Logic 8-9 Weeks (Summary)

Judgment

Propositions and Non-Propositions

Propositions – are those things which can be true or false

 It is a claim of how things are
 It represents the world as being in some way
 Not all propositions declare the truth
 Ex: Snow is green.
The earth is a flat circle.
Women are flirts.

Non-Propositions – are those things which cannot be said to be true or false

 Cannot be said that the world is or is not the way a non-proposition
represents it to be
 It may be questions, commands, exclamations, expressions, etc.
 Ex: Ouch!
Stop it!
Hello!
Open the door!
Where are we?
Is the door open?

The Supposition of Terms

- This refers to the exact meaning it has in relation to the other words in a given
sentence
- Each word or term used has its own definition but when used together in a
statement or proposition expresses a thought or meaning called the Supposition.

Supposition and Definition

- Are matters connected with terms

1. Supposition – property of terms used in a proposition

o It may be functional or the way it is meant in the proposition
o The terms are now used together and not individually
 Does not signify the word outside of the proposition
 May represent many different things

Kinds of Supposition
a. Material supposition
b. Formal supposition
2. Definition – defining the term itself is usually verbal
o Expressing the meaning of a word or term
o To define means “to enclose within limits”

5 Uses of Definition by I.Copi

1. To increase one’s vocabulary (ex. As a psychological motive- achievement)

2. To eliminate ambiguity (ex. The loosely defined term “personality”)
3. To clarify meaning (ex. Using a dictionary)
4. To explain theoretically (ex. Theory of Evolution)
5. To influence attitudes (ex. advertisements)

Kinds of Definition

a. Nominal/ Etymological Definition

b. Real Definition

5 Types of Definition by I.Copi

1. Stipulative definition – mostly nominal; codes of scientific formulas

2. Lexical definition – may be true or false depending on the usage of the term
3. Précising definition – gives clear-cut definitions on vague/ambiguous terms
4. Theoretical definition – philosophical and scientific theories
5. Persuasive definition – intended to influence attitudes

2 Kinds of Meaning by I.Copi

1. Denotative – classification / genus (ex: circle – a geometric figure)

2. Connotative – descriptive (ex: circle – a round or cylindrical figure)

Judgment and Proposition/ Logical Statement

1. Judgment – a mental act which affirms or denies something

o Its product is called a proposition
o A proposition is a sentence which affirms or denies something
o It perfects the subjects and attributes perceived through simple
apprehension

Judgments may be classified according to:

a. A Priori – a kind of judgment where the agreement or disagreement of the ideas
compared is necessary, analytical, pure, metaphysical or absolute (truth-bearing)
 Ex: God is Infinite.

b. A Posteriori – a kind of judgement where the agreement or disagreement of the

ideas compared is not necessary, contingent, synthetical, empirical, physical or
hypothetical
 Ex: Magellan discovered the Philippines.

2. Proposition – Judgments are applied in the realization or formulation of

propositions
 Are those things which can be true or false
 Claims about how things are
 Represents the world as being in some way
 Need not always be truth-bearing
 May or may not always be drawn with certainty

Non-Propositions – they are not claims about how things are; are neither true
nor false

Propositions Non-Propositions
I am hungry. Psst!
Oranges are orange. Why not?
Keep me in your heart. Hey you.
Happy birthday to you. My oh my…
Love and Light to you. Awww…

The Material Structure of a Proposition (S-C-P)

1. The Subject – the thing under consideration

2. The Copula – act of affirmation or negation (ex: present tense linking verb
“is” or “is not”)
3. The Predicate – what is affirmed or denied of a subject

Ex: She is the class president (S-C-P)

4 Basic Sentences

1. Interrogative – formulates a question

2. Exclamative – manifests a personal reaction
3. Imperative – articulates a command or request
4. Declarative – Informs or Instructs (the only logical proposition)
Kinds of Propositions

1. Categorical – expresses a positive or negative judgment in an absolute

manner without any conditionality
o Is a direct declaration of a fact which can be verified as true or false by
reference to objective reality
o An absolute declaration

Examples of Categorical Propositions:

a. Some sharks live in fresh water.

b. No crime is justifiable.
c. Every good action is meritorious.

2. Hypothetical – expresses a judgment which is qualified by a certain

conditionality
o Expresses uncertainty, doubt or conditionality (uses conjunctions such as
“either…or”, “neither…nor”, “if”, etc.)

