🦠 BIOLOGY I Reviewer (By: Yale & Fleming Group 4 )
● Transport by Carriers b. Phosphate Head - Hydrophilic ends (Water
Table of Contents ● Endocytosis & Exocytosis Loving)
2. Cholesterol - Keeps the membrane flexible and stable.
A. W3: Eukaryotic Cell
3. Proteins - Help transport materials and send signals
a. Animal Cell
across the membrane.
i. Parts of the Animal Cell
a. Integral Protein - embedded in the membrane
b. Plant Cell
and can go all the way through
i. Parts of the Plant Cell
b. Peripheral Protein - attached to the surface of the
B. W4: Microscopy
membrane
a. Brief History
4. Glycoproteins - Proteins with sugars that help in cell
b. Importance
recognition.
i. Histology
5. Glycolipids - Fats with sugars that also help in
ii. Types of Section Cuts
communication and stability.
c. Key Concepts
6. Carbohydrate Chains - Help cells recognize and
d. Types of Microscopes
communicate with each other.
e. Parts of the Microscope
2. Nucleus
A. W3: Eukaryotic Cell ● Stores genetic information
● Selective Permeability - It controls what enters and ● Controls cell activity
● Cell - Fundamental units of life leaves the cell Features:
○ Small in size to consider the surface-to-volume ratio of ● Diffusion - It allows small molecules to move from high to ● Chromatin - coiling forming chromosomes,
cell low concentration without energy. immersed in the nucleoplasm
● Osmosis - It lets water move across the membrane from ● Nucleolus - contains the ribosomal units which
a. Animal Cell
more to less concentrated areas. forms ribosomes ; ribosome synthesis
● Transport by Carriers - It uses proteins to help certain ● Nuclear Envelope - A double membrane that
i. Parts of the Animal Cell substances cross the membrane. protects the nucleus and controls what goes in
1. Plasma Membrane ● Endocytosis & Exocytosis - brings large particles into the and out through the nuclear pores.
● Phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins cell by wrapping them in a membrane ; pushes out waste ● Nuclear Pores - permits the passage of proteins
● Phospho - Phosphate ; Lipid - Fats ; Bi - Two ; or substances from the cell using vesicles. ● Chromosomes
Layers ● Contains genetic makeup of the organism
● Exhibit fluid mosaic model Features of the Plasma Membrane : ● Formed by the DNA bounded to proteins
Functions 1. Phospholipid Bilayer - main structure made of two layers ● Humans have 46 chromosomes in the
● Selective Permeability of fats that keep the inside and outside of the cell somatic cells and 23 chromosomes in the
● Diffusion separate sex cells.
● Osmosis a. Fatty Acid Tails - Hydrophobic ends (Water
Hating)
● Nucleoplasm - a semifluid medium of the nucleus ○ Smooth ER - Continuous with the RER and
containing the chromatin. (Basic Ph Level) prevalent in the liver. Does not have
ribosomes and its functions are :
■ Lipid Synthesis
■ Detoxification
■ Carbohydrate Metabolism
■ Hormone Production
○ Cisternae - flattened, membrane-bound
sacs found in the endoplasmic reticulum
and Golgi apparatus.
○ Cisternal Space (Lumen) - space inside
the cisternae where proteins and other ○ Cis Face - The side of the Golgi that is
materials are processed and stored. closest to the endoplasmic reticulum
(ER) and receives proteins and lipids.
3. Ribosomes
○ Trans Face - The side facing the plasma
● Small organelles where protein synthesis takes
membrane that sends out the modified
place
proteins and lipids in vesicles.
● Found in the cytoplasm as :
○ Polyribosomes (Polysomes) - Found
● Lysosomes
floating freely in the cytoplasm.
○ Specialized Vesicles Produced by the
○ Bounded Ribosomes - attached to the
Golgi Complex
rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
○ Contains hydrolytic digestive enzymes
○ Breaks down worn out cell parts and
4. Endomembrane System
substance entering the cell
● works together to make, package, and transport
○ May cause Tay-Sachs Disease if inactive
proteins and lipids inside the cell.
Features:
● Nuclear Envelope (Definition are Stated Above) ● Golgi Complex
○ Discovered by Camillo Golgi
● Endoplasmic Reticulum - Series of saccules ○ Stack of flattened and curved saccules
(Sacs) and tubules (Tubes) continuous with the ○ Modifies lipids and proteins from the ER
outer membrane of the Nuclear Envelope ○ Involved in processing, packaging, and
○ Rough ER - bounded by ribosomes that secretion
faces the cytoplasm whose function is ● Vesicle
○ Forms the Lysosomes
protein synthesis that packages them in ○ small, bubble-like membrane sacs that
vesicles which move to the Golgi store, transport, or digest substances
Complex. inside the cell.
