CELL AND ITS

ORGANELLES
BY
DR (Mrs) O.A. EBEYE
INTRODUCTION
-More than 8.7 million species are living on the planet.

-Every single species are composed cells.

-The cells carry out different types of functions to keep

the entire system active.
- The cell is the basic structural, functional and
biological unit of life

- It is the smallest unit of life that can replicate

independently

- Building blocks of life.

- Organisms can be classified as unicellular or
multicellular

- Number of cells in plants and animals varies from

species to species

- Humans contain about 100 trillion (1014) cells.

- Cell was discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665.

- In 1839 Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann first

developed the cell theory (all organisms are composed
of one or more cells, that all cells come from pre-
existing cells).
- Vital functions of an organism occur within cells

- Cells contain hereditary information necessary for

regulating cell functions and for transmitting information
to the next generation of cells.
-There are two types of cells, eukaryotes, which contain a
nucleus, and prokaryotes, which do not.

-Prokaryotic cells are usually single-celled organisms,

while eukaryotic cells can be either single-celled or part of
multicellular organisms.
CELL ORGANELLES
An organelle is any specialized structure of the cell, for
which a specific function can be assigned.
The nucleus
- Most prominent organelle of the cell.
- It is also the most easily stained.
- largest cellular organelle in animal cells.
- In mammalian cells, the average diameter is 6μm
- It occupies about 10% of the total cell volume.
-cell's information centre
- most conspicuous organelle found in a eukaryotic cell.
- It houses the cell's chromosomes, and is the place
where almost all DNA replication and RNA synthesis
(transcription) occur.
-The viscous liquid within it is called nucleoplasm, and is
similar in composition to the cytosol found outside the
nucleus.

-It appears as a dense, roughly spherical or irregular

organelle.
-It contains most of the cell's genetic material, organized as
multiple long linear DNA molecules with a large variety
of proteins, such as histones.

-The genes within these chromosomes are the cell's nuclear

genome
FUNCTIONS
- Maintain the integrity of genes and control the activities
of the cell by regulating gene expression, the nucleus
therefore is the control centre of the cell.
The main structures making up the nucleus are the
- Nuclear envelope: consist of outer, inner and inter
membrane
- Nuclear membrane/nucleolemma/karyotheca: it is a
phospho lipid bilayer which surrounds genetic material
and nucleolus, the nuclear membrane is a component of
nuclear envelope

- Nucleoskeleton a network within the nucleus that adds

mechanical support.
NOTE: Because the nuclear membrane is impermeable
to large molecules, nuclear pores are required to regulate
nuclear transport of molecules across the membrane.
The pores cross both nuclear membranes, providing a
channel through which larger molecules must be actively
transported by carrier proteins while allowing free
movement of small molecules and ions
Movement of large molecules such as proteins and RNA
through the pores is required for both gene expression
and the maintenance of chromosomes.
Nucleolus is mainly involved in the assembly of
ribosomes. After being produced in the nucleolus,
ribosomes are exported to the cytoplasm where they
translate mRNA.
The nuclear membrane, consists of two cellular
membranes, an inner and an outer membrane, arranged
parallel to one another and separated by 10 to 50
nanometers (nm).
The nuclear envelope completely encloses the nucleus and
separates the cell's genetic material from the surrounding
cytoplasm, serving as a barrier to prevent macromolecules
from diffusing freely between the nucleoplasm and the
cytoplasm
The outer nuclear membrane is continuous with the
membrane of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER), and
is similarly studded with ribosomes. The space between
the membranes is called the perinuclear space and is
continuous with the RER lumen.
Nuclear pores: provide aqueous channels through the
envelope, and are composed of multiple proteins,
collectively referred to as nucleoporins.
The pores are 100 nm in total diameter; however, the gap
through which molecules freely diffuse is only about 9 nm
wide, due to the presence of regulatory systems within the
centre of the pore.
This size selectively allows the passage of small water-
soluble molecules while preventing larger molecules, such
as nucleic acids and larger proteins, from inappropriately
entering or exiting the nucleus.
These large molecules must be actively transported into the
nucleus instead. The nucleus of a typical mammalian cell
will have about 3000 to 4000 pores through out its
envelope.
Components of a typical animal cell:
1. Nucleolus
2. Nucleus
3. Ribosome (little dots)
4. Vesicle
5. Rough endoplasmic reticulum
6. Golgi apparatus (or "Golgi body")
7. Cytoskeleton
8. Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
9. Mitochondrion
10. Vacuole
11. Cytosol
12. Lysosome
13. Centrosome
14. Cell membrane
Nuclear lamina In animal cells, two networks of
intermediate filaments provide the nucleus with
mechanical support: The nuclear lamina forms an
organized meshwork on the internal face of the envelope,
while less organized support is provided on the cytosolic
face of the envelope.
Both systems provide structural support for the nuclear
envelope and anchoring sites for chromosomes and
nuclear pores.
The nucleolus is a discrete densely stained structure found
in the nucleus. It is not surrounded by a membrane, and is
sometimes called a suborganelle. The main roles of the
nucleolus are to synthesize rRNA and assemble ribosomes.
The endoplasmic reticulum is a complex membrane
system that takes up a large part of the cytoplasm of
eukaryote cells especially those cells that are engaged in
significant protein synthesis.
Close study of serial sections reveal the ER to be a
system of broad sheets forming channels and that the ER
membrane is often continuous with both the cell
membrane and the outer membrane of the nucleus.
This suggest that the ER may be involved in the
transportation of materials between the cells environment
and its nucleus.
There are two types of endoplasmic reticulum: rough
endoplasmic reticulum(rough ER) and smooth
endoplasmic reticulum (smooth ER). Both types are
present in plant and animal cells. The two types of ER are
separate entities and are not joined together.
Cells specialising in the production of proteins will tend to
have a larger amount of rough ER while cells producing
lipids (fats) and steroid hormones will have a greater
amount of smooth ER.
Part of the rough ER is continuous with the nuclear
envelope.
The ER and the Golgi complex, are so close that some
chemical products probably pass directly between them
instead of being packaged into vesicles (droplets enclosed
within a membrane) and transported to them through the
cytoplasm
The rough ER, studded with millions of membrane bound
ribosomes, is involved with the production, folding, quality
control and despatch of some substances.
Smooth ER is largely associated with lipid (fat)
manufacture and metabolism and steroid and hormone
production. It also has a detoxification function
Some of the other functions of the smooth ER include:

