Histograms
We have noted that a probability distribution like Fig. 5.1 is obtained when
we observe frequency of occurrence over a large number of observations.

When a limited number of observations is made and the raw data are
plotted, we call the plot a histogram.
For example, the following distribution of throws might be observed for a
horseshoes player:
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These data are plotted in Fig. 5.2 using increments of 10 cm in x. The same
data are plotted in Fig. 5.3 using a x of 20 cm.
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Example: Construct an histogram for the data on Table 5.1.
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Calculation the number of intervals
Using Matlab Codes
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5.1.2. The Gaussian or Normal Error Distribution

Suppose we have a set of experimental results and they have been subjected
to many random errors. The gaussian or normal error distribution is
designed to find the probability that a result (measurement) will lie within
a specific interval ( between x and x+dx )
In this expression xm is the mean reading and is the standard deviation.
P(x) is called as the probability density.
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If x = xm
It is seen from Eq. (5.4) that smaller values of the standard deviation
produce larger values of the maximum probability.

If we need to find the probability that the measured values are deviated
as dx from the mean value, (5.4) must be integrated as shown below:
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PROBABILITY FOR DEVIATION FROM MEAN VALUE
Example A: Calculate the probabilities that a measurement will fall
within one, two, and three standard deviations of the mean value and
compare them with the values in Table 5.3
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5.1.3 Rejection of Data (Chauvenets Criterion)

There exist a number of methods to eliminate values that have low
probability. The most common method is Chauvenet Criterion.
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Calculate mean value (xm)
Calculate di=|xi-xm|
Find di/s
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5.1.3 Rejection of Data (Chauvenets Criterion)

There exist a number of methods to eliminate values that have low
probability. The most common method is Chauvenet Criterion.
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5.1.4 Confidence Interval and Level of Significance

The confidence interval expresses the probability that the mean value will
lie within a certain number of values and is given by the symbol z.
where D is the standart deviation of the mean values, s is the standart
deviation of the measurement group , z is the confidence linterval and n is the

numbers of measurements.
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5.1.3 Probability Graph Paper
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5.1.5 The Chi-Square Test

This test allows us to find the distributions of the random errors.
Calculations have been made of the probability that the actual
measurements match the expected distribution, and these probabilities are

given in Table 5.5. In this table F represents the number of degrees of
freedom in the measurements and is given by F = n k (5.9)
where n is the number of cells and k is the number of imposed conditions
on the expected distribution.
( n : gzlem eidi (grubu)
k: beklenen dalm etkileyen koullarn says)
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If 0.1 < P<0.9 gaussian (normal distribution)

If P<0.02 , P>0.98, it doesnt match to the normal distribution
Example: A coin is tossed 20 times, resulting in 6 heads and 14 tails.

Using the chi-square test, estimate the probability distribution of the coin.
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5.1.6 Method of Least Squares

a) The Systems Have One Variable
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a) The Systems Have Two Variables

Suppose that the two variables x and y are measured over a range of
values. We wish to obtain a simple analytical expression for y as a function of
x.
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5.1.7 The Correlation Coeffient

It is explained that how a suitable correlation graphic can be obtianed
between x and y in the previous chapter, using least-squares analysis or

graphical curve fitting. Now, we want to know how good this fit with the
experimental results. The parameter which conveys this information is the
correlation coefficient r defined by
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Example: Calculate the correlation coefficient for the preivous example.

From previous example
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5.1.8 Standart Deviation of the Mean

We have taken the arithmetic mean value as the best estimate of the true
value of a set of experimental measurements. But one very important

question has not yet been answered: How good (or precise) is this arithmetic
mean value which is taken as the best estimate of the true value of a set of
readings? Statistical analysis gives us an equation to respond this question.
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Example:
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11.2
9.3
12.3
9.2
11.0
14.1
8.9
9.7
10.3
10.0
Standart Deviation s=1.61
xm = 10.6
Using related table for s, 2 s , 3 s
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6. Displacement and Area Measurements

Dimensional measurements perform the determinations of the
size of an object, while a displacement measurement realize the
measurement of the movement of a point from one position to
another.
6.1. Dimensional Measurements
Dimensional measurements are necessary in pyhsics, technique
and the laboratary experiments. The Direct Comparison
meausurement method is generally used in practice. The
primary errors in such measurement devices, other than
readability errors, are usually the result of thermal expansion or
contraction of the scale.
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Example:
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6.1.1. Vernier Caliper, Micrometer Caliper

Because the Rulers can be scaled to 0.5 mm at least, the more
accurate instruments are needed for more accurate
measurements sucs as Calipers and Micrometers.
a) Vernier Caliper
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Vernier is the most important part of the caliper. The scaling

of vernier determines the accuracy of this instrument. We have
to choose the caliper due the accuracy of measurements (1/10
caliper for 0.1 mm accuracy, 1/20 caliper for o.05 accuracy, 1/50
caliper for 0.02 accuracy and 1/100 caliper for 0.01 mm accuracy)
b) Micrometer Caliper
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6.1.2. Optical Methods

An optical method for measuring dimensions very accurately
is based on the principle of light interference. The instrument
based on this principle is called an interferometer and is used
for the calibration of meausurement devices and other
dimensional standards.
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Consider the two sets of light beams shown in Fig. 6.1. In

Fig. 6.1a the two beams are in phase so that the brightness at
point P is augmented when they intersect.
In Fig. 6.1b the beams are out of phase by half a wavelength so
that a cancellation is observed, and the light waves are said to
interfere with each other. This is the essence of the
interference principle.
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Now, let us apply the interference principle to dimensional
measurements. Consider the two parallel plates shown in Fig.

