GEN BIO .ᐟ.

ᐟ
Summative Test Reviewer

Week 1: CELL THEORY,

STRUCTURE, & FUNCTION

⟢ Cell Theory

༄.° Postulates:
-​ Cell is the basic unit of life.
-​ All living organisms are composed
of cells.
-​ All cells come from pre-existing
cells. (Omnis cellula e cellula)

༄.° History:

- Robert Hooke: named “cells” (dead cork)

- Anton van Leeuwenhoek: observed
“animalcules” (live cells) ➔​ Outer covering that separates the
- Schleiden & Schwann: plants & animals cell’s interior from its surrounding
= cellular environment
- Virchow: cells come from pre-existing ➔​ Encloses and safeguards its
ones organelles from possible harm that
foreign materials can inflict on
⋆ Importance: Forms the foundation of them.
modern biology and medicine. ➔​ Controls the exchange of essential
components and obtains chemical
⋆ Levels of Biological Organization messages from other cells.
(smallest to largest):
1. Phospholipids
Cell → Tissue → Organ → Organ System -​ Lipid made of glycerol, two fatty
→ Organism → Population → Community acid tails, and a phosphate-linked
→ Ecosystem → Biosphere head group.
-​ Biological membranes usually
⟢ Cell Structures & Functions involve two layers of
phospholipids with their tails
Plasma Membrane/FLUID MOSAIC pointing inward, an arrangement
MODEL called a phospholipid bilayer.
➔​ Phospholipids, cholesterol, and
proteins—that move freely and
fluidly in the plane of the
membrane.
➔​ Composed primarily of water,
proteins and salts
➔​ The organelles are suspended in a
gel-like solution called cytosol,
which is composed of both organic
and inorganic compounds.
(accounts for about 70% of cellular
content. It contains a rich supply of
macromolecules and smaller
organic molecules.)
➔​ Contains enzymes that break down
waste and enable metabolic
reactions.
➔​ Allows for cellular expansion and
growth.
➔​ Together with the cytoskeleton, the
cytoplasm determines cell shape
2. Cholesterol and accommodates movement for
-​ another lipid composed of four some cell types.
fused carbon rings, is found ➔​ The most vital part of the cell and
alongside phospholipids in the core dubbed as the “control center”
of the membrane.

3. Proteins
-​ move large molecules or aid in cell
recognition
-​ Peripheral proteins: attached on
the surface (inner or outer)
-​ Integral proteins: embedded
completely through the membrane

Cytoplasm

Nucleus

➔​ directs all of the cell’s activities

and determines how a cell should
appear and function.
➔​ double layer of nuclear membrane
encloses the nucleus to keep it
distinct from other cellular
components.
➔​ Entire region of a cell between ➔​ holds chromosomes which carry
plasma membrane and nuclear tightly wrapped and coined DNA
envelope.
b.​ Lysosomes
c.​ Ribosomes
d.​ Peroxisomes
e.​ Vacuoles
f.​ Centrosomes
g.​ Golgi Apparatus

➔​ Nucleolus serves as the site of

ribosomes synthesis.

The cell organelles: endomembrane

system

1.​ Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

⤷ is a series of interconnected
membranous sacs and tubules that
collectively modify proteins and
synthesize lipids.
⤷ hollow portion of ER tubules is
called lumen or cisternal space.
⤷ the membrane of the ER, which
is a phospholipid bilayer embedded
with proteins , is continuous with
nuclear envelope.

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

➔​ A group of membranes and ⤷ has ribosomes on its surface.
organelles in eukaryotic cells that ⤷ makes membrane proteins and
works together to modify, package, proteins for export out of cell.
and transport lipids and proteins. ⤷ makes membrane proteins and
➔​ Made up of organelles that are proteins for export out of cell
communally linked by structure ⤷ proteins are made by ribosomes
specific to each of them. on ER surface, which are then
a.​ Endoplasmic Reticulum threaded into the interior of the
Rough ER to be modified and
transported.

Smooth endoplasmic reticulum

⤷ incorporates proteins into
cisternae and transports
synthesized proteins across the
cytoplasm, thereby allowing the
synthesis of fatty acids and
phospholipids.
⤷ abundant in liver cell, where it
detoxifies hydrophobic chemicals.
This makes them water-soluble for
excretion.

