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THE TRIAL

Definition:
Mental representation that affirms or denies whether a property belongs to the object or not.

Proposition:
It is a relationship between terms, a term called subject is linked (affirmative or...
negatively) to a term called subject.

It is the materialization and expression of judgment through terms.

Categorical propositions:
Such assertions about classes that affirm or deny that one class is included in another are
total or partially.

Quality and Quantity:

Every categorical proposition has a quality and a quantity.

Affirmative: affirms the inclusion of classes.

Quality
Negative: denies the inclusion of classes.

Universal: refers to all the elements of the class

Quantity
Particular: refers to certain elements of the class

Relationship of containment or content:

Indicate whether the elements of the class of the term subject belong or not to the class of the term.
predicate. This inclusion can be total, partial, or null.

Distribution:
A term is distributed if it refers to all the elements of the class designated by that.
term. The term is distributed if it refers only to a part of the elements of the
class.

Structure of typical categorical propositions:

1. quantifier:
They indicate the quantity of the proposition. All, none, some.
2. Subject (S):
Object of thought.
3. Copula:
Connect the subject with the predicate. The copula must always be represented by the
verb 'To be' or one of its tenses.
4. Predicate (P):
Property that is affirmed or denied of the object.

Structure or logical form: Quantifier (subject) copula (predicate)

SCHEME OF TYPICAL CATEGORICAL PROPOSITIONS:

TYPE FORM AMOUNT QUALITY SYMBOLIZATION DIAGRAM

LOGIC

A All S is P Universal Affirmative Sd Ct Pi

E No S is P Universal Negative Sd Ct Pd

I Some S is P Particular Affirmative If Cp Pi

O Some S is not P Particular Negative If Cp Pd

Note:
Universal propositions (type A and E) distribute the subject and particular propositions.
(Type I and O) distribute the subject.

Affirmative propositions (types A and I) do not distribute the predicate and the propositions.
Negatives (type E and O) distribute the predicate.

Atypical Propositions:
They are incorrect propositions, as they do not possess a structure or logical form that contains.
the elements established by formal logic. Generally, these propositions make
the quantifier is missing (all, some, or none) or they do not have the correct copula (verb TO BE in
any of its times.

Examples:
Guatemala has high rates of violence and poverty.
Political parties are not transparent about electoral financing.
Most of the population in the country cannot read or write.
Almost all workers do not have a decent salary.

THE REASONING

Definition:
It is a set of statements or judgments related in such a way that it supposes that one of
The conclusion is obtained or inferred from the other called premises.

Form of reasoning:
All Guatemalans are Central Americans
Every Cobanero is Guatemalan
Deductive reasoning:
It is all reasoning in which it is required that the conclusion follows or necessarily derives from
the premises; assuming the truth of the premises, the conclusion must necessarily be true
by virtue of the form of reasoning.

Example:
All renewable resources are natural resources.
Every tree is a renewable resource
Every tree is a natural resource

Some cultures are violent

Every society has culture.
Some society is violent

Inductive reasoning:
It is the one in which, from a certain number of particular cases, it moves to the corresponding
generalization, extending the properties that are predicated in the premises with respect to certain
objects of a class, to all the objects belonging to that same class.

Example:
Paris is luxurious
Rome is luxurious
Prague is luxurious
All European capitals are luxurious.

Forms of inductive reasoning

1. Complete or perfect induction:

When all particular cases are included in the premises of an inductive reasoning
of the corresponding generalization.

Example:
Animals reproduce
Plants reproduce
Men reproduce
All living beings reproduce

Fundamentals is an important course in the first semester.

Research techniques, socioeconomic and law equal
All first semester courses are important.

Incomplete or imperfect induction:

When only some cases are included in the premises of an inductive reasoning.
particulars of the corresponding generalization.