6.2. One plate is a transparent, glass accurately polished flat.
The other plate has a reflecting metal surface. The glass plate
is called an optical flat. Parallel light beams A and B are
projected on the plates from a suitable source. The separation
distance between the plates d is assumed to be quite small.
The reflected beam A intersects the incoming beam B at
point P. Since the reflected beam has traveled farther than
beam B by a distance of 2d, it will create an interference at
point P if this incremental distance is an odd multiple of /2.
If the distance 2d is an even multiple of /2, the reflected
beam will augment beam B. Thus, for 2d = /2, 3/2, etc., the
screen S will detect no reflected light.
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Michelson Interferometer
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For practical purposes the interferometer, as indicated
schematically in Fig. 6.3, is employed. Monochromatic light

from the source is collimated by the lens L onto the splitter
plate S2, which is a half-silvered mirror that reflects half of
the light toward the optically flat mirror M and allows
transmission of the other half toward the workpiece W. Both
beams are reflected back and recombined at the splitter plate
S2 and then transmitted to the screen.
Fringes may appear on the screen resulting from differences
in the optical path lengths of the two beams. If the
instrument is properly constructed, these differences will
arise from dimensional variations of the workpiece.
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6.1.3. Pneumatic Displacement Gage
Consider the system shown in Fig. 6.4. Air is supplied at a constant
pressure p1. The flow through the orifice and through the outlet of
diameter d2 is governed by the separation distance x between the outlet
and the workpiece. The change in flow with x will be indicated by a
change in the pressure downstream from the orifice P2. Thus, a
measurement of this pressure may be taken as an indication of the
separation distance x. For purposes of analysis we assume incompressible
flow.
136
6.1.4. The Planimeter for Area Measurement
137
Let the length of the tracing arm BT be L and the distance from
point B to the wheel be a. The diameter of the wheel is D. The
distance OB is taken as R. Now, suppose the arm BT is rotated
an angle d and the arm OB through an angle d as a result of
movement of the tracing point. The area swept out by the arms
BT and OB is
138
139
6.1.5 Graphical and Numerical Methods for Area Measurement
140

A very simple method of plane-area measurement is to place
the figure on coordinate paper and to count the number of

squares enclosed by the figure. An appropriate scale factor is
then applied to determine the area. Numerical integration is
commonly applied to determine the area under an irregular
curve. Perhaps the two most common methods are the
trapezoidal rule and Simpsons rule. Consider the area shown in
Fig. 6.6. The area under the curve is
141
142
143
6.1.5 Surface Areas
144
6.1.5 Surface Areas

Consider the general three-dimensional surface shown in Fig.
6.7. The surface is described by the function z = f(x, y)
If the function z is known and well behaved, the integral in Eq.
(1) may be evaluated directly. Let us consider the case where the
function is not given but specific values of z are known for
incremental changes in x and y.
145
6.1.5 Surface Areas

The increments in x and y are denoted by x and y, while the
value of z is denoted by , where the subscript n refers to the x
increments and the superscript p refers to the y increment. We
thus have the approximations
146
147
148

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Measurement and

2) lme Teknii-Osman Fevzi Genceli

1.1. Simple Definition and Brief Story

quantity comparing with a known quantity.

1.1. Brief Story of Measurement

measurement techniques and their instruments

1.1. Brief Story of Measurement

on these problems and they improved new

1.2. Basic Measurement System Design

about the physical value of some variable being

The first element in any measurement system is the

sensor: this gives an output of the measurand. Some

In many cases, the primary sensor and variable

conversion element are combined, this combination is

Suppose we want to measure the profile of a surface at a

nanometer scale using an atomic force microscobe. If this

Consider the simple bourdon-tube pressure gage. This gage offers a

1.3. Measurement System Applications

classified into three major areas.

1.3. Measurement System Applications

temperature control system in which temperature Ta of a

1.4. Static Characteristics of the Instruments

Range: The minimum and maximum values of the

Precision is the property of an instrument is to give the same

Tolerance is a term that is closely related to accuracy and

Hysteresis: Different values in reading depend on the approaching to the

Dead-Space: It is the space which the instrument can not

Calibration is the operation to decrease the measurement errors

2.Dynamic Characteristics of Instruments

Comparing this to the general form for a second-order equation from

we can see that a2=m, a1=b1=c, a0=b0=k.

The stiffness of the spring, k, provides a restoring force

2.2.1. Zero-Order Systems

2.2.1. Zero-Order Systems

The static sensitivity is found from the static calibration of the

Eq. (2.3) can be written as

When we apply a step function input to a measurement

Let us apply a step function as an input to the general firstorder system.

Setting F(t)=AU(t) in Equation 2.4 gives

The solution of the differential equation, y(t), is the response

The rise time is the time required to achieve a

The general solution of (2.7) yields the measurement system

where the value for C depends on the initial conditions. The

We focus our attention on the second term, the steady

2.2.3 Second-Order Systems

Step Function Input

Step Function Input

Step Function Input

wrong to assume that the output of a measuring instrument or larger

assigning a value to a physical variable based on a sampling from the

result, and the uncertainty quantifies the quality of that result.

measurement systems and methods, designing a test plan, and reporting

3.1. Measurement Errors

We discuss uncertainty analysis for the following measurement situations: (1)

Design-stage uncertainty analysis refers to an analysis performed in the

The design-stage uncertainty, ud, for an instrument or measurement method is an

Final uncertanties are usually reported at a 95 % probability.

Identifying Error Sources