2.​ Ribosomes

⤷ are involved in providing a

frame for proteins synthesis; hence
they are site of protein production.
⤷ present in both prokaryotic and ⤷ fluid –filled vesicles enclosed
eukaryotic cells. by a membrane.
⤷ developing muscle cells, skin, ⤷ has a selectively membrane
and hair cells contain large freely allowing water passage but
numbers of free ribosomes. retaining smaller molecules
⤷ Digestion of bacteria within it and stores chemicals
within the cell.
Free-ribosomes ⤷ its ability to break down large
⤷ synthesize proteins mostly for molecules makes it comparable
use within the cell. with lysosomes in animal cells.
Bound-ribosomes Likewise, both organelles thrive in
⤷ synthesize proteins for export acidic environment
(secretion) from the cell or for use
in lysosomes 4.​ Lysosome
3.​ Vacuoles
⤷ a small, round organelles
enclosed by single membrane,
somehow resembles that of a
lysosomes.
⤷ responsible for self-damage and
mostly disintegrate proteins,
accommodate the breakdown of
fatty acids and detoxify many
poisons that enter the body.
⤷ shields the cell from serious
damage caused reactive oxygen
⤷ the cell’s reprocessing area, species (ROS) molecules
where it hacks chemical bonds of
any foreign substance it comes 6.​ Golgi Apparatus
contact with, in order to recycle
with the raw material
⤷ the cell’s reprocessing area,
where it hacks chemical bonds of
any foreign substance it comes
contact with, in order to recycle
with the raw material.
⤷ “suicide bags”
⤷ capable of self-destruction in
order to save the rest of the other
organelles from being poisoned
(autophagy).
⤷ take in food by phagocytosis.
⤷ digest the food & get rid of
wastes.
⤷ Example: macrophages

5.​ Peroxisomes

⤷ Stacks of flattened sacs

⤷ Have a shipping side (cis face)
& a receiving side (trans face)
⤷ Receive proteins made by ER
⤷ Transport vesicles with modified
proteins pinch off the ends

7.​ Centrosomes
⤷ comprised of two centrioles or
cylindrical structures with a central
cavity surrounded by microtubules
arranged side by side.
⤷ take part in the assembly of
spindle fibers at cell division and
contribute to the successful ⤷ oval-shaped organelles found in
outcome of mitosis. most eukaryotic cells.
⤷ found in all eukaryotic cells, ⤷ most plentiful in cells that
assist in arranging microtubules require significant amounts of
(hollow tubes of proteins) to be energy to function, such as liver
utilized for cell division. and muscle cells.
⤷ found in all eukaryotic cells, ⤷ ‘powerhouses’ of the cell.
assist in arranging microtubules ⤷most plentiful in cells that require
(hollow tubes of proteins) to be significant amounts of energy to
utilized for cell division. function, such as liver and muscle
⤷ cellular shape is maintain and cells.
the cell structure is stabilized. ⤷ has two membranes that are
similar in composition to the cell
membrane:
Outer membrane
⤷ selectively permeable
membrane that surrounds
the mitochondria.
⤷ the site of attachment for
the respiratory assembly of
the electron transport chain
and ATP Synthase.
⤷has integral proteins and
pores for transporting
molecules just like the cell
membrane
Inner membrane
8.​ Mitochondria ⤷ contains ribosomes and
the DNA of the
⤷ The sites of cellular respiration, mitochondria. The inner
the metabolic process that uses membrane creates two
oxygen to drive the generation of enclosed spaces within the
ATP by extracting energy from mitochondria:
intermembrane space
between the outer
membrane and the inner
membrane; and matrix that
is enclosed within the inner
membrane.