-Transportation of vesicles
-Enzyme production in the liver
-Contraction of muscle cells in the muscles
-Synthesis of hormones in the brain cells
Mitochondria
-Mitochondria are self-replicating organelles that occur
in various numbers, shapes, and sizes in the cytoplasm
of all eukaryotic cells.

-They play a critical role in generating energy in the

eukaryotic cell.
-Respiration occurs in the cell mitochondria, which
generate the cell's energy by oxidative phosphorylation,
using oxygen to release energy stored in cellular
nutrients to generate ATP.
-Mitochondria are bounded by a double membrane.

-Each of these membranes is a phospholipid bilayer with

embedded proteins.

-The outermost membrane is smooth while the inner

membrane has many folds.
-These folds are called cristae.

-The folds enhance the "productivity" of cellular

respiration by increasing the available surface area.
The double membranes divide the mitochondrion into two
distinct parts:
1. the intermembrane space
2. the mitochondrial matrix.

-The intermembrane space is the narrow part between the

two membranes while the mitochondrial matrix is the part
enclosed by the innermost membrane.
-Mitochondria are semi-autonomous in that they are
only partially dependent on the cell to replicate and
grow.

-They have their own DNA, ribosomes and can make

their own proteins. Similar to bacteria, mitochondria
have circular DNA and replicate by a reproductive
process called fission.
Golgi apparatus
- Golgi apparatus are found in eukaryotic and are highly
folded into cisternae (flattened sacs).

-Their primary function is to process and package the

macromolecules such as proteins and lipids that are
synthesized by the cell
Lysosomes and Peroxisomes: Lysosomes contain
digestive enzymes (acid hydrolases). They digest excess or
worn-out organelles, food particles, and engulfed viruses
or bacteria.
-Peroxisomes have enzymes that rid the cell of toxic
peroxides. The cell could not house these destructive
enzymes if they were not contained in a membrane-bound
system
RIBOSOMES
-Ribosomes are tiny organelles that contain RNA and specific
proteins within the cytoplasm.

-They are directly involved in the manufacture of proteins by using

their RNA and amino acids.

-This process involves decoding the information contained in the

mRNA and using amino acids to produce the required proteins
Centrosome (the cytoskeleton organiser): The
centrosome produces the microtubules of a cell – a key
component of the cytoskeleton.

-It directs the transport through the ER and the Golgi

apparatus.
Vacuoles
-Vacuoles store food, waste and water.