Example:
It was hot on Monday.
Tuesday also
Wednesday as well
It was hot all week

The train is fast

The airplane is fast
DEDUCTIVE REASONING: THE CATEGORICAL SYLLOGISM
Deductive reasoning: validity or invalidity:
Due to the correctness or not of the logical form of a reasoning, it can be: valid or invalid.
the validity of a deductive reasoning does not depend on whether the component propositions
they are true, since it can be correct and contain one or several false statements. The
its validity depends on its structure or form.

Its structure is correct only when it ensures that it will never be possible to build a
reasoning such that true premises lead to a false conclusion.

The categorical syllogism in typical form:

It is a special type of deductive reasoning that has two premises and a conclusion, the
What are categorical propositions, therefore, is an immediate inference.

The terms of the syllogism:

A categorical syllogism consists of three terms or class names, each of which appears
in two propositions of the syllogism.

Major term (P): it is the predicate term of the conclusion

Minor term (S): it is the subject term of the conclusion.
Middle term (M): it is the term that does not appear in the conclusion but does appear in both premises.

Example:
Every man is faithful Every man is free
Every faithful one is mortal Some just man is a man
Every mortal is a man Some righteous person is free

Order of the premises:

The premise that contains the major term is called the major premise and is stated first, the premise
the term containing the minor is called the minor premise and is stated afterwards. To identify the
in conclusion, the words are used: therefore, thus, consequently, then, so
or three points in the shape of a triangle.

Example:
Some artist is an athlete.
No scientist is an artist.
Therefore, some athlete is not a scientist.

Figure and mode of a syllogism

Figure:
This designates the position that the middle term occupies in the premises. There are 4 figures.

1st. 2nd. 3rd. 4th.

MP PM MP PM
SM SM MS MS
SP SP SP SP

Mode:
It is determined by the type of categorical propositions that make up the syllogism, that is,
any of the four types: A, E, I, O.

Example of syllogism
Some insect is poisonous. MP
No insect is a man MS
No man is poisonous SP

MODE: IEE FIGURE: 3rd. LOGICAL FORM: IEE3

SCHEME WITH SYMBOLIZATION: Some My Cp Pi
No Md Ct Sd
No Sd Ct Pd

THE RULES OF SYLLOGISM

1. Every syllogism consists of three terms: major, minor, and middle.

Example:
All furniture is made of wood
Some chair is made of wood
Some table is furniture

The middle term should not appear in the conclusion.

Example:
All mammals are vertebrates.
Every dog is a mammal
Every mammalian dog is vertebrate

The mean term must be distributed or taken in its entirety at least once.

Example:
Every animal is a living being. All Pd CtMi
Some living being is mortal SomeMyCp Yes
Some mortal is an animal Some If Cp Pi

4. No term can be distributed in the conclusion if it is not so in the respective premise.

Example:
Some artists are scientists Some My Cp Pi
Some artists are men Some My CpSi
All men are scientists TodoSdCt Pi

5.From two negative premises, a valid conclusion cannot be drawn.

Example:
Some natural phenomenon is not real MODE: OEI
No storm is a natural phenomenon.
Some storm is real

From two particular premises, a valid conclusion cannot be drawn.

Example:
Some athletes are baseball players MODE: IIA
Some athletes are men
8. The conclusion follows the weakest part: the negative is weak compared to the affirmative, the particular.
is weak in relation to the universal.

Example:
Every producer is wealthy MODE: AIA
Some landowner is a producer
Every landowner is wealthy.

EXAMPLE OF VALID SYLLOGISM

Every morning is a newspaper. MP

Prensa Libre is a morning newspaper. SM
Free press is a newspaper SP

MODE: AAA FIGURE: 1st. EST. LOGIC: AAA1

SCHEME WITH SYMBOLIZATION: All Md Ct Pi
All Sd Ct Mi
All Sd Ct Pi

EXAMPLE OF INVALID SYLLOGISM

Every car is a sports car PM

No motorcycle is sporty. SM
Some motorcycle is a car SP

MODE: AEI FIGURE: 2nd. EST. LOGIC: AEI2

SCHEME WITH SYMBOLIZATION: All Pd Ct My
No Sd Ct Md
Some Yes Cp Pi
Infringe rule 8