ADENOSINE TRIPHOSPHATE
(ATP)
⤷ major energy currency of the cell
⤷ provides the energy for most of
the energy-consuming activities of
the cell.
⤷ Mechanism: When the third
sugars, fats, and other fuels. phosphate group of ATP is
removed by hydrolysis, a
substantial amount of free energy is Inner Membrane
released. ⤷ forms a border to the stroma.
⤷ regulates passage of materials in
9.​ Chloroplast and out of the chloroplast. In
addition to the regulation activity,
fatty acids, and are synthesized in
the inner chloroplast membrane.
⤷ an alkaline, aqueous fluid that is
protein-rich and is present within
the inner membrane of the
chloroplast.
⤷ the space outside the thylakoid
space
⤷ the chloroplast DNA, chloroplast
ribosomes, thylakoid system, starch
granules, and other proteins are
found floating around the stroma.
Thykaloid System
⤷ suspended in the stroma.
⤷ a collection of membranous
sacks called thylakoids.
⤷ found in plants and algae, are the ⤷ small sacks that are
sites of photosynthesis. interconnected.
-​ converts solar energy to ⤷ arranged in stacks known as
chemical energy by grana, where each granum
absorbing sunlight and contains around 10- 20 thylakoids.
using it to drive the membranes of these thylakoids are
synthesis of organic the sites for the light reactions of
compounds such as sugars the photosynthesis to take place.
from carbon dioxide and ⤷ chlorophyll is found in the
water. thylakoids
⤷ double membrane-bound
organelles
⤷ has a system of three ⟢ SUMMARY/KEY TAKEAWAYS:
membranes: the outer membrane,
the inner membrane, and the Control Center:
thylakoid system. Nucleus – stores DNA, controls activities
Nucleolus – makes ribosomes
Outer Membrane Nuclear envelope – membrane
⤷ semi-porous membrane and is surrounding nucleus
permeable to small molecules and
ions which diffuse easily. Builders:
⤷ is not permeable to larger Ribosomes – synthesize proteins
proteins. Rough ER – protein folding & transport
Intermembrane Space Smooth ER – lipid synthesis, detox
⤷ usually a thin intermembrane
space about 10-20 nanometers and Packers & Movers:
is present between the outer and Golgi Apparatus – modify, sort, & package
the inner membrane of the molecules/proteins from ER for storage
chloroplast. OR transport out of ce
Vesicles – transport materials

Waste Management:
Lysosome – breaks down waste; "suicide
bags"
Peroxisome – breaks down fatty acids;
detoxifies.

Energy Centers:
Mitochondria – produces ATP via cellular
respiration
Chloroplast (plant cells) – site of
photosynthesis

Storage:
Vacuole – stores water, nutrients;
maintains turgor in plants

Organizers:
Centrosomes/Centrioles – helps in cell
division

Boundaries:
Cell membrane – selectively permeable,
phospholipid bilayer
Cell wall (plants only) – protection and
support

⋆ Cell Membrane – Fluid Mosaic Model

- Made of phospholipids, cholesterol,
proteins
- Flexible & selective; controls entry/exit
Week 2: PROKARYOTIC vs.
EUKARYOTIC CELLS | CELL
⋆ Mitochondria – cellular respiration → CLASSIFICATION
ATP
⋆ Chloroplasts – photosynthesis → glucose Cells can be classified as: [Link] or
(plants) Prokaryotic Cell [Link] or Animal Cell
[Link] or Multicellular

Prokaryotes vs. Eukaryotes

-​ The main distinguishing factor
between eukaryotes and
prokaryotes are the structure
housing their DNA
⟢ Prokaryotic Cells the simple cellular components of
prokaryotic cell.
⋆ Composed of phospholipids which serve
as a semipermeable barrier to the cells’
outside environment.