-Often described as liquid filled space and are surrounded by a

membrane. Some cells, most notably Amoeba, have contractile
vacuoles, which can pump water out of the cell if there is too much
water.
-The vacuoles of eukaryotic cells are usually larger in those of plants
than animals.
Cell membrane

The cell membrane (also known as the plasma membrane

or cytoplasmic membrane) is a biological membrane that
separates the interior of all cells from the outside
environment.
-It is selectively permeable to ions and organic molecules
and controls the movement of substances in and out of
cells.

-The basic function of the cell membrane is to protect the

cell from its surroundings
- Serves as a base of attachment for the cytoskeleton in
some organisms and the cell wall in others. Thus the cell
membrane also serves to help support the cell and help
maintain its shape
-It consists of the phospholipid bilayer with embedded
proteins.

-Cell membranes are involved in a variety of cellular

processes such as cell adhesion, ion conductivity and cell
signalling and serve as the attachment surface for several
extracellular structures.
-The cell membrane is a multifaceted membrane that
envelopes a cell's cytoplasm.

-It protects the integrity of the cell along with supporting

the cell and helping to maintain the cell's shape.

-Proteins and lipids are the major components of the cell

membrane.
-Phospholipids are important components of cell
membranes.
-They spontaneously arrange to form a lipid bilayer that
is semi-permeable such that only certain substances can
diffuse through the membrane to the cell's interior.
-Phospholipids form a lipid bilayer in which their hydrophilic
(attracted to water) head areas spontaneously arrange to face the
aqueous cytosol and the extracellular fluid, while their hydrophobic
(repelled by water) tail areas face away from the cytosol and
extracellular fluid.

-The lipid bilayer is semi-permeable, allowing only certain

molecules to diffuse across the membrane.
-Cholesterol is another lipid component of animal cell
membranes. Cholesterol molecules are selectively dispersed
between membrane phospholipids.

-This helps to keep cell membranes from becoming stiff by

preventing phospholipids from being too closely packed together.
Cholesterol is not found in the membranes of plant cells.
-Glycolipids are located on cell membrane surfaces and
have a carbohydrate sugar chain attached to them. They
help the cell to recognize other cells of the body.
CELL CYCLE

- Cell cycle involves the ordered sequence of events that

occur in a cell in preparation for cell division.

- It is a four-stage process:
1. Cell increases in size (gap 1, or G1)
2. Copies its DNA (synthesis, or S, stage)
3. Prepares to divide (gap 2, or G2, stage)
4. Divides (mitosis, or M, stage).
-The stages G1, S, and G2 make up interphase, which
accounts for the span between cell divisions.

- On the basis of the stimulatory and inhibitory messages

a cell receives, it “decides” whether it should enter the
cell cycle and divide.
G1 phase. Metabolic changes prepare the cell for
division. Cell increases in size. At a certain point - the
restriction point - the cell is committed to division and
moves into the S phase.

S phase. DNA synthesis replicates the genetic material.

Each chromosome now consists of two sister chromatids.
G2 phase. Metabolic changes assemble the cytoplasmic
materials necessary for mitosis and cytokinesis.

M phase. A nuclear division (mitosis) followed by a cell

division (cytokinesis).
The following groups of protein play important role in
stimulating cell division
- Growth factors
- Growth factor receptors
- Signal transducers
- Nuclear regulatory proteins (transcription factors).
-For a stimulatory signal to reach the nucleus and “turn
on” cell division, four main steps must occur.
-First, a growth factor must bind to its receptor on
the cell membrane.
-Second, the receptor must become temporarily activated
-third, this activation must stimulate a signal to be
transmitted, or transduced, from the receptor at the cell
surface to the nucleus within the cell.

-finally, transcription factors within the nucleus must

initiate the transcription of genes involved in cell
proliferation. (transcription is the process by which DNA
is converted into RNA.
-To ensure that the cell cycle progresses properly checkpoint
signaling systems are necessary

-Checkpoints at the end of G1 and at the beginning of G2

are designed to assess DNA for damage before and after S
phase.

-Likewise, a checkpoint during mitosis ensures that the cell’s

spindle fibres are properly aligned in metaphase before
the chromosomes are separated in anaphase.
-If DNA damage or abnormalities in spindle formation
are detected at these checkpoints, the cell is forced to
undergo programmed cell death, or apoptosis
NOTE the cell cycle and its checkpoint systems can be
sabotaged by defective proteins or genes that cause
malignant transformation of the cell, which can lead
to cancer.
For example, mutations in a protein called p53, which
normally detects abnormalities in DNA at the G1
checkpoint, can enable cancer-causing mutations to
bypass this checkpoint and allow the cell to escape
apoptosis.
CELL DIVISION
MITOSIS
-Cell division that produces two daughter cells with the
same genetic component as the parent cell.

