CELL

3 components of the body:

1. Cell - each cell is a discrete entity bound by a membrane that “isolates” it from it environment
2. Intercellular or extracellular substances - materials that lie between cells to support and nourish them
3. Body fluids -including:
• Blood - confined within the vascular system
• tissue or intercellular fluid - between and around cells
• lymph - drain tissue fluid back to the venous system

➢ CELL STRUCTURE
Definition:
• The cell is the smallest unit of protoplasm capable of living independently. It is the structural and functional unit of
the body.

2 types of cells:
1. PROKARYOTIC
• found in primitive cells such as bacteria
• metabolic and hereditary components are mixed
• have no histones (specific basic proteins) bound to their DNA
• no membranous organelles
2. EUKARYOTIC
• in all higher plants and animals
• bulk or hereditary material is isolated in a membranebound nucleus lying in the remainder of the cell or
cytoplasm
COMPONENTS OF PROTOPLASM
1. PROTEIN - main structural elements of the cell and the intercellular material - exist as: pure lipoprotein, glycoprotein,
proteoglycan, or mucoprotein ex. Secretory products such as enzymes, some hormones.
2. NUCLEIC ACIDS
DNA – found mainly in the nucleus / RNA – nucleus and cytoplasm
3. CARBOHYDRATES - as glucose, stored as glycogen
4. LIPID - also an energy source - important component of cellular membrane
5. INORGANIC MATERIALS - exists as: ➢ free radicals ➢sodium (Na+ ), potassium (K+ ), magnesium (Mg2+), calcium
(Ca2+), phosphate (HPO4 2- ), chloride (Cl- ), and bicarbonate (HCO3 - )

INVOLVED IN ESSENTIAL FUNCTIONS:

a) maintenance of osmotic pressure gradients
b) muscle contraction/relaxation
c) tissue rigidity (e.g. bone)
d) cell adhesion
e) enzyme activation
6 .Water
-75% of protoplasm
-partly free: available for metabolic processes
-partly bound to protein: as a structural component

PROPERTIES OF PROTOPLASM
1. Irritability – capability to respond to a stimulus
2. Conductivity – can transmit a wave of excitation (an electrical impulse) throughout the cell from the point of stimulus
- highly developed in nerve cells lesser extent, in muscle cells
3. Contractility – property of changing shape in the sense of shortening - ex. Muscle cells
4. Respiration – essential for life. Process whereby food substances and oxygen within the cell interact chemically to
produce energy, carbon dioxide and water
5. Absorption – imbibition of materials that later may be assimilated by the cell in metabolism or otherwise utilized
6. Secretion – process by which cell extrudes material (useful) - such as digestive enzyme or a hormone
[Link] – extrusion of waste material from the cell 8. Growth – increase in size
Components of the cell
➢ CYTOPLASM
3 main structural components
• organelles • inclusions • Cytoskeleton

Fluid component: cytosol

- exhibits functional interactions among organelles
Result in:
a) uptake and release of material b) protein synthesis c) intracellular digestion
➢ ORGANELLES
- metabolically active units of living matter
- limited by a membrane
1. PLASMA MEMBRANE/ cell membrane/ plasmalemma
- 7.5 nm thick - composed of a lipid bilayer and associated proteins - envelopes the cell - aids in maintaining its structural
and functional integrity - functions as a semi-permeable membrane between the cytoplasm and the external
environment - sensory device.
- recognize other cells and macromolecules
- composed of an inner leaflet (facing the cytoplasm) and an outer leaflet (facing the extracellular environment
- exhibits a trilaminar structure (called the unit membrane)
- performs special processes like: phagocytosis, pinocytosis, exocytosis