First cells to
evolve (~3.5
billion years ago)
⋆ Simple
structure, no
nucleus (has
nucleoid instead)
⋆ No
membrane-bound
organelles
⋆ Includes Organelles & Their Functions
bacteria, 1.​ Cell Membrane
blue-green algae, ⋆ A phospholipid bilayer with
archaea embedded proteins which regulates
⋆ Small size = the entrance and exit of substances
fast reproduction, into and out of the cytoplasm.
thus can exist in great numbers in air, 2.​ Mesosomes
bodies of water, soil, and even inside ⋆ the extension of cell membrane
bodies living hosts. used for attachment of enzymes
⋆ Has a nucleus which is NOT enveloped that carry on metabolic activities.
by nuclear membrane called nucleoid. 3.​ Cell wall
⋆ Contains ribosomes, plasma ⋆ maintains the shape of the cell.
membrane, DNA, sometimes plasmids The cell wall of bacteria contains
(additional circular DNA molecules that peptidoglycan which is a complex
encode proteins which inactivate molecule containing a unique
antibiotics), cilia/flagella (enable them to amino disaccharide and peptide
move) fragments.
⋆ Simple life forms such as bacteria, 4.​ Cytoplasm
blue-green algae, and archaeans possess
⋆ semifluid solution composed of
water and inorganic and organic ⋆ Evolved ~1.8 billion years ago
molecules encased by the plasma ⋆ Has a true nucleus with nuclear
membrane. membrane
5.​ Glycocalyx ⋆ Membrane-bound organelles
⋆ a layer of polysaccharides lying (mitochondria, ER, etc.)
outside the cell wall. It functions as ⋆ Found in protists, fungi, plants, animals
a receptor and protection to the ⋆ Can be unicellular or multicellular
cell. ⋆ More complex internal structure allows
6.​ Nucleoid for compartmentalization and efficiency
⋆ a region where DNA is located. ⋆ Having organelles is an efficient way to
The DNA is coiled up into a single arrange everything that occurs in the cell
chromosome. It also contains in order to systemize cellular functions.
extra-chromosomal plasmids.
7.​ Sex Pilus
⋆ a rigid tubular structure used by
bacteria to pass DNA from cell to
cell.
8.​ Flagellum
⋆ helps in the movement of the
cell. It has a filament, a hook, and
basal body.
9.​ Fimbriae
⋆ small, bristle-like fibers that
sprout from the cell surface. They
help- in the attachment of bacteria
to the surface.
10.​Inclusion body
⋆ serves as storage of various
substances such as carbohydrates,
glycogen, phosphate, and fats
which can be used when needed.
11.​Ribosome PROKARYO EUKARYOT
⋆ a tiny particle where protein TES ES
synthesis takes place.
12.​Endospore size smaller; larger;
⋆ Helps the cell in survive under unicellular unicellular and
harsh conditions. multicellular

⟢ Eukaryotic Cells kingdom archaea; protists, Fungi,

bacteria plants, animals

nucleus absent present

organelle absent present

cell wall present; only in plants;

chemically simple
complex found
sexual none; DNA meiosis chromosomes in different mitotic
reproduction transfer thru stages (e.g., metaphase, anaphase).
conjugation ➔​ has cell walls, typical of plant
eukaryotic cells.
cell division binary fission mitosis ➔​ only eukaryotes undergo mitosis
with clearly visible chromosome
structure of linear; diploid linear; diploid separation.
DNA

(Likely Epithelial Cells)

➔​ paramecium is a unicellular
eukaryote, part of the protist
kingdom.
➔​ has a well-defined nucleus,
➔​ nuclei (stained purple, oval contractile vacuoles, and cilia for
structures inside the cells). movement. (complex structures
➔​ cells are organized into a tissue only found in eukaryotic cells, not
structure, which is typical of in bacteria (prokaryotes)).
multicellular eukaryotes (like
animals). ⟢ UNICELLULAR ORGANISM
⋆ composed of only single cell.
(Onion Root Tip) ⋆ the organism ‘s functions are carried out
by collaborative efforts of the different
organelles within it.
⋆ injury can be detrimental as it can lead to
the organism’s death, thus the lifespan of a
cellular organism is typically short
⋆ reproduction happens through asexual
methods.
⋆ have strong abilities for cell division and
regeneration
⋆ mode of nutrition is through
phagocytosis, which takes place by
engulfing the food

➔​ each green-bordered box is a plant

cell, with a visible nucleus and
⋆ injured cells are easily replaced through
the process of cell division; in this case,
the organism is not very much affected.

Week 2.1: CELL TYPES

˖ 𐭩 ⊹ ࣪౨ৎ˚₊
“ FORM FITS FUNCTIONS ”

⟢ Tissue Formation
⤷ happens when when cells group together
to perform a common function
⤷ tissues that are similar and perform a
common purpose make up an organ.
⤷ since the cell is fundamental unit of any
tissue, it determines the type, nature, and
function of the tissues, which ultimately
affects the organs and organ system.
⤷ if any tissue is injured, both the cells
and the cell structure in organ are also
damaged.

