Arguments and Logical Fallacies
What is an argument?
An argument is a claim or stand on something.
Composed of 2 premises and a conclusion
Premise- Reasons, evidence, or supplements to support the argument
Conclusion- The main claim
Syllogism -formal structure of an argument ( major premise, minor premise, conclusion)
Three types of syllogism
● Categorical -
Categorical Proposition- a statement of fact formulated in a declarative sentence (Major
premise). Follows the subject- linking verb (copula)-predicate format.
Ex. De La Salle University is a good school.
ALl men are mortal, A
Socrates is a man, A
Therefore, Sorates is mortal. A
Four kinds of Categorical Proposition
○ Universal affirmative proposition - All subject is predicate (indicated by quantifiers
such as all, every, each and everyone; singular terms are taken universally)
■ Symbol = A
● All students are ID holders / De La Salle University is a good
School.
○ Universal negative proposition - No subject is predicate / all Subjects are not
predicate.
■ Symbol = E
● No Catholic priest is female.
○ Particular affirmative proposition- some subjects are predicate (indefiniteness of
number)
■ Symbol = I
● Some students were in the mall yesterday / some teachers are
strict.
○ Particular negative propostion - Not all subjects are predicate / some subjects are
not predicate.
■ Symbol = O
● Some students are not diligent.
● Conditional / Hypothetical
“If, then”
If - Antecedent
Then - Consequent
p⊂q
p
/∴ q
● Disjunctive
“Either, or”
p or q
~p
/∴ q
Major term “P” - predicate of the conclusion and is found in the major premise.
Minor term “S” - subject of the conclusion and is found in the minor premise.
Middle term “M” - found in both premises but not in the conclusion
Quantity- universal “u”, particular “p”
Quality - affirmative “+”, negative “-”
Predicate terms - affirmative proposition are always particular, negative proposition are
always universal
Rules of Categorical Syllogism
There must only be three terms in the syllogism: the major, the minor and middle terms,
each of which must be used univoqually (only one meaning).
Four term fallacy
Neither the Major nor the minor term may be universal in the conclusion if it was
particular in the premises.
The middle term does not appear in the conclusion, acts as a connecting term.
The middle term must be universal in at least 1 of the premises
If both premises are affirmative, then the conclusion must be affirmative
Both premises cannot be both negative, one must be affirmative.
If one of the premises is negative, the conclusion must be negative. If one of the
premises is a particular proposition, then the conclusion must be particular.
No conclusion can be drawn from two particular premises; at least one must be a
universal proposition.