Lipid bilayer - composed of phospholipids, glycolipids and cholesterol

2. RIBOSOMES/ Palade granules

- 12 nm wide and 25 nm long - consist of a small and large subunit composed of several types of RNA –
may be: • free in the cytosol • bound to membranes of the *rough endoplasmic reticulum *outer nuclear membrane • actual sites
of protein synthesis • responsible for the basophilic staining of the cytoplasm
3. ROUGH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM (RER)
- site where non-cytosolic proteins are synthesized
• Secretory
• Plasma membrane
• Lysosomal - provide an area of storage and transport of proteins
4. SMOOTH ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM/Agranular endoplasmic reticulum
- irregular network of membrane bounded channels that lack ribosomes on its surface appearing smooth
- appears as branching anastomosing tubules or vesicles membranes
- less common than RER
- predominates in cells synthesizing steroids, triglycerides and cholesterol
- serves different functions in different cell types: • steroid hormones and lipid synthesis • drug detoxification (liver) • muscle
contraction and relaxation

5. ANNULATE LAMELLAE
- parallel stacks of membranes (6-10) located near the nucleus
- resemble the nuclear envelope, including its pore complexes
- are continuous with the RER - are found in rapidly growing cells (germ cells, embroyonic cells, tumor cells)
- function is not fully know

6. MITOCHONDRIA
- rod-shaped organelles [0.2 µm (W)
– 7 µm (L)] double layered sac
- possess an outer smooth membrane and an inner membrane,
which invaginates to form cristae
- important in energy metabolism
- as major source of adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
- site of many metabolic reaction
- subdivided into an intermembrane compartment and an inner matrix compartment
- contain granules within the matrix that bind the divalent cations Mg+2 and Ca+2
- contain all of the enzymes of the krebs (TCA) cycle
7. GOLGI COMPLEX (apparatus)
- consists of disk-shaped cisternae (saccules) arranged in a stack - pale area near the nucleus
2 major functions:
1. processing of non-cytosolic proteins synthesized in the RER
2. membrane retrieval, recycling and redistribution(renewal of cell membrane)

8. COATED VESICLES
- characterized by a visible cytoplasmic surface coat
2 varieties:
• clathrin-coated vesicles
• clathrin
3 large and 3 small polypeptide chains that form a triskelion (3 legged structure)
• formed during endocytosis • associated with signal-directed transport • non-clathrin-coated vesicles • involved in
the transport of proteins • from RER to golgi, • one golgi cisterna to another • golgi complex to plasma membrane •
associated with constitutive protein transport
9. LYSOSOMES
- dark staining body containing hydrolytic enzymes - essential for intracellular digestion
Types of lysosomes:
a. Multivesicular bodies/endosomes
b. Phagolysosomes/phagosomes + lysosomes
c. Auto-phagolysosomes
d. Residual bodies
10. PEROXISOMES
- also known as microbodies
- membrane-bound, ovoid
- has oxidative enzyme for the breakdown of hydrogen peroxide and alcohol
11. CENTRIOLES
- pair of cylindrical rods (0.2 µm wide and 0.5 µm long) oriented at right angles to one another
- located in the centrosome (cell center) - direct the formation of spindle fiber during cell division forms the bases of
cilia and flagella (mother centriole)
INCLUSIONS
- glycogen, lipid droplets, lipofuscin
- lifeless accumulations of material
- not metabolically active
- temporarily present
CYTOSKELETON
- microtubules, microfilaments, intermediate filaments, microtrabecular lattice - structural framework within the
cytosol functions in: • maintaining cell shape by providing cellular support • stabilizing cell attachments • facilitating
endocytosis and exocytosis • promoting cell motility

NUCLEUS
Includes:
- Nuclear envelope
- Nucleoplasm
- Nucleolus
- Chromatin - control various activities of the cell essential for reproduction and heredity transmission
- contains genetic apparatus encoded in the deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) of chromosome
- directs protein synthesis in the cytoplasm via: ribosomal RNA (rRNA) messenger RNA (mRNA)
transfer RNA (tRNA)
NUCLEAR ENVELOPE - surrounds the nuclear material - consists of two parallel membranes separated from each other
by a narrow perinuclear cisterna - perforated at intervals by openings called nuclear pores