○ carry materials between cell organelles or
to the plasma membrane, and some also ● Centrosomes & Centrioles b. Plant Cell
help break down waste. ● Centrosomes - means “Cell Center” All Plant Cell has similar parts from an Animal Cell
which has small rod-like structures called except from the ff:
Centrioles. 1. Centrioles (Animal Cells Only)
5. Mitochondria ○ Centrioles - Active in the process 2. Cell Walls
● Site of cellular respiration or Adenosine of Cell Division, and in the 3. Plastids
Triphosphate (ATP) production for the cell formation of cilia, and are self a. Chloroplast
● Glycolysis, the Citric Acid (Krebs) cycle, and duplicating organelles. b. Chlorophylls
Oxidative Phosphorylation ○ Absent in Plant Cells 4. Plasmodesmata
○ Each cell has 2 centrosomes. 5. Vacuoles
○ Each Centrosomes has 2 ● Animal Cells - Small, Temporary, and
Centrioles Numerous vacuoles
● Plant Cells- Has one large central vacuole
● Cilia and Flagella
○ Hair-Like structures for projecting from
cell surfaces for movement.
Cilium Flagellum
Length Short Long
Number Numerous Few
Movement Crawling Propelling
6. Cytoskeleton
● A network of microtubules and microfilaments
that gives cells their shape and gives organelles
the capacity to move about the cell.
○ Microtubule (Shape)
○ Microfilaments (movement) i. Parts of the Plant Cell
○ Intermediate Filaments (Shape &
Mechanical Stress Resistance) 1. Cell Wall
● Surrounds the cell membrane made from
cellulose (has lignin from wood)
● Present in plant cells, fungi (chitin), and bacteria
(peptidoglycan)
● Protects and Supports the Cell
2. Plastids
● Organelles found mostly in plant cells as a
chemical factory of pigments.
○ Chlorophylls - found in both eukaryotes a. Hairs, fibers, clothing, blood stains, bullets, and other items
added focusing mechanisms.
and prokaryotes ● Antonie van Leeuwenhoek (1660s) polished lenses,
associated with crimes.
○ Chloroplast - only found in eukaryotic achieving up to 270x magnification. b. Bullets in forensic science: bullet heads are used to
plants and algae ○ Observed bacteria, blood cells, and determine from which caliber it was fired (bullet head size
microorganisms in water. and shape).
3. Vacuoles ○ Known as the "father of microscopy." 4. Environmental Biology
● storage organelle of food, ions, & water. a. Studying microorganisms in water and soil.
● Robert Hooke published Micrographia with detailed
5. Cell and Molecular Biology
1665 microscope illustrations.
a. Observing organelles, DNA, chromosomes, and protein
(Discovery of ● Coined the term "cell" for the basic unit of life.
A. Microscopy interactions.
cells) ● Microscopes remained largely unchanged for 200
● Microscopy - a method used to observe objects that are too years; skepticism persisted. 6. Histology
small to be seen without assistance (Elsevier, 2017). a. The study of the microscopic structure of tissues and
○ Its main goal is to create a clear image of the specific ● Joseph Jackson Lister and William Tulley corrected cells.
major lens issues (spherical & chromatic b. A 2D image of a 3D sample.
area being studied. Depending on the type of microscopy
aberration). c. Utilizes sections: The slice of tissue and its orientation.
and the properties of the sample, it can reveal details 1830s
● Microscope improvements led to increased
either inside the sample or on its surface. scientific/medical use. i. Histology
○ These techniques enhance visual resolution beyond the ● In 1838, Schleiden and Schwann proposed that all
● The study of the microscopic structure of tissues.
natural limit of the human eye, which is about 0.2 plant and animal life is made of cells.
● It helps scientists and doctors understand health, disease,
millimeters.
● In 1846, Carl Zeiss established an optical and how the body is built and functions on a tiny scale.