-In actively dividing animal cells, the whole process

takes about one hour
Introduction to cell signalling
-Cells can detect what's going on around them and can
respond to changes in their environment.

-Your cells are currently sending and receiving millions

of messages in the form of chemical signalling molecules
-Cells typically communicate using chemical signals.

-These chemical signals, which are proteins or other

molecules produced by a sending cell, are often secreted
from the cell and released into the extracellular space.
-Not all cells can detect a particular chemical message.

-In order to detect a signal a target cell or a neighbouring

cell must have the right receptor for that signal.

-When a signalling molecule binds to its receptor, it alters

the shape or activity of the receptor, triggering a change
inside of the cell.
-Signalling molecules are often called ligands, a general
term for molecules that bind specifically to other
molecules (such as receptors)
-The message carried by a ligand is often relayed through a chain of
chemical messengers inside the cell.

-Ultimately, it leads to a change in the cell, such as alteration in the

activity of a gene, cell division.

-Thus, the original intercellular (between-cells) signal is converted

into an intracellular (within-cell) signal that triggers a response.
Forms of signalling
Cell-cell signalling involves the transmission of a signal
from a sending cell to a receiving cell.

-However, not all sending and receiving cells are next-

door neighbours, nor do all cell pairs exchange signals in
the same way.
There are four basic categories of chemical signalling
found in multicellular organisms: 1.Paracrine signalling,
2.Autocrine signalling, 3.Endocrine signalling,
4.Signalling by direct contact.
Paracrine signalling
-Cells that are near one another communicate through the
release of chemical messengers (ligands that can diffuse
through the space between the cells).

-This type of signalling occurs when cells communicate

over relatively short distances.
-Paracrine signalling allows cells to locally coordinate
activities with their neighbours.

-paracrine signals are especially important during

development, when they allow one group of cells to tell a
neighbouring group of cells what cellular identity to take
on.
Synaptic signalling
This process is named for the synapse, the junction
between two nerve cells where signal transmission
occurs.
-When the sending neuron fires, an electrical impulse
moves rapidly through the cell, traveling down a long,
fiber-like extension called an axon.

-When the impulse reaches the synapse, it triggers the

release of ligands called neurotransmitters, which
quickly cross the small gap between the nerve cells.
-When the neurotransmitters arrive at the receiving cell,
they bind to receptors and cause a chemical change inside
of the cell (often, opening ion channels and changing the
electrical potential across the membrane).
Autocrine signalling
-A cell send signals to itself, releasing a ligand that binds
to receptors on its own surface.

-This may seem like an odd thing for a cell to do, but
autocrine signalling plays an important role in many
processes.
e.g. autocrine signalling is important during
development, helping cells take on and reinforce their
correct identities. In many cases, a signal may have both
autocrine and paracrine effects, binding to the sending
cell as well as other similar cells in the area.
Endocrine signalling
When cells need to transmit signals over long distances,
they often use the circulatory system as a distribution
network for the messages they send.
-In endocrine signalling, signals (hormones) are produced
by specialized cells and released into the bloodstream,
which carries them to target cells in distant parts of the
body.
-Endocrine glands that release hormones include the
thyroid, the hypothalamus, the pituitary, the gonads
(testes and ovaries) and the pancreas.

-Each endocrine gland releases one or more types of

hormones, many of which are master regulators of
development and physiology.
Signalling through cell-cell contact
-Gap junctions in animals, plasmodesmata and plants are
tiny channels that directly connect neighbouring cells.

-These water-filled channels allow small signalling

molecules, called intracellular mediators, to diffuse
between the two cells.
Small molecules, such as calcium ions are able to move
between cells, but large molecules like proteins and DNA
cannot pass through the channels without special
assistance.
-The transfer of signalling molecules transmits the current
state of one cell to its neighbour.

-This allows a group of cells to coordinate their response

to a signal that only one of them may have received.

-In plants, there are plasmodesmata between almost all

cells, making the entire plant into one giant network
In another form of direct signalling, two cells may bind to
one another because they carry complementary proteins
on their surfaces. When the proteins bind to one another,
this interaction changes the shape of one or both proteins,
transmitting a signal.
This kind of signalling is especially important in the
immune system, where immune cells use cell-surface
markers to recognize “self” cells and cells infected
Cell signalling is part of a complex system of
communication that governs basic activities of cells and
coordinates cell actions.

-The ability of cells to perceive and correctly respond to

their micro environment is the basis of development,
tissue repair, and immunity as well as normal tissue
homeostasis.