⟢ CELL SPECIALIZATION
⤷ also known as cell differentiation.
⤷ the process by which generic cells
change to different types of cells to be able
to perform special or specific functions.

⟢ MULTICELLULARA ORGANISM
⋆ belonging to the higher forms, such as
plants and animals.
⋆ cells are capable of processing nutrition
and digestion, and are asked to do roles
that depend upon the tissue or organ to
which the cells belong. Different kinds of Animal Tissues:
⋆ organized to form complex structures, A.​ Epithelial Tissue
such as tissues, organs, and organ systems,
to complete the organism.
⋆ commonly seen outside of the
body coverings or as linings of
organ and cavities.
⋆ consist of tightly packed cells
that form a continuous layer.
⋆ provides protection and covers
surface and line body cavities.
⋆ acts as barrier from pathogens
mechanical injuries and fluid loss.

Kinds of Epithelial Tissue

1.​ Simple Epithelial Cells

-​ there’s only one layer of cells.
Simple squamous = diffusion (lungs, blood Muscle tissue = movement
vessels) Nervous tissue = signals
Connective tissue = support & transport
2.​ Stratified
-​ made up of more than one layer of
cells.
-​ protects underlying tissues and
organs.
-​ can be classified based on their
shape.
3.​ Glandular Epithelium
-​ secretes a product
-​ can be a single epithelial cell or can
contain many cells.
-​ the product is always a water-based
fluid (aqueous) and usually
contains proteins (the product is
referred to as a secretion). ⋆ function: connect, support,
-​ secretion considered an active transport
process. Glandular cells obtain ⋆ 3 major categories
substances needed from blood and 1. Fibrous Connective
transform them (chemically) into a Tissue
product that’s discharged from the 2. Supportive Connective
cell. Tissue
3. Fluid Connective Tissue
B.​ Connective Tissue

⋆ is the most abundant and widely Category Example Function Structure

distributed tissue in complex
1. Tendons Binds Fibroblast
animals.
Fibrous (muscle to organs, s in
​ bone), provides jelly-like
​ ligaments strength/ matrix
​ (bone to flexibilit with
​ bone), y collagen
dermis and
elastic
fibers

2. Cartilage, Structur Dense

Supporti Bone​ al matrix
ve​ support, (either
protectio rubbery
n or
mineralize
d)

3. Fluid Blood, Transpor Fluid

​ Lymph​ t, matrix
​ immunit (plasma)
y with cells
suspended
C.​ Muscle Tissue
D.​ Nerve Tissue
⤷ made up of neurons
which are specialized
signalling the cells and
supporting cells called
neuroglia.
⤷ sense stimuli and
transmit electrical
signals throughout the
animal body.
⤷ connect to other
neurons to send signals.
⤷ Lines body cavities
Week 2.1: CELL TYPES (PLANTS) ⤷ Forms glands

RECALL: Functions of Epithelial Tissue:

★​ Tissues are adapted by the ⤷ Secretion
structure of their cells to carry ⤷ Absorption
on a particular function. ⤷ Excretion
★​ Single - celled organisms are ⤷ Filtration
different from single cells that
are part of an organism. CELL DESCRI SPECIAL STRUCTU
★​ Muscular tissues have cells with TYPE PTION IZED RE /
the most mitochondria while the CELL (IF LOCATION
blood has white blood cells with ANY) WHERE
the most number of lysosomes. FOUND
1.​ Epithelium: occurs as sheets of
tightly packed cells that cover body
surfaces and line internal organs SIMPL Thin, flat None Linings of
and cavities. E cells mentioned blood
2.​ Connective Tissue: helps protect, SQUA arranged vessels, air
support, and bind organs and other MOUS in a sacs of
tissues. CELLS single lungs
3.​ Muscular tissue: helps cause layer
movement and change in the shape
of some body parts. SIMPL Box-shap None Kidney
4.​ Nervous tissue: senses stimuli and E ed cells mentioned tubules,
transmits signals called nerve CUBOI in a various
impulses. DAL single organs
CELLS layer where
reabsorption
of
substances
occurs