Examples of hypothetical Propositions:

a. If it is a car, it has a motor.

b. If he is a criminal, he deserves to be punished.
c. A sentence is either true or false

Note: Categorical and Hypothetical Propositions may be:

 Singular, particular, or universal
 Affirmative or negative
 Simple or compound
 True or false

The 4 Categoricals

- The categorical proposition is the basic unit of an argument.

1. Universal Affirmative – The “A” Proposition

2. Universal Negative – The “E” Proposition
3. Particular Affirmative – The “I” Proposition
4. Particular Negative – The “O” Proposition
Examples of:

1. The “A” Proposition

a. All children should respect their parents.

b. Every right is limited.
c. An 18-year-old person is of legal age.

2. The “E” Proposition

a. No man is perfect.
b. No dog is rational.
c. No cheating is allowed.

3. The “I” Proposition

a. Some graduates will be employed.

b. Few students made it to the dean’s list.
c. Some men are courageous.

4. The “O” Proposition

a. Some politicians are corrupt.

b. The parents are unhappy with the tuition fee increase.
c. Not all women are mothers.
The Oppositions in Logic

1. The “A-E” Proposition is called “Contrary”

Ex: All humans are rational, no humans are rational

2. The “I-O” Proposition is called “Subcontrary”

Ex: Some humans are rational, some humans are not rational

3. The “A-O” and “E-I” Propositions are called “Contradictory”

Ex: All humans are rational, some humans are not rational

No humans are rational, some humans are rational

4. The “A-I” and “E-O” Propositions are called “Subaltern”

Ex: All humans are rational, some humans are rational

No humans are rational, some humans are not rational

The Logical Diagram of Propositions by Leonhard Euler (Swiss Mathematician)

- Used to illustrate the relationship between the subject and the predicate

Full Circle – universal extension/s

Partial Circle – Particular extension/s
Circle with Broken Lines – singular extension/s
Examples of the Logical Diagram

1. Diagram of the “A” Proposition

“All men are rational.”

Rational

Man

2. Diagram of the “E” Proposition

“No man is a horse”.

Man Horse

3. Diagram of the “I” Proposition

“Some men are noble”.

The shaded part here is between man and noble

man noble

4. Diagram of the “O” Proposition

“ Some men are not honest”.

The shaded part here is the circle with the term “man”

Man honest
5. Diagram of the “A” Proposition with a Singular Subject

“Jose Rizal is our national hero.”

National hero

J.Rizal

The Syllogism

- The verbal expression of a deductive reasoning or inference

- Comparing 2 concepts with a common 3rd concept for the purpose of establishing
their agreement or disagreement with each other
- Syllogisms must be truthful, valid and correct

The 3 Terms used in the Propositions of a Syllogism:

1. The Minor Term/ Premise 1 – Subject of the conclusion

2. The Major Term/ Premise 2 – Predicate of the conclusion
3. The Conclusion

Rules in Constructing a Syllogism

1. There must only be 3 terms.

2. The conclusion must not have a greater extension than its premises
3. The middle term (P2) must not appear in the conclusion.
4. The middle term must be universal at least once.
5. 2 affirmative premises must yield an affirmative conclusion
6. 2 negative premises yield NO conclusion
7. 2 particular premises yield NO conclusion
8. When 1 premise is negative, the conclusion must be negative
9. When 1 premise is particular, the conclusion must be particular

All friends are sincere and loyal;

But Emily is a friend;
Therefore Emily is sincere and loyal.
All writers are artists;
But all poets are artists;
Therefore all poets are writers.

All animals are sentient;

But cats are animals;
Therefore cats are sentient.

Either Lena is sick with measles or chicken pox;

But she is sick with measles;
Therefore she is not sick with chicken pox.

You are either generous or are selfish;

But you are generous;
Therefore you are not selfish.
Birds have wings;
The Kalaw is a bird;
Therefore the Kalaw has wings.

Smoking may lead to lung cancer;

Mario is a smoker;
Mario might get lung cancer.

Analysing missing terms in a Syllogism:

1. Look for the conclusion and identify the major and minor terms
2. Look for the premise containing the major term (major premise)
3. Look for the premise containing the minor term (minor premise)
4. Use your common sense

Examples:

No _____ is ambulant,
But every Acacia Is a tree
Therefore every Acacia is ambulant

Ans: tree

Every square is a plane with 4 sides

But every triangle is a _____
Therefore, every triangle is a plane with 4 sides

Ans: square
Every _____ is a thinker
But every person is an _____
Therefore, every person is a thinker

Ans: individual