○ As of today, the most common types of microscopes are
instrument workshop in Jena, Germany. He later ○ Ex. Looking at skin tissue to see the layers of the epidermis and
optical microscopes (light microscopes), electron 1850s
partnered with physicist Ernst Abbe to enhance the dermis.
microscopes, and probe microscopes.
design and performance of microscopes.
ii. Types of Sections
● After Zeiss’s death, Abbe founded the Carl Zeiss 1. Cross Section (C.S/X.S)
a. Brief History of the Microscope
Foundation. a. Horizontal Cut (refer to Fig. 1)
1889 ● Profits were dedicated to science, culture, social i. Tissue is cut perpendicular to the length of an organ.
● Romans experimented with glass and discovered causes, and employee welfare—a mission still
that varying thickness magnifies objects. upheld today.
● Created magnifiers or burning glasses and used to
100 AD focus sunlight.
b. Importance of Microscopy
(1st Century) ● By the late 13th century, it was crafted into
eyeglasses. 1. Biomedical Sciences Fig. 1
● Early microscopes were simple magnifying glasses
a. Overall morphological features of a specimen as a 2. Longitudinal Section (L.S)
(~10x), used to observe insects.
quantitative tool. a. Vertical Cut/Lengthwise (refer to Fig. 2)
2. Physical and Material Sciences (Nanotechnology) i. Tissue is cut along the longest direction of an organ.
● Dutch eyeglass makers Zaccharias and Hans
1590-1660 a. Observe surface features of high-tech materials and
Janssen developed the first compound
(Late 1500s)
microscope. integrated circuits.
● Galileo improved lens-based instruments and b. Analyzing metals, crystals, and semiconductors
3. Forensic Sciences
e. Parts Of A Microscope (Compound Microscope)
● Uses visible light and lenses to magnify objects.
● Uses a bulb.
Light ● Can observe living cells.
Figure 2 Microscope ● Max magnification: ~1000x
3. Oblique Section (O.S) ● Resolution: ~200 nanometers
a. Diagonal Cut (refer to Fig. 3) ● Common in schools, universities, and clinics
i. Tissue cut at an angle between a cross-section and a
longitudinal section. ● Uses electron beams as a source of light
● Has much higher magnification & resolution
Electron ● 2 Types:
Microscope ○ Scanning E.M. - sees the surface of a tissue.
○ Transmission E.M. - sees internal structure of a
● Ocular Lens.
tissue.
Eyepiece ● The lens you look through.
Figure 3 ● Usually has 10x magnification.
Brightfield ● The specimen appears dark against a bright/
Microscope white background.
Mnemonic: CLO ● Connects the eyepiece to the objective lenses and
Body Tube
● Cross = Circle ensures proper alignment of the optics.
Darkfield ● Creates bright images against a dark background.
● Longitudinal = Line
Microscope
● Oblique = Off-angle ● Moves the stage up and down for general focusing
Course
(used with 4x and 10x lenses).
Phase ● Enhances the contrast of unstained specimens, Adjustment
Contrast making them visible without the use of staining.
c. Key Concepts Microscope ● Sharpens the focus (used for 40x and 100x lenses).
Fine
● Magnification - how much larger the object appears Adjustment
● Uses selective wavelengths of light.
compared to its real size. Fluorescence
● Self-luminance of naturally occurring fluorescent
○ Formula: Total Magnification = Eyepiece x Objective Lens Microscope
dyes bound to particles. ● Connects the body tube to the base; used to carry
■ E.G: 10x eyepiece x 40x objective = 400x total magnification Arm the microscope.
● Resolution (resolving power) - measures the clarity of the
image
● Monocular - looking into the microscope is monocular. Utilize ● Holds the objective lenses and allows you to switch
Revolving
between them.
your clearer/stronger eye. Nose Piece
● Provide different levels of magnification (usually
d. Types Of Microscope
4x, 10x, 40x, 100x).
○ Scanning (4x) – for general overview
Objective
● Most commonly used. ○ Low Power (10x) – for larger details
Lens
Compound ● Uses two main lens systems: the objective lens and ○ High Power (40x) – for fine details
Microscope the eyepiece. ○ Oil Immersion (100x) – for highest detail, used
● Source of illumination: Illuminator (Mirror) with oil
● A platform that holds the slide in place.
Stage
Stage ● Hold the slide securely on the stage.
Clips/Mechan
ical Stage
● Focuses light onto the specimen for clearer
Condenser viewing.
● Allows the microscope body to be tilted at an
Inclination
angle for more comfortable viewing.
Joint
● Reflects light into the microscope so the specimen
Mirror is illuminated and can be seen clearly through the
eyepiece.
● Bottom support of the microscope.
Base