SIMPL Tall, Goblet Small

E rectangul cells intestine
COLU ar cells (nutrient
MNAR with absorption),
CELLS nuclei oviducts
near the (propel egg
base; toward
may have uterus)
microvilli
(mucusse
creting)
Epithelial Tissue
⤷ (plural: epithelia) is made up of STRAT Multiple None Nose,
tightly packed cells that form IFIED layers of mentioned mouth,
continuous layers. EPITH cells; esophagus,
Where is it found? ELIAL outer anal canal,
⤷ Covers the body surface
CELLS layer may vagina, of cells, bladder –
be outer layer fibers, allows
keratinize of skin and expansion
d (keratinized) ground
substanc
e;
GLAN Secreting Goblet Digestive collagen
DULA cells, cells tract lining fibers are
R either (unicellular) sparse
EPITH single or , various
ELIAL clustered glands DENSE Packed Fibroblast Found in
CELLS (unicellul (clusters of CONNE with tendons
ar or secretor CTIVE collagen (connect
multicell TISSUE fibers; muscle to
ular fewer bone) and
glands) cells; ligaments
dense (connect
ECM bone to
Connective Tissue bone)
⤷ most abundant and most
distributed tissue in complex RETICU Supports Reticular Found in
animals. Made up of various types LAR soft cells red bone
of cells CONNE organs; marrow,
Functions CTIVE compose lymph
⤷ Supports, connects, and TISSUE d of nodes,
separates different tissues and modified spleen
organs fibroblast
s
Key Components (reticular
⤷ Specialized Cells (e.g., cells)
fibroblasts, immune cells)
⤷ Ground Substance CARTIL Non-vasc Chondroc Found in
⤷ Protein Fibers AGE ular; ytes joints,
⤷ These form the Extracellular flexible upper
Matrix (ECM) support respirator
tissue; y tract,
found in external
CELL DESCRI SPECIAL STRUCT joints, ear (in
TYPE PTION IZED URE / airways, lacunae)
CELL (IF LOCATIO and ear
ANY) N BONE Rigid, Osteoblast Found in
WHERE mineraliz s, the
FOUND ed tissue; Osteocyte skeleton;
ECM s, osteocytes
LOOSE Most Fibroblast Found in
with Osteoclast live in
CONNE widely (common linings of
fibers s lacunae
CTIVE distribute cell type) lungs,
and
TISSUE d; equal arteries,
ground
number urinary
substanc
e; ⤷ Responsible for the movement
supports of animals
body ⤷ Three Types of Muscle Tissue:
1. Skeletal Muscle – Voluntary
structure
movement
BLOOD Fluid Erythrocy Found in 2. Smooth Muscle – Involuntary
connecti tes, blood control (e.g., organs, blood vessels)
ve tissue Leukocyte vessels; 3. Cardiac Muscle – Involuntary,
with s, formed in found in the heart
plasma Thromboc bone
and ytes marrow
formed (hematopo Type of Descripti Specia Structure /
elements iesis) Muscle on lized Where
Tissue Cell Found
ADIPOS Fat-stora Adipocyte Found
E ge tissue; s under Skeletal Striated, Skelet Attached
TISSUE stores skin, Muscle multinucl al to bones
energy around eated muscl (muscles
and kidneys, cells; e fiber of limbs,
insulates surface of voluntary face,
body heart; control trunk, etc.)
brown fat
in babies Smooth Spindle-s Smoot Walls of
(thermoge Muscle haped h digestive
nesis) cells, muscl tract,
single e cell blood
Nervous Tissue nucleus, vessels,
no and
⤷ Main Cell Types:
1.​ Neurons (nerve cells) striations internal
2.​ Neuroglia (supporting cells) ; organs
involunta
⤷ Neuron Structure:
-​ Dendrites: Receive signals ry control
and send them toward the Cardiac Branchin Cardia Wall of the
cell body Muscle g, c heart
-​ Cell Body: Contains the striated muscl (myocardi
nucleus and cytoplasm cells with e cell um)
-​ Axon: Sends signals away single
from the cell body to the nucleus;
synapse involunta
⤷ Neuroglia: ry;
-​ Support and nourish rhythmic
neurons contracti
-​ Help maintain a healthy ons
neural environment

