NICOLE C.

MAPILI
NICOLE C. MAPILI

CHAPTER 3: JUDGEMENT 1. Matter is the sense or meaning or the

substance of a proposition. It is what the
proposition is all about or what the
Judgment proposition states. This is expressed in
the subject and the predicate.
Second act of the intellect by which it
pronounces the agreement or disagreement 2. Form is the structure of the
between terms or ideas. proposition whether it states an
affirmation or negation of the relation
The intellect in making a judgment between the subject and the predicate,
or assertion therefore either this is expressed by the copula.
affirms or denies the relation of at
least two concepts. Subject the term designating the idea
(thing) about which something is affirmed
Ideas or concepts, in themselves are neither or denied
true or false.

Truth becomes a logical issue when the Predicate the term designating the idea
intellect relates, compares, and (thing or attribute) which is affirmed or
pronounces whether two ideas or denied of the subject.
concepts agree or disagree with each
other. Copula the term expressing the mental
act which pronounces the agreement or
The term student and the term wise are disagreement between the subject and
by themselves cannot be considered true or the predicate.
false
Quantifier expresses the application or
But when the intellect creates a judgment or extension of the proposition.
relates these two terms (e.g. That student is
wise.), the possibility of truth or falsity Examples:
arises. Every streetlight is working.
(Quantifier) (subject) (copula) predicate
Proposition

The Judgment expressed in a sentence or a

sentence pronouncing the agreement orAlmost all pastries are baked.
disagreement between terms. (Quantifier) (subject) (coplula) (predicate)

A proposition always has a truth value: it The Logical Form of the Proposition
can be may be true or false but it cannot
be both true or false.
The logical form of the categorical
All propositions are sentences but not all proposition follows this pattern:
sentences are propositions. Subject Copula Predicate.

e.g. Please keep our Generally in its logical form, the proposition is
environment clean. it is a always in the present tense and uses as a
sentence but not necessarily a copula the present tense, indicative mood of
proposition. the verb to be.

Types of Proposition Original Form

1. Categorical Proposition a categorical

proposition expresses a direct judgment 1. My large backpack
or a direct assertion of the agreement or
2. Our venerable master
disagreement of two terms in the
Absolute Properties of Categorical
absolute manner.
Propositions
2. Hypothetical Proposition a hypothetical
proposition does not express a direct A.Quality
judgment, rather a relation between two
judgments, in which the truth of one 1.Affirmative proposition who
depends on the other. predicate is always affirmed of its
subject according to the whole
of its comprehension and part of its
Categorical Proposition extension.
Two elements of a categorical proposition The predicate of an affirmative
proposition is always particular
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except if the predicate of the There are four types of opposition:

proposition is a definition of the contradiction, contrariety, sub-contrariety,
subject. In such cases, the and sub-alternation.
predicate applies only to one
individual (the subject) and
therefore has a universal extension. Contradiction
Contradiction is the opposition existing
2. Negative A negative proposition is one whose predicate between is two propositions having the
always denied of its subject according to a partsame of subject,
its the same predicate, but
comprehension and the whole of its extension. different quality and quantity.
e.g. Some light bulbs are not incandescent bulbs.
Opposition between A (all is) and O (some
All architects are not good in physics.
is not).
Opposition between E (all is not) and I
(some is)
The Four Vowel Letters Contradictory propositions cannot be true
at the same time or false at the same
A Universal Affirmative time. If one is true the other is false, if one
E Universal Negative
I Particular Affirmative is false the other is true.
O Particular Negative Contradiction is the highest opposition
since there is no middle ground.
The letters A E I O are taken from the first two vowel letters of
the Latin words affirmo and nego
Contradiction (examples)
Pattern or Form of the Categorical Proposition All things that are sterilized are clean. If TRUE
S Subject Some things that are sterilized are not clean. is
P Predicate Necessarily False
+ (plus sign) -affirmative Some phones are made in China. If TRUE
-(negative sign) negative All phones are not made in China. Necessarily
u Universal False
p Particular The idea here is that in contradiction if one is
Example: true then the other statement is necessarily false
All wines are alcoholic beverages. Su + Pp and vice-versa.
Some alcoholic beverages are wines. Sp+
Pp Contrariety
Contrariety is the opposition existing between
General Pattern of Vowel Letters two propositions having the same subject and
A Su + Ppor Su + Pu predicate, the same universal extension, but
E Su Pu different quality.
I Sp+ Pp It is the opposition between universals A (All is)
O Sp-Pu and E (all is not).
Contrary propositions cannot be both true but
Exercises on General Pattern of Vowel Letters may be both false.
1) Some commercial planes are made by If one is true, the other is false. If one is false the
Boeing. other may be true or false, meaning, doubtful or
2) Some Thomasians are not Filipino citizens. undetermined.
3) Michael is a certified public accountant.
4) UST is the Pontifical, Royal, Catholic Contrariety (examples)
University of the Philippines. Ex. All chairs are made of wood.
5) All human beings are made in the image of All chairs are not made of wood.
God. All laptops are portable.
6) All professors are required to have All laptops are not portable.
masteral degrees. Every minute is composed of sixty
7) All glass wares are not very durable. seconds.
Every minute is not composed of sixty
Logical Opposition seconds.
Opposition is the relation existing
between propositions having the same
subject and predicate but different quality
or quantity or both.
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* If I is true, E is false* If I is
Sub-Contrariety false, E is true
Sub-contrariety is the opposition existing
2. Law of Contrariety
between two propositions having the same States that two contrary
subject and predicate, the same particular propositions cannot be both
extension, but different quality. true but they may be both false
It is the opposition between the two at the same time.
particulars: I (some is) and O (some is not) If A is true, E is false
If E is true, A is false
Sub-contrariety propositions cannot be If A is false, E is doubtful
both false, but may be both true. * If E is false, A is doubtful
If one is false the other one is true and if 3. Law of Sub-Contrariety
one is true the other may be true or false, States that two contrary
meaning doubtful or undetermined. propositions can not be both
false but they maybe both true
at the same time.
Sub-Contrariety (examples) If I is false, O is true
Ex. Some shoes are made by Nike. TRUE If O is false, I is true
Some shoes are not made by Nike. TRUE If I is true, O is doubtful
or Doubtful * If O is true, I is doubtful
Some trains are running on electricity.
TRUE
4. Law of Sub-Alternation
Some trains are not running on electricity. a) States that the truth of the universal
TRUE or doubtful carries or implies the truth of the
particular but not vice versa.
Sub-Altern If A is true, I is true
If E is true, O is true
If I is true, A is doubtful
Sub-alternation is the opposition existing * If O is true, E is doubtful
between propositions having the same b) States that the falsity of the
subject and predicate, the same quality but particular carries or implies the falsity
different extension or quantity. of the universal but not vice versa.
It is the opposition between A and I; E and O If I is false, A is false
From the truth of the universal, follows the If O is false, E is false
If A is false, I is doubtful
truth of the particular, but from the truth of * If E is false, O is doubtful
the particular, the truth of the universal does
not follow. Immediate Inferences
Sub-altern(cont.) Eduction: Valid changes in a
From the falsity of the particular, follows the proposition
1. Conversion
falsity of the universal. But from the falsity
2. Obversion
of the universal, the falsity of the particular
does not follow. To better facilitate eduction, it is
Even the falsity of one or a few can disprove helpful to bracket (excluding even the
the universality of the universal. quantifier) the subject and predicate of
While the falsity of the universal does not the proposition. In other words, it
necessitates you to, first and foremost,
necessarily follow that it is only applicable to locate the subject and predicate of the
some. But it is possible either that it is proposition. It is not necessary that the
applicable to some (therefore the particular subject and predicate be a single word.
is true) or none at all (therefore the It can be considered as a subject or
particular is false). predicate so long as it presents a single
unified idea expressed as term.
Laws of Opposition Ex. S is P = [S] is [P]
1. Law of Contradiction
Two contradictory propositions CONVERSION
cannot be both true and both Just interchange the position of
false at the same time. the subject and predicate of the
If A is true, O is false* If A is proposition
false, O is true A: All [S] is [P] Some [P] are [S]
If O is true, A is false* If O is (I)
false, A is true Reason: You will see in the
If E is true, I is false* If E is false, Eulers circle that to convert A
I is true to A is erroneous for it will
change the distribution of
NICOLE C. MAPILI

terms. If one changes the declarative form thus, whether linking

distribution of terms, one is verb or not, it should be considered.
already talking beyond the Given that it is not in the S is P form,
bounds of what was given. In the following should be done:
logic, we can only argue within
the bounds of what is given. Ex: X grows Y = [X] is [that whichgrows
All conversions of A Y].
propositions are I propositions X is large = [X] is [that which islarge].
Before a verb: that which
Note: Through this, we can see that Before an adjective: that which is
change in the distribution of terms can
only be appreciated when it is a change In other words, one should bring out
from a universal quantity towards a the copula is, are, are not, is not.
particular quantity; particular to REDUCE THE PROPOSITION TO
universal movement is erroneous. For LOGICAL FORM OF ONE OF THE FOUR
obvious reasons, when we speak of a TYPES (FORMS) OF PROPOSITIONS
universal term, we are already speaking
of all references included in it. Whilst
when we speak of particular, we can
never ascertain the applicability of it to
a general or universal term.

O: No Conversion for O propositions THE SQUARE OF OPPOSITION

Ex. Some mortals are not men Some
men are not mortals [Note:
Distribution]

Note further: (E) and (I) propositions

are easily converted for it does not
affect the reference or distribution of
terms as depicted very well in the
Eulers circle.

VALID CONVERSIONS
E E
A I
I I
E O

OBVERSION
Negate the copula; negate the
predicate
Basis: Double negation results
to a positive result (same result,
in other words)

A: All [S] is [P] All S is not non-P (E) /

No S is non-P (E)
E: No S is P No S is not non-P (A) / All S
is non-P (A)
I: Some S are P Some S are not non-P
(O) / Not all S are non-P (O)
O: Not all S are P Not all S are not non-
P (I) / Some S are non-P (I)

Therefore, valid obversions are E;

EA; IO; OI

POINT OF GREAT CONSIDERATION

Given all of this, it is but necessary

therefore that we reduce all
propositions to S is P form to
facilitate better Eduction. What is
required only from the form of
propositions is that it should be in
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NICOLE C. MAPILI
NICOLE C. MAPILI