NUCLEOLUS - well-defined nuclear inclusion (sometimes > one) - eccentrically placed within the nucleus - not
membrane-bound - present in cells actively synthesizing protein - generally detectable only when cell is in interphase
- involve in synthesis of rRNA and its assembly into precursors of ribosomes
NUCLEOPLASM - portion of the protoplasm that is surrounded by the nuclear envelope - consists of a matrix and
various types of particles
CHROMATIN - double-stranded DNA complexed with histones and acidic proteins - responsible for RNA synthesis
2 forms: heterochromatin and euchromatin
1. HETEROCHROMATIN
- light microscope: basophilic clumps of nucleoprotein
- electron microscope: dense granular clumps
- concentrated at periphery of nucleus, around the nucleolus and scattered throughout the nucleoplasm
- transcriptionally inactive
2. EUCHROMATIN - light microscope: lightly stained dispersed region of the nucleus
- electron microscope: electron-lucent regions among heterochromatin
- transcriptionally active
CELL CYCLE 2 major periods:
1. Interphase – interval
2. Mitosis (M phase) – period of cell division
1.) Interphase - longer than M phase
- cell doubles in size and DNA content
– 3 separate phases: G1, S and G2
G1 phase
- the gap phase just after mitosis
- when certain “trigger proteins” are synthesized enabling the cell to reach a threshold (restriction point) and
proceed to the S phase
- lasts from a few hours to several days
- cell growth and protein synthesis occur, restoring daughter cells to normal volume and size
S phase
- synthetic phase
- DNA replication and protein synthesis occur
- resulting in duplication of the chromosomes
- period when centrioles are self-duplicated
- lasts 8-12 hours in most cells
G2 phase
- gap phase
- follows the S phase and extends to mitosis
- lasts 2-4 hours
- when: • cell prepares to divide • centrioles grow to maturity • energy required for the completion of mitosis
is stored • RNA and proteins necessary for mitosis are synthesized
2.) Mitosis
- follows the G2 phase - completes the cell cycle
- involves: Karyokinesis – division of the nucleus Cytokinesis
– division of the cytoplasm resulting in the production of two identical daughter cell
-last 1-3 hours
- 4 major stages: • prophase • metaphase • anaphase • telophase
MEIOSIS
- special form of cell division
- sex cells divide this type
- chromosome number is reduced from diploid (2n) to haploid (n)
- occurs in developing germ cells (spermatozoa and oocytes), fertilization results in diploid zygotes Involves:
• doubling of DNA content in S phase
• affected by 2 successive cell divisions that give rise to 4 haploid cells
- accompanied by recombination of maternal and paternal genes by crossing over and random assortment
2 stages:
A. Reductional division (meiosis I)
1. Prophase I
a) Leptotene d) Diplotene b) Zygotene e) Diakinesis c) Pachytene
2. Metaphase I
3. Anaphase I
4. Telophase I
B. Equatorial division (meiosis II)
- begins soon after completion of meiosis I
- events similar to meiosis
A. Reductional division (meiosis I)
- occurs following interphase during which 46 chromosomes are duplicated giving the cell a 4CDNA content (total DNA
content of the cell)
1. Prophase I
5 stages:
a) Leptotene
- chromatin condenses into visible chromosomes
- each contains 2 chromatids joined at the centromere
b) Zygotene - homologous maternal and paternal chromosomes pair and make physical contact (synapsis) via the
synaptonemal complex, forming a tetrad
c) Pachytene
- chiasmata are formed
- crossing over occurs
- random exchange of geners b/w segments of homologous chromosomes
- increasing genetic diversity
d) Diplotene
- chromosomes continue to condense
- chiasmata can be observed
- indicating sites where crossing over has taken place
e) Diakinesis
- nucleolus disappears
- chromosomes are condensed maximally
- nuclear envelope disappears
2. Metaphase I
3. Anaphase I
4. Telophase I

B. Equatorial division (meiosis II)

- begins soon after completion of meiosis I, following a brief interphase without DNA replication
- separation of sister chromatids and distribution into 4 daughter cells each containing