Muscle Tissue ⟢ PLANT CELLS ⟢

⤷ Made up of muscle fibers ➔​ Provide food and oxygen
⤷ Muscle fibers contain actin and ➔​ Help regulate the water cycle and
myosin filaments carbon cycle •Essential to life on
Earth
➔​ Multicellular organisms
➔​ Have a defined nucleus and
specialized organelles
➔​ Perform special functions not
found in animal cells

Dermal
Tissue
⤷ Forms the outer protective
covering of the plant
⤷ Main type: Epidermis
Groumd Tissue 3.​ Sclerenchyma Cells
⤷ Fills up the inner part of the -​ Provide rigid support and
plant strength
⤷ Makes up most of the bulk of the -​ Have thick walls and are
plant body usually dead at maturity
⤷ Main Cell Types:
1.​ Parenchyma Cells A.​ PARENCHYMA
-​ Most abundant ground ★​ abundant tissue found on plants.
tissue cell ★​ composed of big and thin-walled
-​ Involved in photosynthesis, cells, with large vacuoles and air
storage, and wound healing. spaces in between the cells.
2.​ Collenchyma Cells ★​ provides support and storage of
-​ Provide flexible support food.
-​ Found in growing parts of ★​ parenchymal cells contribute
the plant (e.g., young stems, mainly to penetration of light and
petioles) regulation of gas exchange.
B.​ SCLERENCHYMA
★​ composed of thick cell walls filled
with lignin, with a high resistance
substance that makes the cells
tough and hard.
★​ cells of sclerenchyma are mostly
dead when they reach the maturity
phase.
★​ provides support to the mature
regions of the plant.
★​ cells of sclerenchyma are classified
as fibers and sclereids. Fibers are
long, slender, and can be grouped
in bundles that are usually
commercially important.
★​ sclereids are shorter than fibers and
vary in shape, usually found in
seeds of coats, and nutshells. They
are also known as “stone cells”,
which give a gritty texture when
eating pears and nuts.

C.​ COLLENCHYMA
★​ composed of thick-walled cells
with uneven thickness.
★​ often appears in bundles
underneath the epidermis of plants.
It is longer, and its cell walls are
flexible and strong.
★​ smaller than parenchyma cells.
★​ support immature regions of plants.
⤷ a tracheid is an elongated cell
with oblique and tapering end
walls.

Vascular Tissue
★​ transports water and nutrients in
the plant.
★​ made up of xylem, phloem,
parenchyma, and cambium cells.
Xylem
⤷ conveys or transports water and
minerals from roots to leaves.
⤷ contains two types of conducting
Phloem
cells: tracheid and vessel element.
both cells are hollow and
nonliving.
⤷ vessel elements are long tubes
which are made up of individual
cells that are open at each and are
joined end to end to form the tubes.
⤷ transports sucrose and other
organic compounds from roots to Week 3.1: CELL MODIFICATION
leaves.
⤷ composed of sieve tube ⟢ Cell Modification
elements, which are elongated and -​ specialized or modifications
are arranged to form continuous re-acquired by the cell after cell
sieve tubes. Sieve tube elements division that helps the cell in
have a cytoplasm but do not have a different beneficial ways.
nucleus.
1.​ Apical Modification Villi and Microvilli
Cilia and Flagella ⤷ Villi are finger-like projections
⤷ Cilia are usually short, hair-like that arise from the epithelial layer
structures that move in waves in some organs. They help to
⤷ Flagella are long whiplike increase surface area allowing for
structures faster and more efficient adsorption
⤷ Formed from microtubules ⤷ Microvilli are smaller
projections that arise from the cell's
surface that also increase surface
area allowing faster and more
efficient absorption
Pseudopods
⤷ Temporary, irregular lobes
formed by amoebas and some other
eukaryotic cells.
⤷ Bulge outward to move the cell
or engulf prey.